Asphalt

"Asphalt" is a dark brown to black, highly viscous, hydrocarbon produced from petroleum
distillation residue. This distillation can occur naturally, resulting in asphalt lakes, or occur
in a petroleum refinery. In 2001, the U.S. produced almost 35 million tons of asphalt at a
rough value of around $6 billion. Roads and highways constitute the largest single use of
asphalt at 85 percent of the total (Asphalt Institute, 2002). In HMA, asphalt functions as a
waterproof, thermoplastic, viscoelastic adhesive. By weight, asphalt generally accounts for
between 4 and 8 percent of HMA and makes up about 25 - 30 percent of the cost of an HMA
pavement structure depending upon the type and quantity. The paving industry also uses
asphalt emulsions, asphalt cutbacks and foamed asphalt.

Figure 1: Trinidad Lake Asphalt

Figure 2: Petroleum Refinery

"Asphalt cement" refers to asphalt that has been prepared for use in HMA and other paving
applications. This section uses the generic term, "asphalt binder", to represent the principal
binding agent in HMA because "asphalt binder" includes asphalt cement as well as any
material added to modify the original asphalt cement properties.

Asphalt Physical Properties

Asphalt can be classified by its chemical composition and physical properties. The pavement
industry typically relies on physical properties for performance characterization. An
aggregate's physical properties are a direct result of its chemical composition. Typically, the
most important physical properties are:

Durability. Durability is a measure of how asphalt binder physical properties change

with age (sometimes called age hardening). In general, as an asphalt binder ages, its
viscosity increases and it becomes more stiff and brittle.

Rheology. Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of matter. Deformation

and flow of the asphalt binder in HMA is important in HMA pavement performance. HMA
pavements that deform and flow too much may be susceptible to rutting and bleeding,
while those that are too stiff may be susceptible to fatigue cracking.

Safety. Asphalt cement like most other materials, volatilizes (gives off vapor) when
heated. At extremely high temperatures (well above those experienced in the
manufacture and construction of HMA) asphalt cement can release enough vapor to
increase the volatile concentration immediately above the asphalt cement to a point
where it will ignite (flash) when exposed to a spark or open flame. This is called the
flash point. For safety reasons, the flash point of asphalt cement is tested and
controlled.

Purity. Asphalt cement, as used in HMA paving, should consist of almost pure
bitumen. Impurities are not active cementing constituents and may be detrimental to
asphalt performance.

Asphalt Binder Modifiers

Some asphalt cements require modification in order to meet specifications. Asphalt cement
modification has been practiced for over 50 years but has received added attention in the
past decade or so. There are numerous binder additives available on the market today. The
benefits of modified asphalt cement can only be realized by a judicious selection of the
modifier(s); not all modifiers are appropriate for all applications. In general, asphalt cement
should be modified to achieve the following types of improvements (Roberts et al., 1996):
Lower stiffness (or viscosity) at the high temperatures associated with
construction. This facilitates pumping of the liquid asphalt binder as well as mixing
and compaction of HMA.
Higher stiffness at high service temperatures. This will reduce rutting and
shoving.
Lower stiffness and faster relaxation properties at low service temperatures. This
will reduce thermal cracking.
Increased adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregate in the
presence of moisture. This will reduce the likelihood of stripping. Figure 4 shows two
aggregate samples from the same source after they have been coated with asphalt
binder. The asphalt binder used with the sample on the left contain no anti-stripping

modifier, which resulted in almost no aggregate-asphalt binder adhesion. The

asphalt binder used with the sample on the right contains 0.5% (by weight of asphalt
binder) of an anti-stripping modifier, which results in good aggregate-asphalt binder
adhesion.

Figure 4: Effects of an Antistripping Modifier

Other Forms of Asphalt Used in Paving

Besides asphalt cement, three other forms of asphalt are used prominently in the paving
industry:

Emulsified asphalt. Emulsified asphalt is a suspension of small asphalt cement

globules in water, which is assisted by an emulsifying agent (such as soap).
Emulsions have lower viscosities than neat asphalt and can thus be used in low
temperature applications. After an emulsion is applied the water evaporates
away and only the asphalt cement is left. Emulsions are often used as prime coats
and tack coats.

Cutback asphalt. A cutback asphalt is a combination of asphalt cement and

petroleum solvent. Like emulsions, cutbacks are used because their viscosity is
lower than that of neat asphalt and can thus be used in low temperature
applications. After a cutback is applied the solvent evaporates away and only the
asphalt cement is left. Cutbacks are much less common today because the
petroleum solvent is more expensive than water and can be an environmental
concern. Cutbacks are typically used as prime coats and tack coats.

Foamed asphalt. Foamed asphalt is formed by combining hot asphalt binder with
small amounts of cold water. When the cold water comes in contact with the hot
asphalt binder it turns to steam, which becomes trapped in tiny asphalt binder
bubbles (World Highways, 2001). The result is a thin-film, high volume asphalt
foam. This high volume foam state only lasts for a few minutes, after which the
asphalt binder resumes its original properties. Foamed asphalt can be used as a
binder in soil or base course stabilization, and is often used as the stabilizing
agent in CIPR

Aggregate
"Aggregate" is a collective term for sand, gravel and crushed stone mineral materials in
their natural or processed state (NSSGA, 1991). In 2000, the U.S. produced over 3 billion
tons of aggregate at a value of about $14.2 billion. Roads and highways constitute the
largest single use of aggregate at 40 percent of the total (NSSGA, 2002). In HMA,
aggregates are combined with a asphalt binding medium to form a compound material. By
weight, aggregate generally accounts for between 92 and 96 percent of HMA and makes up
about 30 percent of the cost of an HMA pavement structure. Aggregate is also used by
itself or with a stabilizer for base and subbase courses.

Figure 1: Sand and Gravel Pit

Figure 2: Aggregate Stockpile

Aggregate Origins and Production

Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are generally
extracted from larger rock formations through an open excavation (quarry). Usually the
rock is blasted or dug from the quarry walls then reduced in size using a series of screens
and crushers. Some quarries are also capable of washing the finished aggregate.
Manufactured rock typically consists of industrial byproducts such as slag (byproduct of the

metallurgical processing typically produced from processing steel, tin and copper) or
specialty rock that is produced to have a particular physical characteristic not found in
natural rock (such as the low density of lightweight aggregate).

Figure 3: Quarry Overview

Aggregate Physical Properties

Aggregates can be classified by their mineral, chemical and physical properties. The
pavement industry typically relies on physical properties for performance characterization.
An aggregate's physical properties are a direct result of its mineral and chemical properties.

Maximum Size
Maximum aggregate size can affect HMA and base/subbase courses in several ways. In
HMA, instability may result from excessively small maximum sizes; and poor workability
and/or segregation may result from excessively large maximum sizes (Roberts et al., 1996).
ASTM C 125 defines the maximum aggregate size in one of two ways:
Maximum size. The smallest sieve through which 100 percent of the aggregate
sample particles pass. Superpave defines the maximum aggregate size as "one sieve
larger than the nominal maximum size" (Roberts et al., 1996).
Nominal maximum size. The largest sieve that retains some of the aggregate
particles but generally not more than 10 percent by weight. Superpave defines
nominal maximum aggregate size as "one sieve size larger than the first sieve
to retain more than 10 percent of the material" (Roberts et al., 1996).

It is important to specify whether "maximum size" or "nominal maximum size" is being

referenced.

Gradation
An aggregate's particle size distribution, or gradation, is one of its most influential
characteristics. In HMA, gradation helps determine almost every important property
including stiffness, stability, durability, permeability, workability, fatigue resistance, frictional
resistance and resistance to moisture damage (Roberts et al., 1996). Because of this,
gradation is a primary concern in HMA mix design and thus most agencies specify allowable
aggregate gradations.
Measurement
Gradation is usually measured by a sieve analysis. In a sieve analysis, a sample of dry
aggregate of known weight is separated through a series of sieves with progressively
smaller openings. Once separated, the weight of particles retained on each sieve is
measured and compared to the total sample weight. Particle size distribution is then
expressed as a percent retained by weight on each sieve size. Results are usually
expressed in tabular or graphical format. The typical graph uses the percentage of
aggregate by weight passing a certain sieve size on the y-axis and the sieve size raised to
the nth power (n = 0.45 is typically used) as the x-axis units. The maximum density
appears as a straight line from zero to the maximum aggregate size (the exact location of this
line is somewhat debatable, but the location shown in Figure 4 is generally accepted).

Typical Gradations (see Figure 4)

Dense or well-graded. Refers to a gradation that is near maximum density. The
most common HMA mix designs in the U.S. tend to use dense graded aggregate.
Gap graded. Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of
aggregate particles in the mid-size range. The curve is flat in the mid-size range.
These mixes can be prone to segregation during placement.
Open graded. Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of
aggregate particles in the small range. This results in more air voids because there
are not enough small particles to fill in the voids between the larger particles. The
curve is flat and near-zero in the small-size range.
Uniformly graded. Refers to a gradation that contains most of the particles in a very
narrow size range. In essence, all the particles are the same size. The curve is steep
and only occupies the narrow size range specified.

Other Gradation Terms

Fine aggregate (sometimes just referred to as "fines"). Defined by AASHTO M

147 as natural or crushed sand passing the No. 10 sieve and mineral particles
passing the No. 200 sieve.

Coarse aggregate. Defined by AASHTO M 147 as hard, durable particles or

fragments of stone, gravel or slag retained on the No. 10 sieve. Usually coarse
aggregate has a toughness and abrasion resistance requirement.

Fine gradation. A gradation that, when plotted on the 0.45 power gradation
graph, falls mostly above the 0.45 power maximum density line. The term
generally applies to dense graded aggregate.

Coarse gradation. A gradation that, when plotted on the 0.45 power gradation
graph, falls mostly below the 0.45 power maximum density line. The term
generally applies to dense graded aggregate.

Mineral filler. Defined by the Asphalt Institute as a finely divided mineral product
at least 65 percent of which will pass through a No. 200 sieve. Pulverized
limestone is the most commonly manufactured mineral filler, although other
stone dust, silica, hydrated lime, portland cement and certain natural deposits of
finely divided mineral matter are also used (Asphalt Institute, 1962).

Other Properties
Other important aggregate physical properties are:

Toughness and abrasion resistance. Aggregates should be hard and tough

enough to resist crushing, degradation and disintegration from activities such as
manufacturing, stockpiling, production, placing and compaction.

Durability and soundness. Aggregates must be resistant to breakdown and

disintegration from weathering (wetting/drying) or else they may break apart and
cause premature pavement distress.

Particle shape and surface texture. Particle shape and surface texture are
important for proper compaction, load resistance and workability. Generally,
cubic angular-shaped particles with a rough surface texture are best.

Specific gravity. Aggregate specific gravity is useful in making weight-volume

conversions and in calculating the void content in compacted HMA (Roberts et al.,
1996).

Cleanliness and deleterious materials. Aggregates must be relatively clean when

used in HMA. Vegetation, soft particles, clay lumps, excess dust and vegetable
matter may affect performance by quickly degrading, which causes a loss of
structural support and/or prevents binder-aggregate bonding.

Environment
A pavement must function within its environment. The environment can vary greatly across
the State at any one time and it can also vary greatly throughout time at any one place.
Environmental variations can have a significant impact on pavement materials and the
underlying subgrade, which in turn can drastically affect pavement performance. The key
environmental parameters of concern are typically temperature, frost action and moisture.

Temperature
Temperature acts on pavements in two principal ways. First, temperature
extremes can affect asphalt binder rheology. Second, temperature variations
can cause pavement to expand and contract.
Temperature Extremes
Asphalt binder rheology varies with temperature. Therefore, estimated
temperature extremes and their effects are a primary consideration when
selecting an appropriate asphalt binder. For flexible pavements, older
asphalt binder grading systems did not directly account for temperature
effects and thus various empirical systems and thumb-rules were
developed. The Superpave PG binder grading system corrects this deficiency
by grading asphalt binder based on its performance in relation to
temperature.
Expansion and Contraction
Pavements, like all other materials, will expand as they rise in temperature
and contract as the fall in temperature. Small amounts of expansion and
contraction are typically accommodated without excessive damage, however
extreme temperature variations can lead to catastrophic failures. Flexible
pavements can suffer longitudinal cracks as a result of excessive contraction
in cold weather.

Figure 1 and 2: Cracks From Excessive Pavement

Contraction

Frost Action
Frost action, which can be quite detrimental to pavements because of its
effect on the underlying subgrade, can be divided into "frost heave" and
"thaw weakening". "Frost heave" is an upward movement of the subgrade
resulting from the expansion of accumulated soil moisture as it freezes, while
"thaw weakening" is a weakened subgrade condition resulting from soil
saturation as ice within the soil melts.
Frost Heave
Frost heaving of soil is caused by crystallization of ice within the larger soil voids and usually
a subsequent extension of this ice to form continuous ice lenses, layers, veins, or other ice
masses. As depicted in Figure 3, An ice lens grows and thickens in the direction of heat
transfer until the water supply is depleted or until freezing conditions at the freezing
interface no longer support further crystallization. As the ice lens grows, the overlying soil
and pavement will heave up potentially resulting in a rough, cracked pavement (Frost
heave occurs primarily in soils containing fine particles (often termed frost susceptible
soils), while clean sands and gravels (small amounts of fine particles) are non-frost
susceptible (NFS). Thus, the degree of frost susceptibility is mainly a function of the
percentage of fine particles within the soil. Many agencies classify materials as being frost
susceptible if 10 percent or more passes a No. 200 sieve or 3 percent or more passes a No.
635 sieve.

Figure 3 : Formation of Ice Lenses in a Pavement Structure

Figure 4: Frost Heave

WAPA Pavement Note: the Casagrande Criterion

In 1932, Dr. Arthur Casagrande proposed the following widely known rule-of-thumb criterion for identifying potentially
frost susceptible soils:
"Under natural freezing conditions and with sufficient water supply one should expect considerable ice segregation in
non-uniform soils containing more than 3% of grains smaller than 0.02 mm, and in very uniform soils containing more
than 10 percent smaller than 0.02 mm. No ice segregation was observed in soils containing less than 1 percent of grains
smaller than 0.02 mm, even if the groundwater level is as high as the frost line."
Note: 0.02 mm = No. 635 sieve
Application of the Casagrande criterion requires a hydrometer test of a soil suspension (in water) to determine the
distribution of particles passing the #200 sieve and to compute the percentage of particles finer than 0.02 mm.

Thaw Weakening
Thawing weakening occurs when the ice contained within the subgrade melts. As the ice
melts and turns to liquid it cannot drain out of the soil fast enough and thus the subgrade
becomes substantially weaker (less stiff) and loses bearing capacity. Therefore, loading that
would not normally damage a given pavement may cause significant damage during spring
thaw.

Thawing can proceed from the top downward, or from the bottom upward, or
both. How this occurs depends mainly on the pavement surface
temperature. During a sudden spring thaw, melting will proceed almost
entirely from the surface downward. This type of thawing leads to extremely
poor drainage conditions. The frozen soil beneath the thawed layer can trap
the water released by the melting ice lenses so that lateral and surface
drainage are the only paths the water can take.
Mitigating Frost Action
Frost action mitigating generally involves structural design considerations as
well as other techniques applied to the base and subgrade to limit its effects.
The basic methods used can be broadly categorized into the following
techniques:
Frost Heave

Limit the depth of frost into the subgrade soils. This is typically accomplished by
specifying the depth of pavement to be some minimum percentage of the frost
depth. By extending the pavement section well into the frost depth, the depth of

frost-susceptible subgrade under the pavement (between the bottom of the

pavement structure and frost depth) is reduced. The assumption is that a
reduced depth of soil under frost action will cause correspondingly less damage.

Removing and replacing frost-susceptible subgrade. Ideally the subgrade will be

removed at least down to the typical frost depth. Removing frost-susceptible
soils removes frost action.

Providing a capillary break. By breaking the capillary flow path, frost action will
be less severe because frost heaving requires substantially more water than is
naturally available in the soil pores.

Thaw Weakening

Design the pavement structure based on reduced subgrade support. This method
simply increases the pavement thickness to account for the damage and loss of
support caused by frost action.

Restrict pavement loading during thaw conditions. Permanent pavement damage

can be limited by limiting pavement loading while the subgrade support is weak.
Typically, a load reduction in the range of 40 to 50 percent should accommodate
a wide range of pavement conditions.

Moisture
Moisture (in the form of accumulated water or rainfall) can affect pavement
design and construction as well as basic driving conditions.

Design. Certain types of soils can be highly expansive when wet. Structural
design must account for this expansiveness.

Construction.
o

Subgrade should be compacted at an optimal moisture content.

Excessive rainfall can raise subgrade moisture content well beyond this
value and make it virtually impossible to compact.

HMA should not be placed in wet conditions because excessive water

may damage the hot, fresh HMA.

Driving Conditions. Rainfall reduces skid resistance and can cause hydroplaning in
severely rutted areas.