A Method to Construct Low-Cost Superficial

Tactile Array Sensors

Thomas Cobb1 , Muhammad Sayed2 , and Lyuba Alboul2
1

Faculty of Arts, Computing, Engineering and Sciences, Sheffield Hallam University

2
Centre for Automation and Robotics Research, Sheffield Centre for Robotics,
Sheffield Hallam University, UK
a8042763@my.shu.ac.uk,muhammad.b.h.sayed@gmail.com,l.alboul@shu.ac.uk

Abstract. This paper describes the research, development, testing and

initial implementation of the necessary environment interaction tactile
sensors in order to give appropriate feedback on a humanoid robot hand.
Steps of the method to construct a tactile array sensor are presented
including testing of individual components and their assembly.

1 Introduction
Recent years of technological advances, a growing hobbyist interest and the advent of CAD/CAM and 3D printing have made more complex mechanical designs
for humanoid robot hands available to a larger audience[1]. Although mechanical
designs are now widely and cheaply available, the sensing and control systems
are not. This paper describes the research, development, testing and initial implementation of environment interaction sensors in order to give feedback of
a humanoid robot hands contact forces necessary for any interaction with the
environment[2].
The aim of this paper is to develop a low-cost superficial tactile pressure
distribution sensor array that can be constructed in any arbitrary shape for installation on anthropomorphic robotic hands. The paper describes main tasks to
achieve this; tactile sensors providing feedback from the environment, a method
of attaching the sensors, and a data acquisition system to provide feedback from
sensors.

2 Sensing Solution
Studies on human and animal sensing show that the most important aspects of
interaction sensing are the abilities to sense pressure and temperature. Of these
two parameters, pressure was considered the most significant in contribution
to the dexterity of the hand and therefore the primary concern with regard to
sensor development and therefore this project.
In order to fully optimise the dexterity of a hand, the pressure sensor solution
is required to have a resolution that can detect multiple contact points and if
possible indicate the shape of the contact areas.

Thomas Cobb, Muhammad Sayed, and Lyuba Alboul

A resistive pressure sensor array has been chosen to simplify the processing
part of interpreting the measured values. This is an advantage over capacitive
pressure sensing as it reduces the time required to poll an array for feedback.
A common solution amongst developers for collecting information about force
is to use Force Sensitive Resistors (FSRs). A variety of FSRs are available in
different shapes and configurations. FSRs are simple and easy to use but the
main drawback is that they cannot detect the difference between a single contact
point and multiple contact points. In order to determine the exact shape and
position of a contact area, a tactile array sensor is required.

Fig. 1. Left: construction of pressure sensor showing two orthogonal crossover lines
forming a single taxel, Right: an implementation of the single taxel sensor using copper
lines

A standard structure of two orthogonal arrays of conductive lines sandwiching

a variable resistive layer has chosen to keep the design as simple as possible. The
conductive lines need to be enclosed in an insulating epidermis layer to protect
the sensor array. Electronics attached to the sensor measures the resistance at
the points of intersection of the vertical and horizontal lines forming a tactile
pixel (taxel). Figure 1 shows the layer construction of the sensor using only two
orthogonal lines forming a single taxel at the crossover point.
2.1 Related Work
There is a plethora of scientific papers on tactile sensors and, specifically, on
robot tactile sensing. However, most of those papers are related to industrial
robotics. One of the first books on tactile sensing to be worth mentioned, is
the book of R. A. Russell [3]. In this book various functions of tactile sensing in
both robots and living creatures are described, various types of tactile and touch
sensors are surveyed, as well as applications in industrial robotics, manipulation
and assembly tasks, are listed. A reader can find recent developments together
with further references in the Handbook of Robotics [4]. However, applications
listed there concern industrial robotics.

A Method to Construct Low-Cost Superficial Tactile Array Sensors

There are a couple of works that tackle some aspects of tactile sensing, similar
to the ones proposed in this work. In [5] the development and applications of an
artificial, flexible, force sensitive skin are presented, but the sensor is large and is
not applicable to small areas such a humanoid robot finger. The tactile sensing
system, presented in [6], is similar in its structure, to our system. However,
their solution is, again, developed for sensing large areas, and the lattice of their
conductive layer is too sparse.
2.2 Design Criteria
Several key factors can be identified that can be used to evaluate the constructed
sensor and guide the construction process itself.
Size is a key requirement, the sensor must be thin enough to allow for superficial installation on existing humanoid robot hands. A simple measure to asses
sensor size is to consider the possibility to wear the sensor on a human hand;
if the size does not hinder normal hand functionality then it is an acceptable
size.
Flexibility is another key factor that is closely related to the first one; a
sensor that is small but stiff at the joints will hinder the hands dexterity. This
factor is affected by material selection for the components of the sensor.
Durability is required for extended use, especially with superficial installation; areas covering the joints may suffer from fatigue after many cycles of
bending stresses, and eventually be failing.
Sensitivity of the sensory element should produce a sensor of an overall sensitivity that approximates the human hand. This could be as low as 0.055gm for
men and 0.019gm for women [7]. The maximum force generated by the average
human hand is slightly less than 12N [8].
Spatial resolution should also approximate the human hand; high resolution sensory receptors in the skin - mechanoreceptors - have densities between
70 to 140 units/cm2 at the fingertips and 30 to 40 units/cm2 on the phalanges
[7]. Two-point threshold studies suggests that humans can differentiate between
2 points as close as 0.9mm apart [9].
Cost and feasibility of construction should be low enough to allow robotics
researchers with limited experience of material science and sensor construction
to build and customise their own systems.
Temporal resolution - how many usable readings per unit time - and
restoration time - the time taken to go back to normal value after the load
removed - were not considered in this paper for simplicity.
2.3 Variable Resistive Layer
Electrically conductive packaging materials made of polymeric foil impregnated
with carbon black are used to protect electronic components from electrostatic
discharge. Such materials can be easily obtained in sheet forms and are commercially available under different trademarks such as Velostat and Linqstat. The

Thomas Cobb, Muhammad Sayed, and Lyuba Alboul

conductivity - and hence resistivity - of the sheets vary when the material is
subjected to compressing pressure.
Weight (Kg) Force (N) Resistance (ohm)
0.1
0.98
460
0.2
1.96
230
0.3
2.94
130
0.4
3.92
80
0.5
4.90
69
0.6
5.88
40
0.7
6.86
32
0.8
7.85
30
0.9
8.83
27
1
9.81
25
1.1
10.79
22
1.2
11.77
20
1.3
12.75
18
1.4
13.73
16
1.5
14.71
16
Table 1. Resistive characteristics of Velostat when force is applied

Fig. 2. Resistance of Velostat plotted against the force applied

Products produced by brand-name manufacturers have standard dimensions

and resistance characteristics published in the product datasheet. However these
datasheets are not concerned with the variable resistance characteristics. Variable resistive characteristics of Velostat has been investigated experimentally.

A Method to Construct Low-Cost Superficial Tactile Array Sensors

An experiment was conducted using a 20X20mm piece of Velostat sandwiched

between two copper plates attached to a digital multi-meter. Mass increasing at
regular intervals was then placed on the test piece. The range of mass applied
started at 0.1Kg and increased at intervals of 0.1Kg up to 1.5Kg. This range of
mass was chosen as the maximum force generated by the average human hand
is slightly less than 12N [8].
Results shown in Table 1 and Figure 2 shows that resistance across the Velostat decreases in a very predictable way as the force applied increases; therefore
the behaviour of the sensor should be predictable. The resistance is within a
practical range that can be easily integrated in the development of the sensor.
The change in resistance is of greater magnitude at the lower end of the range
of force applied. This could be useful when attempting to control light touch
manipulations with a humanoid robot hand.
Using F = ma, where a is acceleration due to gravity = 9.80665m/s, 1.5Kg
is chosen as the maximum mass as it would generate a force F = 1.5*9.80665
= 14.71N. This easily encompasses the range of the average human hand force,
the maximum force generated from a low-cost robotic hand will most likely fall
within this region.
It is worth noting that there may be differences in the behaviour of one
piece of Velostat to another and it may be worthwhile testing several samples.
In conclusion, these results and observations supports the choice of Velostat as
a suitable material for the variable resistive layer.
2.4 Conductive lines
The use of copper wires for conductive lines has its benefits when connecting the
sensor to a prototype board, however long vertical lines made of copper wires
result in a loss of flexibility. This therefore results in a loss in dexterity of the
humanoid robot hand it is working in conjunction with. Durability of the wire is
also an issue; after a number of manipulations the wire could break as a result
of bending stresses applied. This could be critical as the hand would lose any
pressure feedback which could result in damage.
Also there is an issue of the resolution achievable by using copper wires. The
close proximity of the wires has an adverse effect on the resistance readings as
one line could be supporting the line immediately around it and reducing contact
with the variable resistive layer. A flatter line would offer less support to the line
around it therefore a point contact would have more effect on a single taxel thus
allowing a higher resolution to be achieved. Therefore, a flatter, flexible material was proposed to alleviate the issues highlighted to a great extent, which is
conductive thread. Conductive thread has very different resistive characteristics
to a pure copper wire.
Two experiments were performed in order to compare the different resistive
characteristics of 0.2mm diameter copper wire and conductive thread before
the thread was utilised in a sensor. The first experiment was to measure the
resistivity of both the thread and the wire over a length of 300mm. The second

Thomas Cobb, Muhammad Sayed, and Lyuba Alboul

experiment was to measure the resistance of a contact crossover point on both

materials as illustrated in Figure 3.

Fig. 3. Crossover contact points of copper wire lines and conductive thread lines

Fig. 4. Resistive characteristics comparison of copper wire and conductive thread

2.5 Epidermis layer

From the structure of the sensor shown in Figure 1, it can be seen that the resistive layer and conductive lines need to be enclosed between insulating epidermis
layers to protect the sensor array. After the study of a few prospective materials,
neoprene foam was deemed a suitable material as it is durable and insulating.
Cotton fabric was used as the insulating epidermal layers with conductive thread
multi-point sensor.
2.6 Initial prototype sensor
Figure 1 shows components of a single taxel sensor constructed using 0.2mm diameter copper wire for the conductive lines with Velostat as the variable resistive

A Method to Construct Low-Cost Superficial Tactile Array Sensors

Fig. 5. Top: voltage output when mass applied to prototype thread sensor, Bottom:
resistance and voltage of prototype copper sensor

layer and neoprene foam as the insulating layers. Figure 6 shows a closed single taxel sensor and its components using conductive thread for the conductive
lines.
Figure 5 shows experimental results. Separate tests were conducted for resistance and voltage, for voltage the sensor is used in a potential divider circuit
with a 10k pull-down resistor. Predicted voltage is calculated using resistance
results. From these results it can be seen that the sensor is predictable in its
performance.

Thomas Cobb, Muhammad Sayed, and Lyuba Alboul

Fig. 6. Single-taxel conductive thread sensor, Left: closed, Right: components

2.7 Prototype multi-point sensor

The sensor layout and its dimensions are based on the average human index
finger[10]; the sensor is split into three main sensing areas that correspond with
the phalanxes of the finger. Each sensing area is comprised of 3 horizontal and
3 vertical lines giving 27 crossover points (taxels) in total (Figure 7).

Fig. 7. Left: components of prototype multi-point sensor using copper wire and neoprene, Centre: components of prototype multi-point sensor using conductive thread
and cotton fabric, Right: arrangement of conductive lines and occurrences of taxeks

The sensor has been tested with both an evenly distributed force and point
force applied at different regions. The results of tests show that distribution and
change in output voltages are in an approximate agreement of what was recorded
with a single crossover taxel. However the voltages recorded were lower than that
of a single point. This could be due to the structure of the sensor and the close
proximity of the taxels.
2.8 Sensor Attachment Solution
It was decided that the preferred solution during development was to use a latex
palm glove. The glove was slightly larger than desired however it provided clearly

A Method to Construct Low-Cost Superficial Tactile Array Sensors

defined flat areas for sensor implementation and due to its structure presented
a limited amount of stretch. An example of how the sensors are placed on the
glove is shown in Figure 8.

Fig. 8. Example of sensor attachment solution using a latex palm glove

2.9 Data Acquisition Solution

Each vertical line is used in a potential divider format with a 10k resistor.
Outputs from potential dividers are fed directly to three analogue inputs on an
Arduino Uno board. Each horizontal line is attached to a digital output of the
Arduino board. A program loops through switching each digital output high in
turn and reads the associated analogue values.
The project used Processing 2 in conjunction with the Arduino IDE to acquire and visualise tactile pressure information. Processing 2 is an open source
programming language that allows real time visualisation of the data collected
using the microcontroller.

3 Conclusions and Future Work

A prototype multi-point sensor was built and tested using the conductive thread
for the lines, Velostat as the variable resistive layer and cotton fabric as the insulating epidermal layers. The testing was conducted identically to the method
described above to ensure a fair comparison of the results could be achieved.
The multi-point sensor predominantly worked as predicted. As with a wire conductive lines sensor the distribution and change in output voltages gained were

10

Thomas Cobb, Muhammad Sayed, and Lyuba Alboul

as predicted based on what was recorded with a single crossover taxel. However
this time the taxels appeared to have less interference with each other when
point pressure was applied. This leads to the conclusion that this sensor is an
improvement on the wire multi-point sensor.
Overall the sensor system worked as it was designed to. From the results of
testing and development it can be concluded that a conductive thread based
sensor has significantly more promise than a copper wire based sensor as it
allows better flexibility and durability. The overall sensor system solution was
still successful at interpreting the pressure into a voltage with sufficient accuracy.
Nevertheless, there are still issues to be addressed. Experiments were performed with one piece of Velostat under an assumption that thickness is evenly
distributed. Further experiments need to be conducted with several pieces of
material and from different manufactures.
The sensor could provide a template for controlling relatively affordable humanoid robot hands. This would be of great benefit to robotics developers and
people within the robotics education sector.

References
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Hand? A Review on Anthropomorphic Robotic End-effectors Bologna, Italy: University of Bologna, 2004
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: an Overview , University of Leuven, 2008
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