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Planning:Contents
Contents
Coverage
Definition of Terms
Characteristics of Radio Wave Propagation
Radio Wave Propagation Models
Suitable prediction models for Macro-, Micro- and Pico-cells
Link Budgets
Fading
Fast Fading
Rice Fading
Rayleigh Fading
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Location Probability
Slow Fading
Jake's Formula
Interference Margin
Noise Figure calculations
Amplifier Noise
MN 1790
2-1
CoveragePlanning:
Planning:Contents
Contents
Coverage
Path Loss Balance
Cell Coverage Calculation
Basics about Digital Map Data
Principles of Planning Tools and their usage
Cell Types
Omni versus Sector Cells
Exercises
MN 1790
TECHCOM Consulting
2-2
Definition of
of Terms
Terms
Definition
To achieve coverage in an area, the received signal strength in UL and DL must be above the so
called receiver sensitivity level:
Coverage: RX_LEV > (actual) receiver sensitivity level
No Coverage: RX_LEV < (actual) receiver sensitivity level
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The minimum receiver sensitivity levels in UL and DL are defined in GSM 05.05:
MN 1790
2-3
Definitionof
ofTerms
Terms
Definition
Maximum output power for MS of different power classes:
GSM 900 MS
GSM 1800 MS
Tolerance
30 dBm
+/- 2 dB
39 dBm
24 dBm
+/- 2 dB
37 dBm
36 dBm
+/- 2 dB
33 dBm
+/- 2 dB
29 dBm
+/- 2 dB
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MN 1790
Power Class
2-4
Definitionof
ofTerms
Terms
Definition
Maximum output power (before combiner input) for normal BTS / TRX of different power classes:
320 (<640) W
20 (<40) W
160 (<320) W
10- (<20) W
80 (<160) W
5 (<10) W
40 (<80) W
2.5 (<5) W
20 (<40) W
10 (<20) W
5 (<10) W
2.5 (<5) W
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MN 1790
2-5
Definitionof
ofTerms
Terms
Definition
Maximum output power (per carrier, at antenna connector, after all stages of combining) for micro
BTS / TRX of different power classes:
GSM 900
micro-BTS
GSM 1800
micro-BTS
M1
>0.08 0.25 W
>0.5 1.6 W
M2
>0.03 0.08 W
>0.16 0.5 W
M3
>0.01 0.03 W
>0.05 0.16 W
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MN 1790
2-6
Definitionof
ofTerms
Terms
Definition
The reference sensitivity performance as defined in GSM 05.05 for the GSM 900 system for
different channel types and different propagation conditions:
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MN 1790
2-7
Characteristicsof
ofRadio
RadioWave
WavePropagation
Propagation
Characteristics
Technical Problems
Diffraction
Distance attenuation
(Path Loss)
Reflection
Fading
Scattering
Inter-symbol Interference
Absorption
Ducting
Doppler shift
Frequency shift /
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Physical Reasons
broadening
MN 1790
2-8
Characteristicsof
ofRadio
RadioWave
WavePropagation
Propagation
Characteristics
Exercise:
Which physical phenomena is sketched in the following pictures?
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MN 1790
2-9
MN 1790
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However, the full information provided by an exact solution (e.g. exact polarization and phase of
the field strength) is mostly not needed.
2 - 10
Deterministic models are based on simplifying assumption for the general problem. This can be a
mathematical approximation of the original problem (like the finite difference model). Or it can be a
simple model for a special situation of the general problem (like the knife edge model).
Deterministic model can reach a very high precision, but they suffer from a very high complexity.
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Such models are very simple to handle but also usually rather imprecise. They are limited to
environments similar to the one where the measurements were performed.
Semi empirical models are a combination of empirical models with deterministic models for
special situations (like knife edge models).
MN 1790
2 - 11
Deterministic models
Diffraction models
Epstein Peterson
Deygout
Giovanelli
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Empirical models
MN 1790
2 - 12
Received power:
PT:
PR:
PR
= c d
PT
Transmitted power
Reveived power
1.0
0.8
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0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
d: distance
Path loss:
MN 1790
P
10 lg R = L = 10 lg( c ) + 10 n lg( d ) = A lg( d )
PT
2 - 13
n= 4
n= 3
n= 2
0 .8
0 .6
as function of distance d
on linear scale.
0 .4
0
2 .5
5 .0
7 .5
1 0 .0
n= 4
n= 3
n= 2
0 .1
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0 .2
as function of distance d
on log scale.
0 .0 1
0 .0 0 1
0 .0 0 0 1
1
MN 1790
10
2 - 14
PR
4 d
c
= ,
f
c = 2.9979 108 m
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?: wavelength in vacuum;
MN 1790
2 - 15
d1
d2a
hMS
d2b
d
d1 = d 2 + (hBS hMS ) d +
2
(h
hMS )
2d
BS
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hBS
d 2 = d 2a + d 2 b
d 2 = d 2 + (hBS + hMS ) d +
2
d 2 d1 = 2
MN 1790
(h
BS
+ hMS )
2d
hBS hMS
d
2 - 16
PR
d2
4 d1
2
2
2
kh h
4 sin 2 BS MS
d
4
d
k=
for large
2 f
c
2 f hBS hMS
kh h kh h
d >> k hBS hMS sin BS MS BS MS =
d
cd
d
frequency in MHz
d:
distance in km
hBS :
hMS :
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kh h
L = 32.44 + 20 lg ( f ) + 20 lg (d ) 6.02 20 lg sin BS MS
d
MN 1790
2 - 17
900MHz
1800 MHz
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100
120
140
160
1
hBS = 50 m
10
100
distance in km
hMS = 1.5m
MN 1790
2 - 18
d
PR
d0
Environment
d0:
Ld0:
Urban area
2.7-3.5
3-5
1.6-1.8
Obstructed in building
4-6
Obstructed in factories
2-3
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d
L = Ld + 10n lg
d0
Exponent n
Free space
reference distance ca. 1km for macro cells or in the range of 1m -100m for micro cells;
should be always in the far field of the antenna
reference path loss; to be measured at the reference distance.
MN 1790
2 - 19
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The Okumura Hata model assumes a quasi flat surface, i.e. obstacles like buildings are not
explicitly taken into account. Thus the Okumura Hata model is isotropic. The different types of
surfaces (big cities, small cities, suburban and rural) are distinguished by different correction
factors in this model.
MN 1790
2 - 20
f
c = 2 lg + 5.4
28
suburban areas
rural areas
f:
frequency in MHz
d:
distance in km
hBS :
hMS :
MN 1790
small cities
big cities (f>400MHz)
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d ( h MS
[1 . 1 lg( f ) 0 . 7 ]h MS [1 . 56 lg( f ) 0 . 8 ]
)=
3 . 2 [lg( 11 . 75 h ) ]2 4 . 97
MS
2 - 21
c = 9.94
suburban areas
c = 28.51
rural areas
d:
MN 1790
small cities
big cities
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+ 0 . 02 0
d ( h MS ) =
0 . 001 0
distance in km
2 - 22
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MN 1790
2 - 23
c = 3
city center
2
f
c = 2 lg + 5.4
28
suburban areas
The major difference between the Okumura Hata model is a modified dependence on
frequency and additional correction factor for inner city areas
For f= 1800MHz, hBS= 30m, hMS= 1,5m the correction term for the dependence on hMS
can again be neglected. For the other terms of COST Hata model the insertion of the values
serves:
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MN 1790
2 - 24
c = 3
city center
c = 1.14
suburban areas
Both models, the Okumura Hata model and the COST Hata model can lead locally
to substantial deviation from the measured attenuation since these models are
isotropic. Local properties of the surface (big buildings, hills etc.) are not taken into
account.
MN 1790
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2 - 25
Definition:
hBSeff is the antenna height above the mean elevation of the terrain measured in a range from 3km
to 15 km along the propagation path.
h is the mean irregularity of the terrain in the range from 10km to 50 km along the propagation
path, i.e. 90% of the terrain exceed the lower limit and 10% of the terrain exceed the upper limit of
the band defined by h.
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The ITU model describes the radio wave propagation for the ranges
f= 30... 250 MHz and 450... 1000MHz
d= 10... 1000km
The curves for the field strength are given for different hBSeff and h = 50m. The correction for
other values of h is given in an additional graph.
Since local effects of the terrain are not taken into account the deviation between predicted and
actual median field strength may reach 20dB for rural areas. In urban areas this value may be well
exceeded.
MN 1790
2 - 26
10%
h
90%
0km
MN 1790
3km
10km 15km
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hBSeff
50km
2 - 27
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An improvement of the ITU model is obtained by considering the maximum of the angle (clearance
angle) between the horizontal line and the elevations in the range of 0 to 16km along the
propagation path. The correction to the field strength ITU model (with h=50m ) is give as graphs
for the clearance angle. The clearance angle correction applies to both the receiving and the
transmitting side.
MS, BS Position
16km
MN 1790
2 - 28
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Further parameter:
Mean building height: h in m
Mean street width: w in m
Mean building spacing: b in m
Mean angle between propagation path and street: in
MN 1790
2 - 29
MS
b
hMS
w
hBS
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BS
MS
MN 1790
2 - 30
L NLOS
LO
L0 + Lrts + Lmsd ,
=
L ,
0
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10 + 0 .354 ,
4 .0 0 .114 ,
roof top to street diffraction and scatter loss:
MN 1790
0 < 350
350 < 550
550 < 900
2 - 31
54,
,
54 0.8 ( hBS h) d
0.5
18,
kd =
hBS h
18 15 h ,
4 + 0.7 f
925 1,
kf =
f
4 + 0.7
1,
925
hBS > h
( )
MN 1790
hBS h
hBS h and d > 0.5
hBS h and
d 0.5
hBS > h
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hBS h
Medium sized cities and suburban centres
with moderate tree density
Metropolitan centres
2 - 32
MN 1790
TECHCOM Consulting
Although designed for BS antennas placed below the mean building height the COST Walfisch
Ikegami model show often considerable inaccuracies.
This is especially true in cities with an irregular building pattern like in historical grown cities. Also
the model was designed for cities on a flat ground. Thus for a hilly surface the model is not
applicable.
2 - 33
This model is based on the assumption that the path loss is correlated with the total depth B of
the building blocks along the propagation path. This results in an extra contribution to the LOS
attenuation
For both
This model is not very precise and large errors occur in the following situation:
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L = LLOS (d ) + ( B )
When the prediction point is on the main street but there is no LOS path
When the prediction point is in a side street on the same side of the main street as the BS.
MN 1790
2 - 34
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hBS
d1
d2
hMS
MN 1790
2 - 35
h 2 (d1 + d 2 )
2 d1d 2
2 2
= with = h 2(d1 + d 2 ) Fresnel Kirchoff diffraction parameter.
2
d 1 d 2
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h<0
2 - 36
Diffraction loss:
2
E
1+ i
iu
LD ( ) = 20 lg D = 20 lg
du
exp
2
2
E0
E 0 field strength obtained by free field propagation without diffraction (and ground effects).
0
LD ( )
13 .5 + 20 lg( )
MN 1790
<< 0 ,
>> 0 ,
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= 0 LD (0) = 6
2 - 37
Fresnel Zone:
Condition for the nth Fresnel Zone:
l1 + l 2 d 1 d 2 = n
r Fn
d1
l2
d2
d1 , d 2 >> rFn
1 2 d + d2
= n
l1 + l 2 d1 d 2 rFn 1
2
2 d1d 2
h
= 2n
rFn
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l1
The diffraction parameter can be rewritten with quantities describing the Fresnel zone
geometry.
For obstacles outside the 1st Fresnel zone:
For obstacles outside the 5th Fresnel zone:
MN 1790
LD ( < 2 ) = 1 .1 dB
LD ( < 10 ) = 0 .6 dB
2 - 38
l2
l1
O2
h2
h1
l3
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O1
d2
d1
MN 1790
d2
d3
2 - 39
LDtotal = LD ( 1 ) + LD ( 2 )
2(d1 + d 2 )
d1d 2
2 = h2
2(d 2 + d 3 )
d 2 d 3
0
LD ( )
6 .9 + 20 lg 0 . 1 +
( 0 .1)
+1
< 0 .78 ,
0 .78 .
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1 = h1
This model is rather unprecise. The error grows with the number of obstacles.
MN 1790
2 - 40
l2
l1
h1
O2
h2
s1
l3
H2
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O1
d2
d1
MN 1790
d2
d3
2 - 41
LDtotal = LD ( 1 ) + LD ( 2 ) C (O1 , O2 )
2(d1 + d 2 + d 3 )
d 1 ( d 2 + d 3 )
2 = h2
2(d 2 + d 3 )
d 2 d 3
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1 = h1
Correction term:
2 p 2 p
C (O1 , O2 ) = 12 20 lg
1 q
p = h1
2(d1 + d 2 + d 3 )
,
d1 (d 2 + d 3 )
d (d + d 2 + d 3 )
,
= arctan 2 1
d 1d 3
q = H2
2(d1 + d 2 + d 3 )
d 3 (d 2 + d1 )
The correction term is chosen such that the result coincides in a good approximation with
an exact solution. After n steps this models may cover up to 2n-1 obstacles.
MN 1790
2 - 42
l2
l1
O2
effective
receiver position
heff
h2
h1
l3
H1
d1
MN 1790
d2
d2
TECHCOM Consulting
O1
H2
d3
2 - 43
LDtotal = LD ( 1 ) + LD ( 2 )
2 (d1 + d 2 + d 3 )
d1 (d 2 + d 3 )
2 = h2
2(d 2 + d 3 )
d 2 d 3
h1 = h1
d1
heff
d1 + d 2 + d 3
heff = h2 +
d3
( H 2 H1 )
d2
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1 = h1
The attenuation predicted by this model is between the values obtained from the
Epstein Peterson model and the Deygout model without the correction term.
MN 1790
2 - 44
For the specific combination of models and their correction terms most user develop their own
solution which they calibrate with their measurements.
.
MN 1790
TECHCOM Consulting
The mentioned empirical models are only valid for a quasi flat surface. In combination with knife
edge models they can be extended to hilly surface or a mountain area.
The combination of empirical and deterministic models requires usually additional correction terms.
2 - 45
With this method a very high precision for the prediction of the path loss can be obtained.
For this method a digital map with high accuracy is required.
For the reflection and diffraction attenuation factors have to be specified which depend
the building surface (e.g. glass or brick wall).
The algorithm is very complex and computer power consuming.
on
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With the methods of geometrical optics all possible propagation paths from the transmitter to
the receiver are determined and summed up, i.e. there is a free space propagation from the
antenna to the first obstacle or from obstacle to obstacle and at the obstacle the ray is reflected or
diffracted until it reaches the antenna. The algorithm takes only rays with an adjustable maximum
number of reflections and diffractions.
However, there are continuous improvements for hardware, software and algorithms.
MN 1790
2 - 46
With this method a very high precision for the prediction of the path loss can be obtained.
For this method very precise surface data are required.
The surface data have to be parameterised in an appropriate way for the grid.
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Since the solution to field equation are inaccessible the partial derivatives for the fields are
replaced by finite differences. This is obtained by introducing a grid and considering the the fields
only at the nodes of the grid. The derivatives become differences along the edges of the grid. The
partial differential equation becomes a linear equation system. However, the linear equation
system involves very large matrices for realistic problems to be treated with a sufficient precision.
However, as for the ray launching and ray tracing method, there are continuous improvements
for hardware, software and algorithms.
MN 1790
2 - 47
Suitableprediction
predictionmodels
modelsfor
for
Suitable
Macro-,Micro-,
Micro-,and
andPicoPico-cells
cells
Macro-,
Summary of the application areas of the different models:
Propagation model
urban
inhouse
ITU
Okumura Hata
COST Hata
Epstein Peterson
Deygout
Giovanelli
Finite difference
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MN 1790
rural
2 - 48
LocationProbability
Probability
Location
The propagation conditions of electromagnetic waves in real environments are not stable, but
location (and time) dependent fluctuations appear.
The radio network planner has to take this into account by working with probabilities, e.g. with the
following two coverage probabilities:
MN 1790
TECHCOM Consulting
2 - 49
LinkBudgets
Budgets
Link
Before dimensioning the radio network, the link budget for different environments (indoor, outdoor,
in-car) must be considered.
From the link budget, the maximum allowable path loss can be derived.
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Diversity Gain,
Antenna Gain
(Fading) Margins
Path Loss
Body Loss
Cable Losses
MN 1790
BTS
Building (indoor)
penetration loss
2 - 50
LinkBudgets
Budgets
Link
Terms which enter the link budget:
BTS
MS
EIRP [dBm]
Environment
Body loss [dB]
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MN 1790
2 - 51
LinkBudgets
Budgets
Link
Example of an UL link budget (GSM 900 MHz MS power class 4, BS with tower mounted amplifier,
frequency hopping on, receive diversity used):
UL
Link Budget
MS
Indoor MS
(Class 4)
Car mounted MS
(Class 2)
Units
33
33
39
dBm
Feeder Loss
-2
dB
Antenna Gain
+2
dBi
Body Loss
(900 / 1800) MHz
-5 / -3
-5 /-3
dB
-18
dB
-12
-12
-12
dB
-3
-3
-3
dB
Interference Margin
-2
-2
-2
dB
+3
+3
+3
dB
Rx - diversity gain
+3.5
+3.5
+3.5
dB
Antenna gain
+17
+17
+17
dBi
+6
+6
+6
dB
-4
-4
-4
dB
Duplexer Losses
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
dB
Receiver Sensitivity
-107
-107
-107
dB
Path loss
BS
MN 1790
dB
Remarks
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Environment
Outdoor MS
(Class 4)
2 - 52
Fading
Fading occurs on different scales due to different causes.
Fading appears statistically but different fading types obey different probability distributions.
Propagation models predict only the average value of the receive level.
The common question for all fading effects is: how big to chose the margin such that the receive
level drops not below a given limit with a specified probability?
MN 1790
TECHCOM Consulting
2 - 53
Fast Fading
Fast fading appears due to multi path propagation. The receive level is affected by interferences
due to different path lengths in the multi path propagation.
The field strength at the receiver is the vector sum of the fields corresponding to the different
propagation paths. Usually the fading is described by the probability function for the absolute value
of the field strength.
Rice fading:
It exists a dominant path (usually the LOS path):
MN 1790
TECHCOM Consulting
2 - 54
Rice Fading
Rice fading:
f (VR ) =
V 2 + VR2
V V
VR
I 0 R1 R exp R1
2 PN
PN
PN
i =1
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(V VR1 )
1
exp R
2 PN
2 PN
f (VR ) =
MN 1790
2 - 55
Rice Fading
Eample: Gauean distributed signal for: VR1 = 5V
0.4
Probability
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0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
MN 1790
2 - 56
Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh fading is the other important special case of the Ricean fading. Rayleigh fading
describes the situation were there is no dominant path, i.e. a non LOS situation.
All contribution to the received signal are comparable in strength and arrive statistically distributed.
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f (V R ) = 2
1 2
P0 = V R
2
MN 1790
VR
VR
V2
exp R2
V
f ( P0 ) =
P
1
exp 0
P0
P0
2 - 57
Rayleigh Fading
Integrated probability for the power to be below a fading marging for
a Rayleigh distribution
Probability
1
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0.1
0.01
0.001
-30
-20
-10
10
20
MN 1790
2 - 58
Fast Fading
All described types of fast fading have as characteristic length scale the wavelength of the signals.
To combat Fast Fading:
Use frequency hopping
MN 1790
TECHCOM Consulting
2 - 59
Slow Fading
Slow fading denote the variation of the local mean signal strength on a longer time scale.
The most important reason for this effect is the shadowing when a mobile moves around (e.g. in a
city).
Measurements have shown that the variation of the the mean receive level is a normal distribution
on a log scale log normal fading.
L( d ) = L( d ) + X
X ( P) =
PP
exp
2 2
2
)
2
MN 1790
Pr
TECHCOM Consulting
The fading can be parameterized by adding a zero mean Gaussian distributed random variable X .
2 - 60
Slow Fading
To compute the probability that the receive level exceeds a certain margin the Gaussian
distribution has to be integrated. This leads to the Q function:
Q( z ) =
z
x2
z
1
exp dx = 1 erf
2
2
2
2
1
MN 1790
TECHCOM Consulting
Q( z ) = 1 Q( z )
2 - 61
Slow Fading
Tabulation of the Q function
Q(z)
Q(z)
Q(z)
Q(z)
0.0
0.50000
1.0
0.15866
2.0
0.02275
3.0
0.00135
0.1
0.46017
1.1
0.13567
2.1
0.01786
3.1
0.00097
0.2
0.42074
1.2
0.11507
2.2
0.01390
3.2
0.00069
0.3
0.38209
1.3
0.09680
2.3
0.01072
3.3
0.00048
0.4
0.34458
1.4
0.08076
2.4
0.00820
3.4
0.00034
0.5
0.30854
1.5
0.06681
2.5
0.00621
3.5
0.00023
0.6
0.27425
1.6
0.05480
2.6
0.00466
3.6
0.00016
0.7
0.24196
1.7
0.04457
2.7
0.00347
3.7
0.00011
0.8
0.21186
1.8
0.03593
2.8
0.00256
3.8
0.00007
0.9
0.18406
1.9
0.02872
2.9
0.00187
3.9
0.00005
TECHCOM Consulting
MN 1790
2 - 62
Jakes Formula
Jakes formula gives a relation for the probability that a certain value Pm at the cell boundary at
radius R is exceeded and the corresponding probability Prcell ( Pm ) for the whole cell. It is based on
the log distance path loss model:
d
PR ( d ) = PT L(d 0 ) + 10n lg
d0
a=
MN 1790
(P
1
1 2 ab
1 ab
1 erf ( a ) + exp
1 erf
2
2
2
b
PR (R)
2
b=
TECHCOM Consulting
Pr cell ( Pm ) =
10n lg(e)
2
2 - 63
Log-normalFading
Fading
Log-normal
In a shadowing environment, the probability of a certain level as function of the level value follows
a Gaussian distribution on a logarithmic scale.
In general, a Gaussian distribution is described by a mean value and the standard deviation.
Probability
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Level [dBm]
Probability
Level [dBm]
MN 1790
2 - 64
Log-normalFading
Fading
Log-normal
From measurements the standard deviation 1 sigma ( LNF ) in a certain environment.
Typical measurement values (outdoor, indoor) are given in the following table:
LNF(o)
LNF(i)
Dense urban
10 dB
9 dB
Urban
8 dB
9 dB
Rural
6 dB
8 dB
TECHCOM Consulting
MN 1790
Environment
2 - 65
Log-normalFading
Fading
Log-normal
To achieve a certain cell edge probability LNF must be multiplied with a factor given in the
following table:
(Cell edge probability means the probability to have coverage at the border of the cell)
Factor for calculation of
lognormal fading margin
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
96
97
98
99
0.000
0.126
0.253
0.385
0.524
0.674
0.842
1.036
1.282
1.645
1.751
1.881
2.054
2.326
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Log-normalFading
Fading
Log-normal
Integrating the Gaussian distribution function over the whole cell area delivers cell area
probabilities. Some example results are given in the following table:
50
77
75
91
90
97
95
99
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InterferenceMargin
Margin
Interference
An interference margin can be introduced in the link budget in order to achieve accurate coverage
prediction in case that the system is busy.
This margin in principle depends on the traffic load, the cell area probability and the frequency
reuse. The required margin will be small if interference level decreasing concepts like frequency
hopping, power control and DTX are used.
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NoiseFigure
Figurecalculations
calculations
Noise
Thermal Noise:
Every object which is at a temperature T > 0K emits electromagnetic waves
(thermal noise). Therefore, electromagnetic noise can be related to a temperature.
Noise Factor:
The Noise Factor can be calculated from the Noise Temperature as follows:
Noise Factor = Noise Temperature / 290K + 1
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P = s * e * A * T4
Noise Figure:
The noise figure is the value of the Noise Factor given in dB:
Noise Figure = 10 * log (Noise Factor)
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NoiseFigure
Figurecalculations
calculations
Noise
Conversion table:
Noise
Figure
Noise
Temp.
Noise
Figure
Noise
Temp.
Noise
Figure
Noise
Temp.
Noise
Figure
Noise
Temp.
0.1
1.1
84
2.1
180
3.1
302
14
1.2
92
2.2
191
3.2
316
21
1.3
101
2.3
202
3.3
330
0.4
28
1.4
110
2.4
214
3.4
344
0.5
35
1.5
120
2.5
226
3.5
359
0.6
43
1.6
129
2.6
238
3.6
374
0.7
51
1.7
139
2.7
250
3.7
390
0.8
59
1.8
149
2.8
263
3.8
406
0.9
67
1.9
159
2.9
275
3.9
422
1.0
75
2.0
170
3.0
289
4.0
438
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0.2
0.3
Noise figure in dB
Noise Temperature in K
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AmplifierNoise
Noise
Amplifier
Amplifier:
An amplifier amplifies an input signal, as well as the noise of the input signal.
It adds its own noise, which is also amplified.
G * Tin + G * Tnoise
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Tin
Tnoise
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AmplifierNoise
Noise
Amplifier
Cascade of amplifiers:
Tin
G1
G2
Tn2
Tn1
Tin
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G * Tin + G * Tnoise
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AmplifierNoise
Noise
Amplifier
Equivalent to cascade of amplifiers
Tin
G * Tin + G * Tnoise
Tnoise
G = G1 * G2
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Friis formula:
Tnoise = Tn1 + Tn2 / G1 + Tn3 / (G1*G2) + ...
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AmplifierNoise
Noise
Amplifier
Example:
Tin
G1
G2
Tn1
Tn2
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With
Tnoise = Tn1 + Tn2/G1
Assumptions:
G1 = 16 Tn1 = 28K
G2 = 20 Tn2 = 200K
Assumptions:
G1 = 20 Tn1 = 200K
G2 = 16 Tn2 = 28K
Result:
Gain = 320
Tnoise = 40.5K
Result:
Gain = 320
Tnoise = 201.4K
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Consequence:
Position of amplifier in chain
is very important
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AmplifierNoise
Noise
Amplifier
Exercise 1:
Calculate the noise temperature of the following system:
Antenna cable
Loss 10 dB
MN 1790
Amplifier in BTS
Gain 25 dB
Noise temperature 240K
Tnoise ?
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AmplifierNoise
Noise
Amplifier
Exercise 2:
Calculate the noise temperature of the following system:
MN 1790
G
Cable to antenna mast
Loss 10 dB
Tnoise ?
Amplifier in BTS
Gain 2 dB
Noise temperature 290K
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PathLoss
LossBalance
Balance
Path
Since the coverage range in UL should be the same as the coverage range in DL, the radio link
must be balanced:
In case of an unbalanced link with weak UL, the UL sensitivity and therefore also the UL coverage
range can be increased by using tower mounted amplifiers.
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Considering the link budget, usually the UL is the bottleneck, i.e. the maximum allowable path loss
is determined by the UL and not by the DL, although:
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CellCoverage
CoverageCalculation
Calculation
Cell
From consideration of link budget Maximum allowable path loss
b)
c)
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Exercise:
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
The cell planning tools require as one input digital map data (which are often based on paper
maps, satellite photos,). These digital map data should contain information about, the land
usage ( so called Clutter information), about the height of obstacles and they should also contain
so called vector data (like rivers, streets,).
A digital map is an electronic database containing geographical information.
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The smallest unit on such a map is called a pixel. The typical edge-length of such a pixel is
ranging from several meters to several hundred meters. A digital map is often subdivided into
several blocks consisting of many pixels. The different layers of information in one block always
use the same resolution, whereas different blocks can have different resolutions.
Height data
Vector data (like rivers, streets,)
Before working with these digital data, some pre-processing of the data may be required. Some
ideas are sketched on the following pages.
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Definition of terms
Geoid
Spheroid / Ellipsoid
Geodetic Datum / Map Datum / Datum
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Projections
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Geodetic datum simplified mathematical representation of the size and shape of the earth
1.
Local geodetic datum best approximates the size and the shape of the particular part of
the earth
geoid
spheroid
Geocentric datum best approximates the size and shape of the earth as a whole
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2.
The GPS uses a geocentric datum to express its position because of its global extent.
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Two coordinates systems are implicitly associated with a geodetic datum:
a. Cartesian coordinate system
b. Geodetic (geographic) coordinate system
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Map projections:
1. reference surface
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2. mapping surface
3. projecton plane
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Cylindrical projection true at the equator and distortion increases toward the poles
1. Regular cylindrical projections
Equirectangular projection
b.
Mercator projection
c.
d.
e.
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MN 1790
a.
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
b.
Transverse Mercator
c.
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a.
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
3. Oblique cylindrical projections
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Conic projections true along some parallel somewhere between the equator and a pole and
distortion increases away from this standard
Lambert conformal conic
2.
3.
4.
5.
Perspective conic
6.
Polyconic
7.
Rectangular polyconic
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1.
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Azimuthal projections true only at their centre point, but generally distortion is worst at the
edge of the map
2.
3.
4.
etc.
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MN 1790
1.
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Compromise projection
Galls projection
2.
Miller projection
3.
Robinson projection
4.
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1.
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
For transformation of parameters (Latitude and Longitude) from the 3 dimensional representation into
a 2 dimensional rectangular system often a combination of WGS-84 ellipsoid & UTM rectangular
coordinate system is used (like e.g. for GPS).
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) system defines 2 dimensional positions using zone numbers
and zone characters for longitudinal and horizontal scaling:
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Basicsabout
aboutDigital
DigitalMap
MapData
Data
Basics
Hints concerning the usage of maps:
Avoid in any case the referencing of geodetic co-ordinates to a wrong geodetic datum.
Referencing to a wrong datum can result in position errors of several hundred meters! (In
the meantime people agreed to use in the future the World Geodetic System 1984
Remember that e.g. different nations may use different geodetic datum.
If a datum conversion is necessary a careful transformation of seven parameters is necessary:
3 for translation, 3 for rotation, 1 for scaling
For daily work, try to use the same geodetic datum: in your planning tool(s), for your
GPS systems, and for your paper maps.
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Principlesof
ofPlanning
PlanningTools
Toolsand
andtheir
theirusage
usage
Principles
Main Task of radio network planning tools:
Coverage planning
Capacity planning
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Frequency planning
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Principlesof
ofPlanning
PlanningTools
Toolsand
andtheir
theirusage
usage
Principles
Remarks to radio network planning tools and required digital map data:
Tools using empirical propagation models require map data with less resolution compared to tools
working with deterministic propagation models.
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Principlesof
ofPlanning
PlanningTools
Toolsand
andtheir
theirusage
usage
Principles
Remarks to tools and required computational time:
Depending not only on the hardware used but also on the algorithms behind the software,
the computational time required by different tools varies significantly.
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Principlesof
ofPlanning
PlanningTools
Toolsand
andtheir
theirusage
usage
Principles
Planning tools do not run fully automatically but always require some input and an
intelligent and creative usage.
MN 1790
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Remember:
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MeasurementTools
Toolssupporting
supportingCell
CellPlanning
Planning
Measurement
Fine tuning (calibration) of propagation models:
Why? When? How?
Since propagation models does not necessarily describe exactly the real situation, a fine tuning
of the models is necessary (e.g. clutter data may vary from country to country).
A test transmitter is located at typical site locations, a test receiver measures the RX_LEV
along predefined measurement routes. These measured values are taken as input for the tool fine
tuning.
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This tool tuning should be done in the start phase of the network planning (i.e. before a detailed
plan is performed).
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CellTypes
Types
Cell
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Omni-Cell
Sector-Cells
Exercise:
Compare the coverage of an omni-cell (antenna gain = 10 dBi) and the coverage of a three sectorcell configuration (antenna gain 18 dBi).
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Omniversus
versusSector
SectorCells
Cells
Omni
Omni sites:
Suitable in those areas, where the surrounding terrain limits the coverage (before the
maximum omni cell radius is reached)
/ Disadvantages of omni sites:
In case of horizontal antenna diversity: Diversity gain depends on direction
Greater reuse distance required
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Exercises
Exercises
1) Consider:
an extended cell with 100 km cell radius covering a sea area (clutter term: 30 dB),
a 900 MHz mobile station of power class 4,
a BS with the GSM minimum receiver sensitivity,
2) Consider:
a mobile station with 2 Watts output power maximum,
a BS receiver sensitivity of 104 dBm,
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3) How many sites can be saved in principle if TMAs with 6 dB gain are used in the
network? Use typical values and Hatas propagation formula for calculation.
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