TRANSDUCER:

A transducer

is

an

electronic

device

that

converts energy from one form to another.

Common
examples
include
microphones,
loudspeakers,

thermometers,

position

pressure sensors, and antenna.

Although
not
generally
thought

and

of

as

transducers, photocells, LEDs (light-emitting

diodes), and even common light bulbs are
transducers.
NON-ELECTRICAL

PHYSICAL

QUANTITY:

TEMPERATURE, SOUND OR LIGHT

Electrical signal
INPUT TRANSDUCER

1 | Page

 Efficiency is an important consideration in any

transducer. Transducer efficiency is defined as
the ratio of the power output in the desired
form to the total power input. Mathematically,
if P represents

the

and Q represents

the

total

power

power

output

input
in

the

desired form, then the efficiency E, as a ratio

between 0 and 1, is given by:
E = Q/P
If E% represents
the
efficiency

as

percentage, then:
E% = 100 Q/P
No transducer is 100 percent efficient; some
power is always lost in the conversion process.
Usually this loss is manifested in the form of
heat. Some antennas approach 100-percent
efficiency. A well-designed antenna supplied
with 100 watts of radio frequency (RF) power
radiates

80

or

90

an electromagnetic

watts
field.

in

the

few

form

watts

of
are

dissipated as heat in the antenna conductors,

the feed line conductors and dielectric, and in
objects near the antenna. Among the worst
transducers,

in

terms

of

efficiency,

are

incandescent lamps. A 100-watt bulb radiates

only a few watts in the form of visible light.
2 | Page

Most of the power is dissipated as heat; a

small amount is radiated in the UV (ultraviolet)
spectrum.
Transducers

may

be

categorized

by

application: Sensor, actuator, or combination.

A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one
form and report it in another form of energy
(usually an electrical and/or digital signal). For
example,

a pressure

sensor might

detect

pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and

convert

it

to

electricity

remote gauge.
An actuator accepts

for

energy

display
and

at

produces

movement (action). The energy supplied to an

actuator might be electrical or mechanical
(pneumatic, hydraulic,

etc.).

An electric

motor and a loudspeaker are both transducers,

converting electrical energy into motion for
different purposes.
Combination transducers have both functions
-- they both detect and create action. For
example,

typical ultrasonic

transducer switches back and forth many times

a second between acting as an actuator to
produce ultrasonic waves, and acting as a
sensor to detect ultrasonic waves.
3 | Page

APPLICATIONS:
Electromagnetic:
1.Antenna: converts electromagnetic waves into
electric current and vice versa.
2.Cathode ray tube (CRT): converts
signals into visual form.
3.Fluorescent
lamp, light

electrical

bulb:

converts

electrical power into visible light.

4.Tape head : converts changing magnetic fields
into electrical form
5.Hall Effect sensor: converts a magnetic field
level into electrical form only.
Electrochemical:
1.pH probes
2.Hydrogen sensor
Electromechanical: (electromechanical

output

devices are generically called actuators):

1.Galvanometer
2.Rotary motor, linear motor
3.Vibration powered generator
4.Potentiometer when
used
for
measuring
position
5.Load cell converts force to mV/V electrical
signal using strain gauge.
6.Accelerometer
7.Strain gauge
Electro acoustic:
1.Loudspeaker, earphone:
converts

electrical

signals into sound (amplified signal magnetic

field motion air pressure).
4 | Page

2.Microphone: Converts sound into an electrical

signal (air pressure motion of conductor/coil
magnetic field signal).
3.Piezoelectric crystal - converts

solid-state

electrical modulations into an electrical signal

(vibration ? Signal).
4.Hydrophone - converts

changes

in

pressure into an electrical form.

Photoelectric:
1.Laser diode, light-emitting diode:

water

Convert

electrical power into forms of light.

2.Photodiode, photo
resistor, phototransistor,
photomultiplier
tube:
Converts changing light levels into
electrical form.
Thermoelectric:
1.RTD Resistance Temperature Detector
2.Thermocouple
3.Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and
resistor)
Radioacoustic:
1.Geiger-Mller

tube used

for

NTC

measuring

radioactivity.

1.Transducer

can

be

categorized

in

main

categories.

5 | Page

1.Input transducer:

Converts

nonelectrical/process variable into electrical

signals.
2.Output transducer: Converts

electrical

signal

into nonelectrical quantity.

TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCER:
Definition of Temperature:
Most important measured process variable in
industry.
Degree of hotness/ability to transfer heat.
Temperature is generally measured in 3 basic
units.
1.Celsius. oC:

Boiling point of water is 100oC

and Freezing point is 0 oC.

2.Fahrenheit. oF:
Boiling point of water is
212oF and Freezing point is 32 oF.
3.Kelvin. K :
Boiling point of water is 373K
and Freezing point is 273.
SOME TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES:
Temperature can be measured in different
ways. Two methods of sensing are very
important.
1.Mechanical Methods.
2.Electrical Methods.
MECHANICAL METHODS:
6 | Page

 They are generally based upon the principle of

thermal expansion of materials.
Different materials have different temperature
coefficients.
Mechanical temperature

sensors

generally

convert temperature into motion or position.

GLASS STEM THERMOMETER:
One of the oldest types of thermometer.
Consist of a glass bulb filled with liquid, a
capillary tube and a supporting glass stem.
Magnifying glass is also included to ease the

reading.
Inexpensive and still popular in industry.
Excellent linearity and accuracy.
Fragile and difficult to read.
Since glass is not a good conductor so it allows

considerable time lag.

FILLED SYSTEM THERMOMETER:
Works on the same basic principle as glass
stem works.
Bulb is attached with capillary tube filled with
gas or liquid.
As temperature

increases

gas

or

liquid

expands. Exerting pressure on Bourdon tube.

Bourdon tune uncoils, moving the pointer.
Movement can be converted into any position
transducer

for

example

potentiometer
7 | Page

transducer

and

LVDT(Linear

Differential Transducer).
Very fast response.
Accuracy up to 0.5oC.
Temperature sensing element
bourdon

tube

temperature

and

capillary

dependent.

is

tube

So

Variable

bulb

but

are

also

temperature

compensation is needed.
Bimetallic Thermometer:
It is a temperature-measuring instrument in
which

principle

of

differential

thermal

expansion of metals.
Thin, dissimilar metals are bonded together
into a narrow strip and coiled into the shape of
a helix or spiral, is used to actuate a pointer.
Also known as differential thermometer.
How much a metal expands when heated is
indicated

by

parameter

called

linear

expansion coefficient.
When two metals are joined together and
heated physical displacement occurs. As a
result strip bents.
To ensure maximum movement with a given
temperature

change

low

temperature

coefficient material is joined with a material of

higher temperature coefficient.
8 | Page

 A combination of brass (C=20.5 x 10-6) and

Invar Copper Nickel alloy(C=1.2 x 10 -6) can be
used.

Amount of deflection for a straight bimetallic

thermometer is given by
y

2(C A C B )(T2 T1 )l 2
4d

Where y=amount of deflection

CA=linear temperature coefficient of metal
A
CB= linear temperature coefficient of metal
B
T2=Higher temperature T1=Lower
temperature
d= thickness of strip

l=

length

of

strip.
For spiral strip relationship is given
y

2(C A C B )(T2 T1 ) rl
4d

Where
r is spiral radius and l is its length if it were
extended.
Mostly used in ON OFF Control applications.
ELECTRICAL TEMPERATURE SENSING:
Mechanical methods are not suitable for analog
sensing.
9 | Page

 Four common methods are used to sense

temperature.
1.Thermocouple.
2.Thermistor.
3.Resistance
temperature
detector(RTD)
4.Semiconductor
temperature sensor.
1.THERMOCOUPLE:
Most widely used temperature sensor in
industry.
They are
the

based

on

Seebeck

effect that occurs

electrical

conductors

in
that

experience

temperature gradient along their length.

If two wires made of different metals are
joined and one end is heated then electric
current flows in the loop.
This effect is called thermocouple.

10 | P a g e

 If circuit is broken then there should be some

voltage at the open end. This voltage is
directly proportional to heat.
Different combination of materials produces
different voltage.
Available in different forms.
Capable of being used
to

directly

temperatures

measure
up

to 2600 oC.
To
read

the

temperature

from

thermocouple readout
must be connected. In
doing this two more
junctions

are

created.X1

and

X2.These

extra

junctions

interfere

with

the

voltage
11 | P a g e

produced

by

thermocouple

junction

(iron

constantan).

This problem is overcome by adding an iron

lead to the constantan side of thermocouple
and the new iron lead to the readout copper
wires. Now two iron copper junction potential
will cancel each other. Now output voltage
will be the difference between potentials
generated by measuring
Junction and reference junction. Reference
junction can be kept at constant temperature
usually at 0oC.

12 | P a g e

 An alternative is measuring temperature of

reference junction by semiconductor, thermistor,
or RTD.
Another popular method is to use following
circuit. R2 and both reference junctions are
integrated

thermally

on

same

substrate.

Resistor R2 is a temperature sensitive resistor.

As

temperature

changes

it

changes

its

resistance and produces a voltage change equal

and

opposite

to

reference

voltage

change.

Hence only voltage that varies is one that is

produced by the thermocouple.

The

relationship

between

the

process

temperature and the thermocouple signal

(millivolt) is not linear.
13 | P a g e

 Thermal time constant determines the time

taken

by

thermocouple

to

react

to

temperature change. It is given by

tc

mc
kA

Where m is mass of thermocouple. c is

specific heat. k = heat transfer coefficient
and A= area of contact between sensor and
sample.

14 | P a g e

 When

temperature

changes

quickly

then

temperature of thermocouple T at any time t

is given by
T=T2+(T1-T2e-t/tc)
Where T1 is initial and T2 is final temperature.

THERMISTOR:
A thermistor
resistor

is

whose

thermally

resistance

sensitive

varies

with

temperature.
Made of oxides of following materials.
Nickel, Copper, Uranium, Manganese, Cobalt, Iron.

15 | P a g e

 Thermistor has very high sensitivity as

much as 5% change in their resistance
per oC change.
Relatively
inexpensive

and

quickly

reacting.
Main problem with them is non linearity.
Other problems are limited range and self
heating.
They require an additional source.
All thermistors are not necessary to be
NTC. There are some PTC thermistors
which

vary

their

resistance

acc

to

temperature nonlinearly.

16 | P a g e

 Sometimes thermistor is used in self heating

mode to produce time delay. In this mode
thermistor uses its own heating effect of its
own current flow.
Thermistor
is
connected

in

series

combination of relay and variable resistor.

Initially high resistance of cold thermistor
limits the current of circuit. As current flows in
the circuit thermistor gradually heats up and
allows more current to flow until the relay is
triggered ON.

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR:

Resistance
temperature

temperature
sensors

detectors
that

are

exploit

the

17 | P a g e

predictable change in electrical resistance of

some materials with changing temperature. As
they are almost invariably made of platinum,
they

are

often

called platinum

thermometers (PRTs).

They

resistance

are

slowly

replacing the use of thermocouples in many

industrial applications below 600 C, due to
higher accuracy and repeatability.

Relation between its resistance and temperature

is given by
It is obvious that there exist very linear
relationship

between

temperature

and

resistance.
Disadvantages are slow response, less sensitive
and high cost.
An additional source is required here.

18 | P a g e

 Platinum copper and nickel are 3 metals used in

RTD.

SEMICONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE SENSORS:

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20 | P a g e

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HUMIDITY:
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 Humidity is amount of water vapors in the air.

It depends on many factors. Temperature is
most important factor.
Warm air can hold more vapors than cool air.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of
vapor at any temperature to the amount of
vapor at standard temperature.
There are two main classes

of

humidity

sensors.
1.Psychrometers.
2.Hygrometers.

PSYCHROMETERS:
A common measure of relative humidity. It is
an indirect measure.
Consist of two bulbs. One wet and other dry.
Temperature sensors are attached with both.
Dry bulb is kept at constant temperature.
Air passes over the wet bulb causes the water
to

evaporate.

depends

on

Temperature

relative

of

humidity.

wet
As

bulb

relative

humidity decreases more evaporation takes

place and wet bulb becomes cooler. Hence
difference of two temperatures is proportional
to relative humidity.

23 | P a g e

HYGROMETERS:
It is direct measure of humidity.
It contains a material whose properties change
when moisture is absorbed.

HAIR HYGROMETERS:
It is made of human hair or animal membrane.
Human hair lengthens about 3% over a range
of 0 to 100 % humidity.
It is accurate to within 3%. It is used for
measuring relative humidity from 15% to 90%
over a temperature range of 1oC to 40oC.
It is purely mechanical but it could

be

converted into electrical by connecting LVDT or

potentiometer.

IMPEDANCE HYGROMETER:
It uses change in impedance to detect level of
humidity.
Resistance hygrometer changes its resistance
as humidity changes.
It is composed of two electrodes separated by
thin

layer of

lithium

chloride

as

humidity

increases resistance of said layer decreases

hence resistance of whole device decreases.
This change is then sensed by potentiometer
or bridge.
ELECTROLYTIC

HYGROMETER:

STUDY

YOURSELF.
24 | P a g e

 Impedance hygrometer changes its resistance

and capacitance as humidity changes.
It is made of aluminum oxide. Surface of
aluminum is anodized by aluminum oxide.
Then gold is vapor deposited on the top of
aluminum oxide coating.
One lead is connected to aluminum base and
other to gold layer.
Gold layer is very thin so water vapors passes
it and diffuse through the oxide layer.
An increase in relative humidity causes the
impedance

(resistance

and

capacitance)

of

oxide coating to decrease. This change in

impedance can be converted into calibrated
readout using a bridge.

SORPTION HYGROMETERS:
They use the principle of oscillating crystal to
measure humidity.
Moisture increases the mass and decrease the
frequency of oscillation.
They use frequencies above 9MHz. commercial
units use two crystals one is kept at dry air as
reference.
It is also called piezoelectric hygrometer and
can measure from 1 to 25000 ppm.

PHOTOCONDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS:
25 | P a g e

 It is a transducer that changes its conductivity

in response of light.
There are two basic types of photo conductive
devices.
Bulk Photoconductors. i.e. Photoresistors and
PN junction photoconductors i.e. Photodiode,
phototransistor and photo darlington.

PHOTORESISTOR:
Photo resistors are made of either cadmium
sulphide or cadmium selenide.
These materials posses photoconductive effect
i.e. when they are exposed to light their
resistance decreases.
When light strikes photoconductive material, it
librates electrons which are available for
current flow hence its resistance decreases as
light intensity increases.
Ratio of dark to light resistances depends on
the material used which varies from 100:1 to
1000:1.
They are very sensitive, easy to use and
inexpensive.
They are slow, having narrow spectral
response, low temperature stability and
history effect annoying. CdS takes about
100mS to respond where CdSe takes around
10mS to respond.
They dont need any amplifier. A simple
potentiometric circuit is sufficient.
26 | P a g e

 Spectral response of CdS is very closed to

human eye where that of CdSe falls in infrared
region.

PHOTODIODE:
A special type of diode, used in reverse bias.
Its reverse current increases when light strikes
at its junction.

27 | P a g e

Much wider spectrum as compare to photo

resistor.
Two designs are used. Simple PN junction and
PIN design.
PIN
diode

uses

layer

of

intrinsic

semiconductor to reduce junction capacitance

making photo diode faster.

28 | P a g e

 These diodes can be used in many ways to

detect the current.

29 | P a g e

 It produces very small change in current in

response of light. Hence some time manufacturer
adds an amplifier to make them sensitive.
Current flow through photo diode is given by

Where
E is amount of optical power falling on
detector per unit area.
S is sensitivity in A/Watt and
A is effective (radiant sensitive) area of
detector.

PHOTOTRANSISTOR:
Similar to BJT but there are few differences. Its
base collector junction area is made much
wider and exposed to light.
Collector current of phototransistor is affected
by incident light.
When light strikes collector base junction
electron hole pairs are generated, which create
base current. This base current is amplified by
transistor.

30 | P a g e

 Much more sensitive but slow due to large

junction capacitance.
Available in 2 and 3 leads packages.
Due to nonlinearity generally used in digital
applications.
To make them more sensitive photo darlington
are used.

31 | P a g e

32 | P a g e

PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCERS:
These are the transducer is a transducer that
generates voltage when exposed to light.
A photovoltaic cell is basically a PN junction.
When junction is exposed to the light electron
hole pairs are generated. In P type materials hole
stays there but electron being a minority carrier
moves towards N type material until an
equilibrium state is reached. Same happens with
the hole in N type material. As a result a potential
difference is created at the ends of junction.
Amount of this PD is proportional to the amount of
carriers created by light.

Two basic types of these cells are used. Silicon

cells and Selenium cell.

33 | P a g e

 Their internal resistance is very low due to

heavy doping.
Spectral response of both types differs.
Selenium
cells
have
better
spectral
performance but they have less output.
Silicon cell is more useful as solar cell.
Solar cells are sometimes connected in series
and parallel to increase their output voltage
and current.

34 | P a g e

 Following circuits are used to measure light

intensities.

PHOTOEMISSIVE
TRANSDUCERS:
These transducers
emit
electrons
when struck by light.
Most of them use principle of vacuum tube.
35 | P a g e

PHOTOTUBE:

PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE:

36 | P a g e

37 | P a g e

DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER:
these transducers provide information about
exact position of an object.
Displacement and the force that produces this
displacement are interrelated.
The force that produces deformation is known
as stress where deformation is known as
strain.
DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS:
Displacement is defined as position of an
object with respect to a reference point.
There are two categories of displacement.
1.Linear displacement: i.e. position of an object
in a straight line with respect to a reference
point.
2.Angular displacement: Angular
displacement
is the angular position of an object with
respect to a reference point.
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS:
Potentiometer is most
common
angular
transducer. It is composed of a resistor shaped
in a circle with a wiper sliding on it.
As shaft rotates resistance between contacts
changes.
38 | P a g e

 LINEAR DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS:

Linear
ways.

displacement

is

measured

in

many

Very simple method is a linear potentiometer.

Variation in capacitance and inductance are
also used to indicate temperature.
LVDT stands for Linear Variable differential
transformer.
It is most widely used now adays.
It is basically
secondaries.

transformer

with

two

a moveable core is connected to the shaft of

trnsducer.
Primary winding is exited by AC voltage having
frequency between 50Hz and 15 KHz with an
amplitude upto 10V.
Secondary windings are connected in series
opposite so that when the core is centred,
there is no output. If core material moves in
any direction an output voltage is produced in
response of a change in mutual inductance.

39 | P a g e

STRESS:
Stress is force acting on the unit area which
produces deformation.

STRAIN:
Strain

is

defined

as

the

measurement

of

deformation resulting from strain.

Linear strain is defined as change in length per
unit length.

It can be measured in m/m, cm/cm or in/in.

or simply in micro strain.

STRAIN GAUGE:
40 | P a g e

 A strain gauge is a device used to measure

the strain of an object.
Measurement of strain of new alloys is very
important to test their strength to use them in
manufacturing mechanical parts.
Strain
gauges
are
frequently
mechanical
development

engineering
to

used

research

measure

the

in
and

stresses

generated by machinery.
Two popular types of strain gauges are used.
1. Bonded wire type.
2. Semiconductor
type.
Both types produce a change in resistance in
response of strain.

BONDED WIRE STRAIN GAUGE:

It is most popular strain sensor. They are made
of thin wire or foil.
The wire strain gauge is cemented firmly to a
paper or Bakelite.
Metal foil gauge is photo etched on an epoxy
resin backing as a PCB.
It is bonded firmly with the object /material
under test. As force is applied the surface it
deforms and so does the gauge.
41 | P a g e

If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it

will become skinnier and longer, both changes
resulting in an increase of electrical resistance
end-to-end. Conversely, if a strip of conductive
metal

is

placed

under

compressive

force

(without buckling), it will broaden and shorten.

42 | P a g e

If these stresses are kept within the elastic

limit of the metal strip (so that the strip does
not permanently deform), the strip can be used
as a measuring element for physical force, the
amount

of

applied

force

inferred

from

measuring its resistance.

Any change in its resistance is given by:

Above

Which can be written as R=RGF.

equation
shows that change
in

resistance is directly proportional to strain and

initial resistance.
Strain gauges are also found in load cells,
which are used to measure force/ weight.

HOW TO CONVERT change in resistance in

change in voltage???

43 | P a g e

 The rheostat arm of the bridge (R2 in the diagram) is

set at a value equal to the strain gauge resistance
with no force applied.
The two ratio arms of the bridge (R1 and R3) are set
equal to each other. Thus, with no force applied to
the strain gauge, the bridge will be symmetrically
balanced and the voltmeter will indicate zero volts,
representing zero force on the strain gauge.
As the strain gauge is either compressed or tensed,
its resistance will decrease or increase, respectively,
thus

unbalancing

the

bridge

and

producing

an

indication at the voltmeter. This arrangement, with a

single element of the bridge changing resistance in
response

to

the

measured

variable

(mechanical

force), is known as a quarter-bridge circuit.

TEMPERATURE COPENSATION:
Resistors R1 and R3 are of equal resistance
value and the strain gauges are identical to
one another. With no applied force, the bridge
should be in a perfectly balanced condition
and the voltmeter should register 0 volts.
Both gauges are bonded to the same test
specimen, but only one is placed in a position
and

orientation

so

as to be

exposed

to

physical strain (the active gauge). The other

44 | P a g e

gauge

is

isolated

from all mechanical stress, and acts merely as

a

temperature

compensation device (the "dummy" gauge). If

the

temperature

resistances

will

changes,
change

both

by

the

gauge
same

percentage, and the bridge's state of balance

will remain unaffected. Only a differential
resistance (difference of resistance between
the two strain gauges) produced by physical
force on the test specimen can alter the
balance of the bridge.

SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE:

They

are

more

sensitive.

They

exhibit

piezo-

resistive effect.
Piezo-resistive
effect
is
a
change
in
resistance with applied strain.
Semiconductor crystals are grown with a
controlled impurity concentration to make
these sensors.
45 | P a g e

 They have higher sensitivity. Gauge factors

are 20 to 90 times higher than those of foil
gauge.
These sensors are very small in size.
Around .5mmx.25mm.
Their resistance ranges are from 60 to
10,000 Ohm.
Then can be stressed more than 10 7 times
without damage.
Both positive and negative gauge factors are
available.
Some materials pos piezo-electric effect i. e
they produce voltage at their ends when
force is applied to them.
When crystal is strained an electric charge is
produced on the edges of crystal.
Output Voltage of Piezo-effect transducer are
given by
V=KFd
Where V=voltage produced, K=constant
material, F is force applied and d
compression or expansion ok material.

of
is

46 | P a g e

MAGNETISM TRANSDUCERS:
Those sensors that detect magnetic field are
known as Gauss meters.
Two devices are usually used to detect the
presence of magnetic field. Hall Effect Devices
and magnetometer.

HALL EFFECT DEVICES:

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies
its

output voltage in

response

to

changes

in magnetic field. Hall sensors are used for

proximity

switching,

positioning,

speed

detection, and current sensing applications.

The basic physical principle underlying the Hall
Effect is the Lorentz force. When an electron
moves along a direction perpendicular to an
applied magnetic field, it experiences a force
acting normal to both directions and moves in
response to this force and the force affected by
the internal electric field. For an N-type, barshaped

semiconductor

the

carriers

are

predominately electrons of bulk density n. We

assume that a constant current I flow along the
x-axis from left to right in the presence of a z47 | P a g e

directed magnetic field. Electrons subject to

the Lorentz force initially drift away from the
current

line

toward

the

negative

y-axis,

resulting in an excess surface electrical charge

on the side of the sample. This charge results
in the Hall voltage, a potential drop across the
two sides of the sample. (Note that the force
on holes is toward the same side because of
their opposite velocity and positive charge.)
This

transverse

voltage VH and
IB/qnd,

its

where I is

magnetic

field, d is

and q (1.602

voltage

is

magnitude
the

the
is

Hall

equal

current, B is

the

sample

10-19 C)

is

the

to
the

thickness,
elementary

charge.
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage
difference (the Hall
an electrical
an electric

voltage)

conductor,
current in

the

across

transverse

to

conductor

and

a magnetic field perpendicular to the current.

48 | P a g e

 Usually they are four terminal devices. 2 for

excitation and 2 for output.

There
are
two
classes

of

Hall

Effect

transducers. Linear and digital.

It is basically a majority carrier device.
Most common material used is Indium Arsenide
(In As).
Linear Hall effect devices are used as gauss
meter with a sensitivity of 1.5 mV/g. They are
used to measure current flow through any
conductor without breaking the circuit.
Digital Hall effect devices have only 2 states.
These are used in switching, counting and as a
proximity sensors.

MAGNETORESISTORS:
49 | P a g e

 These resistors change their resistance in the

presence of magnetic field.
In these devices indium

antimonide

is

deposited on a substrate.
When a magnetic field impinges carrier paths
are distorted which narrows the cross sectional
are of resistor.
They are more

sensitive

than

Hall

Effect

devices and can operate in low voltage circuits.

PRESSURE SENSORS:

50 | P a g e

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