Important Equations/Concepts in A2 Physics CIE curriculum:

Application: Direct sensing:

1

Sensing device

Sensing
device

Processing
unit

Output
Device

Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR)

Light intensity, I

Thermistor

Temperature increases => Resistance decreases

Piez0 electric
transducer
Strain gauge

change of voltage across by pressing the crystal,

commonly used in microphone
change in the length of wire => increase in the resistance

Light intensity increases => Resistance decreases

unit watts/meter2

Input devices:
Processing devices:
7

Processing unit

Potential divider

Operational
Amplifier:
It contains 20
transistors,
resistors and
capacitors

10
11

Op amp as
comparator
Op amp as feedback
(positive feedback)

12

Inverting amplifier

13

Non-inverting
amplifier

change of resistance produces change of voltage for output

example potential divider, op amp

Ideal amplifier
- infinite input impedance: no current enters or leaves from the inputs for op-amp
- zero output impedance: no current is reduced at the output of op-amp
- infinite open loop gain: if the input is small the output is same as supply
=
- infinite bandwidth: all frequencies are amplified equally
- infinite slew rate: when input signal change the output also change at the same time
without delay. Higher the slew rate lesser the delay.
Real amplifier
input impedance (106 to 1012 ) , output impedance 100 , open loop gain 105 , finite
bandwidth and slew rate is 10V/ microsecond
>
>

=
=

(1
=

= 1+

Ao is the open loop gain and is the

feedback fraction, if is negative
then it is negative feedback
RF is the feedback resistor
-ve sign means phase reverse
+ve sign means no phase reverse

Output devices:
14

Relay

Work on electromagnetic switch to control large current

circuit with a small current

15

Light emitting diode

semiconductor device, robust, reliable, less power dissipated

Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, Al Ain, UAE

Remote sensing: X-Rays

1
Remote sensing
investigation of an object using equipment that is not in direct contact with the
device
object being investigated
2
X-Rays
...produces when high speed electrons strike a metal target, change direction
and lose a lot of kinetic energy
3
Thermionic
emission of electron when a metal filament is heated using low voltage supply
emission
4
Bremmstrahlung
radiation emitted when charged particle is accelerated
Radiation
5
Intensity of x-rays
radiation power per unit area, affects the degree of blackening of the image
6
Hardness of x-rays penetration, shorter the wavelength greater the penetration, it is controlled by
the variation of PD between cathode and anode
7
Cut-off wavelength emitted when the electron is stopped in one collision,
h, planks constant
all the energy becomes the KE of photon emitted
c, speed of light, V-pd
e, charge of electron
=
8

Sharpness of x-ray
image
Contrast of x-ray
image
Incident/
transmitted
intensity

a) by using parallel beam of x-rays, b) by limiting the size of the aperture c) by

reducing the scattering of emergent beam
9
a) by asking patient to swallow barium meal (barium sulphate solution) b) by
injecting a radio-opaque dye into blood stream c) by varying exposure time
10
for x1/2
=
ln 2 =
=linear absorption coefficient, x=thickness of the
/
medium, I= intensity of transmitted wave and Io is the
intensity of incident wave
Computed Tomography (CT Scanning)
11
CT Scanning
- It is a 3D image, coloured image. ( x-rays is 2D b/w image)
- combing image of x-ray images taken from the different sections of a part of
12
body under investigation
13
Voxels and Pixels
each section is divided into series of small units called voxels and each voxel
alone can be a given a number referred to as pixel
Ultrasound
14
Ultrasound waves
it can be produced by using piezo-electric transducer
15
Intensities of
= +
reflected and
Io is the intensity of incident wave, IR is for reflected and
transmitted
IT is for transmitted wave
ultrasound waves
16
Specific acoustic
unit is
=
impedance
kg.m-2.s-1
Z is the specific acoustic impedance, is density of the
medium and c is the speed of wave in the medium
( )
17
Intensity reflection
also called ratio of reflected and
=
=
incident intensity
coefficient, ,
( + )
Z1 and Z2 are the specific acoustic
impedances of two media
18 Transmitted and
I is the transmitted intensity, Io is the incident
=
incident intensity
intensity, x is the thickness of the medium and
k depends upon the medium
and the frequency of the wave k is the linear absorption coefficient
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
19
Magnetic spin
Certain odd numbered protons/neutrons atomic nuclei have spin that cause
them to rotate like a small bar magnet (N-S), Eg hydrogen
20 Precession and
Rotation of spinning nuclei in the magnetic field along the direction of the field
Larmor frequency
is called precession and frequency of rotation is called Larmor frequency.
When the spinning nuclei absorb and emit RF then this process is called
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
21
Image processing
The RF frequency emitted causes the nuclei to resonate. When the nuclei comes
down to lower energy level (de-excitation) this gives off energy RF which is
detected, analyse, processed and image is displayed on the screen.

Prepared by Faisal Jaffer, Al Ain, UAE