NITROUS OXIDE HYBRID ROCKET FUEL PERFORMANCE AND STABILITY

Robert Lobbia, Tony Tan, Brian Wiese, Yoshihiro Noda, Saul Rios, and Cathy Leong
The Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department
The University of California, Los Angeles
Los Angeles, CA 90095
Abstract:
Laboratory scale hybrid rocket engines are statically tested and performance characteristics including measured
specific impulse and regression rate are evaluated. Rubber, tar, and cellulose fuels are each tested with nitrous oxide
as the primary oxidizer. For the rubber fuel, HTPB, the effects of metallic and oxidizer additives (aluminum powder
and ammonium perchlorate) are related to the measured fuel regression rate. A theoretical model is also developed,
within the standard framework for a turbulent boundary layer heat transfer problem. Fuel regression rates from the
model are compared to our measured regression rates. Three different oxidizer injectors are also tested in an effort
to quantify the influence of mixing and turbulence on the fuel regression rate. Combustion instabilities observed in
the experiments are analyzed and compared to theoretically expected modes. Our measured specific impulse results
show excellent agreement with the theoretical values (for tar-paper, measured 235 sec, theoretical 240 sec).
Measured regression rates also agree well with theory and improvements of 30% and more are attainable with
additives to the HTPB fuel.
Introduction
Background
The fundamental aspect of a hybrid rocket is
that one fuel is essentially stored as a liquid of gas and
the other fuel is held as a solid. Different combinations
of fuels in both solid and liquid states have been
utilized. There are some advantages to using a hybrid
rocket system.
The system is safer than most
conventional rockets especially the combustion process
of the propellants is more stable. Typical hybrids tend
to be environmentally friendlier. The propellants for
the hybrid rocket are easily stored and there is a least
likelihood of explosion prior to ignition. The system
also has the capacity to start, stop, and restart important
in many applications. The materials used for the rocket
are more cost efficient. These inherent safety features
of hybrid rocket motors make them ideal candidates as
replacements of the large solid rocket boosters used in
many of todays launch vehicles, including the space
shuttle. Additionally, these safety features make the
study of hybrid rockets well suited for university
research. A hybrid rocket also has a comparable
specific impulse than liquid propellants and higher
density specific impulse than liquid propellants.
System complexity is also minimal which hybrid
rockets, requiring half the lines/pumps as liquid rockets.
There are also a couple disadvantages in employing a
hybrid rocket system. The mixture ratio of a rocket can
vary from test to test. This system has a lower densityspecific impulse than solid propellants. Solid
propellant remains after combustion within the
chamber, which reduces efficiency. The fuel regression

rates are typically an order of magnitude slower than

comparable composite propellant rockets and therefore
the addition of multiple port openings or accelerants to
the fueld grain is often employed. The first hybrid
rocket was developed around 1933 by S.P. Korolev and
M.K. Tikhonravov. Working within GRID they used
Gaseoline-collophonium mixture and liquid oxygen
propellants. Other developments took place with other
propellant combinations such as coal and gaseous
nitrous oxide, coal and gaseous oxygen, coal and air,
polyethylene and hydrogen peroxide, benzene and
potassium per chlorate, benzene and ammonium nitrate,
benzene and ammonium per chlorate, and many others.
Noticeable work continued to about the early 70s when
development subdued. The study of the hybrid system
picked up force again in the early 80s and continues to
be investigated by different groups worldwide. Today,
the most common hybrid fuel is HTPB due to the fuels
desirable manufacturing/structural properties and Isp
performance (250-300 seconds, typical). Metallic
additives, shown to increase the regression rate (see
ref#), are often mixed into the HTPB during casting of
the rubber fuel. Recent research in hybrid fuels has
included the use of nano-sized energetic particles as
well as the use of paraffin-based fuels, which have both
been observed to burn with improved regression rates
comparable to solid rockets (#Stanford reference).
Motivation
Nitrous oxide has several distinct advantages
when applied to the design of relatively small scale
hybrid

Experimental Setup
The test stand configuration (see fig. 1) for our
experiments consists of a nitrous oxide supply line
connected to the combustion chamber. An integrated
solenoid/check valve controls the flow of the nitrous
oxide. Two pressure transducers are used in static test
firings: one is near the aft section of the combustion
port (just prior to convergent section of the nozzle) and
the other lies further back on the nitrous oxide supply
line. Two bolts are attached between the test stand and
the combustion chamber (which slides freely on rails)
and a force sensor is inserted in between one of the
bolts.

levels, a hybrid fuel grain with multiple combustion

ports is often employed. This increases the fuel surface
area needed for higher fuel flow rates.
Because the oxidizer and fuel ingredients are already
mixed during propellant manufacturing, the regression
rate of solid rockets is controlled by chamber pressure
only. In hybrid rockets, fuel regression rate is mainly
dependent on the oxidizer mass velocity, or oxidizer
flux, which is the mass flow rate of oxidizer traveling
through a combustion port divided by the cross
sectional area of the port.
(talk about the fuel injector and its multiple holes
increasing regression rate? I dont know if that is
correct or not)
We performed six tests, each with a different solid fuel
mixed with nitrous oxide as the oxidizer. The solid
fuels were tar paper, HTPB, and HTPB with additives.

Fig. 1. UCLA AIAA hybrid rocket engine test stand

All the sensors are linked to a computer where data is
recorded for analysis. The inner diameter of the test
section is approximately 1.5 inches with an overall
length of 11 inches. A small (25 gram) solid propellant
igniter is used to preheat the nitrous oxide and initiate
the combustion of the hybrid motor. Nitrous oxide
undergoes an exothermic reaction at about 600oC (1
atm) in which it transitions to diatomic nitrogen and
oxygen (2N2O 2N2 + O2 + Heat Release). Initial
combustion can only occur if hot oxygen is present near
the fuel grain. In an effort to maximize the degree of
the nitrous oxide preheating, the injector was designed
to extend into the fuel grain approximately one grain
diameter. Placement of the igniter (which has same
port geometry as the fuel grain) about the base of the
injector ensures the hot ignition gases heat the nitrous
as it flows through the injector and the annular flow of
these hot gases past the tip of the injector ensures good
mixing and heat exchange between the two flows.
Regression Rate Analysis
The fuel regression rate of hybrid engines is much less
than that of composite solid rocket propellants, usually
about one-third its value. To achieve higher thrust

The regression rate of a hybrid rocket is related to the

heat transfer properties associated with turbulent
boundary layer of fuel grain surface. Ignition heat
vaporizes the fuel particle at the surface of the grain,
which prepares it for combustion. As combustion takes
place, it generates more heat that continues the
vaporization of fuel. This cycle sustain the reaction
inside the chamber of a hybrid rocket. It is the nature
and the extent of the heat transfers from the combustion
mixture to the fuel surface that governs the regression
rate of the fuel. A comprehensive analysis of this
behavior is made by Woolbridge and Muzzy.
Woolbridge and Muzzy based their model of the heat
transfer within this boundary layer on convection and
radiation. They made studies that considered the
combustion area both the ahead and behind the merge
point of the boundary layer created by the oxidizer
flow. And for comparable oxidizer mass flux, our
experiment exhibited a similar regression rate. (0.038
in/s vs. Woolbridge and Muzzy s 0.035 in/s)
The effect of adding of aluminum power to the
regression rate was tested. Aluminum powder, sizing
45 microns, was added to the HTPB fuel mixture.
Extensive studies have been performed by other
universities on the effect of aluminum additives to
hybrid rocket fuel grains (lots of REF#s). The
aluminum additive has shown to boost the regression of
the fuel because it enhances the radiation and
conduction of heat to the fuel grain hereby vaporizing
the fuel at a faster rate (REF# old metallized fuel
studies). In the one study, the addition of 13% UFAl
aluminum particles (average size of 0.150 microns)
achieved an average increase of 42% in regression rate
over the baseline fuel. Our experiment shows the

regression rate to increase by 32% from the addition of

15% Aluminum.
The effect of ammonium perchlorate (AP) on the
regression rate was also studied. AP is an oxidizer.
Because of this it allows the fuel grain to burn
somewhat like that of a purely solid rocket. So while
AP does not significantly alter the heat transfer
properties of the turbulent boundary layer, it does add
another mode of reaction to the combustion. The paper
published by George, Krishman, Varkey, Ravindran and
Ramachandran provided the background for our
studies. Their studies show a significant increases in
regression rate with the addition of AP, a result with
which our experiment concurs.
Excessively Fast Localized Regression Rates: Failure
Mode Analysis
75% of our tests with the HTPB fuel experienced
failures in the 1/8 thick steel fuel casing. These
breaches were not accidental but the result of what
appears to be rapid localized burning of fuel. give
estimatesshow photossuggest design that does this
to entire fuel grain.lead into stability

measure the secific impulse due to the combustion of

the nitrous oxide with different fuels (tar-paper, HTPB
with Aluminum and Ammonium Perchlorate additives).
Using standard fluid-dynamic and thermodyanmic
relations along with chemical property tables one can
analytically compute the specific impulse of a given
hybrid rocket engine configuration [ref WILCOX and
PEP]. For our setup we have designed the inner throat
diameter of our nozzle to provide a chamber pressure of
approximately 500 psia. Our nozzle then expands the
throat's sonic gases to atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia)
with a conical half angle of 15 degrees. The aft
bulkhead of our test stand (which attaches the nozzle to
the combustion chamber) serves as a thermal reservoir
to prevent the nozzle from rapidly heating during each
test (our ceramic spray coated stainless steel nozzle
would quickly melt/erode if there was nowhere to
dissipate the heat buildup). Generally, the hotter the
combustion temperature the higher the Isp, and indeed
using the our hybrid test stand's specifications we
compute the theoretically optimal Isp vlaues as 235seconds for tar-paper (O/F=4, T~2800K) and about
250-seconds for the HTPB (O/F=7, T~3300K). Figure
2 shows these Specific Impulse vs Mixture Ratio
curves.
Theoretic al S pec ifi c Impulse vs Mi xture Rati o ( N 2 O/ Fuel )

250

240

HT P B f uel
T ar -P aper f uel

230

220

210

200

Fig. 2. Failure analysis due excessively high regression

rate.
Specific Impulse Performance
Hybrid rockets typically have higher specific
impulse (Isp) ratings than most solid rockets and are
near the high Isps of liquid propellant rockets. The
typical specific impulse range for hybrid rockets is 200
to 350 sec. Modern liquid fueled rockets perform in the
range of 300 to 400 sec and average solid systems lie in
the 150 to 250 sec range. A given rocket motors
specific impulse is specified by three parameters: 1)
Chemical Propellant Selection, 2) Designed Chamber
Pressure (or nozzle throat), and 3) the Exit Pressure. In
our experiments with hybrid engines we keep the last
two parameters constant (same nozzle for all tests) and

190

180

170

160

150
1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

M i x t ur e R at i o ( N

6.5
2

7.5

8.5

9.5

O / Fuel )

As a comparison to this expected performance we have

measured the specific impulse from each of our rocket
engine tests. Thrust data (figures 4 and 5) from our
force transducer is integrated (this is the impulse) and
divided by the overall weight of the nitrous oxide and
fuel consumed in each test to provide us with a
measurement of the engine's specific impulse. Since

10

we used a small (25 gram) section of a potassium

nitrate based propellant as our igniter/preheat charge
the impulse contribution from this is first subtracted
from the integrated impulse prior to division oxidizer
and fuel weights.

convection on the surface layer of the fuel. The

addition of aluminum powder also increases the fuel
density but a disadvantage is that it reduces the specific
impulse of the engine because the increase of the
combustion temperature does not compensate for the
added weight of the fuel grain mixture. (Reference
Sutton) ((Another reference to put here is the article
about fuel additives.the title is something like
Performance of High-Energy Nano-Particles in Fuels
and was off the AIAA site I believe))
Our HTPB fuel is not an oxidizer, but ammonium
perchlorate(AP) can be added to the fuel to lightly
oxidize it and therefore intensify the combustion
process. This causes the temperature to be higher and
the regression rate of the fuel to increase. AP is
popularly used as the oxidizer in solid-fuel rockets such
as the space shuttles SRBs and model rockets.
((Advantages/disadvantages?))

Fig. 4. Tar-paper + nitrous oxide thrust and pressure

profiles

We observed the effects of the aluminum and AP in our

tests when the three doped fuel grain mixtures all failed
partway into the burn as opposed to the HTPB base fuel
grain which did not fail.
Combustion Stability of Nitrous Oxide Injectors

Fig. 5. HTPB (with Al and AP) + nitrous oxide thrust

and pressure profiles
((Include test results, comparisons of experimental to
theory, calculation of specific impulse))

Hybrid Fuel Additives

Fine aluminum powder (45 micron) is added in small
amounts to the fuel grains in an effort to increase the
combustion temperature inside the rocket engine
thereby increasing the regression rate of the fuel grain.
The aluminum powder works by absorbing heat
radiation from the combustion and heating up the fuel
grain making it easier to vaporize in the boundary layer.
Without the aluminum, the only heat transfer process is

We analyzed the effects of two types of nitrous oxide

injectors on combustion performance and stability. Our
testing of different injectors is performed in an effort to
study how various injection schemes affect the
combustion and the flame-holding instability. Early
hybrid engine tests by the UCLA Hybrid Rocket
Research Project were plagued with flame-holding
instabilities (often leading to early termination of the
tests) and low thrust levels, so two new injectors were
developed as potential solutions to these problems. To
increase the average thrust level we simply added
additional injection orifices (four ports altogether).
Now, since the hybrid regression rate of the fuel is
related to the oxidizer mass flux [ref this] we expect
that the propellants are consumed faster and at a higher
chamber pressure (provide the nozzle through is set
properly). It is desirable to operate our hybrid rocket
engine only for short burning times (less than 10
seconds) since longer burns result in excessive heating
of the test stand components. Other studies have
observed relationships between injector design and
flame-holding instabilities [1,2]. Thus far, we have
performed experiments on a flat head axial fuel injector
(fig.1)
and a cone-shaped fuel injector which has combined
characteristics of an axial and radial fuel injector
(fig.2).

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Fig. 4. Stability of flat and cone type nitrous oxide

injectors on tar-paper hybrid rocket combustion
Visual observations (video/sound) of our tests show that
indeed the flat head straight injector results in a more
stable exhaust plume (fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Rocket Test Image

As a quantitative measure of stability, we have applied
Fourier transforms to convert our time domain data into
frequency space. The spectrums for the two injectors
are shown in figures 4 and 5.

Notably, the higher frequency modes are more

attenuated than the lower frequency modes. This
attenuation corresponds to thrust/chamber pressure
oscillations at those higher frequencies that have
smaller amplitudes. What we find from these plots is
that there appears to exist distinct modes which could
potentially contribute to the various types of
instabilities. For each of these tests we did achieve
fairly successful and marginally stable combustion (in
that flame blow-off did not occur).
We saw the flat head axial fuel injector produced more
stable combustion than the combined one, which is in
agreement with the paper of Mr. Pucci whose tests
showed that axial fuel injectors produced stable
combustion and radial fuel injectors produced unstable
combustion.(2) Fig 6-a and 6-b show the time domain
and thrust domain plots of our two tests. It is common
to take pressure versus time, but since we have a more
accurate thrust sensor, we took thrust versus time,
which is basically fine because the pressure is related to
the thrust. The average regression rate of axial fuel
injector was about ___ in/s at an average chamber
pressure of ____ psig and for combination of axial and
radial fuel injector, it was ___ in/s at average chamber
pressure of ____ psig.

Fig 3-b

1.

2.

Boardman, T.A., Brinton, D.H., Carpenter, R. L.,

and Zoladz, T. F. An Experimental Investivation
of Pressure Oscillations and Their Suppression in
Subscale Hybrid Rocket Motors. AIAA Paper No.
95-2689. AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE 31st Joint
Propulsion Conference and Exhibit, July 10-12,
1995
Justin M. Pucci The Effects of Swirl Injector
Design on Hybrid Flame-Holding Combustion
Instability AIAA Paper No. 2002-3578. 38th
AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE
Joint
Propulsion
Conference and Exhibit, July 7-10, 2002

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