SPCH 71 - ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE

SYLLOGISM
SYLLOGISM
or LOGICAL APPEAL
is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from
two others (the major and minor premises) of a certain form
deductive forms of argument, proceeding from generalization to specific application
systematic arrangement of arguments
by understanding the structures of syllogism for the purpose of analysis, we can apply
the appropriate tests of formal validity and of rhetoric to the reasoning we encounter as
we explore a problem, to the reasoning we develop for our own case, and to the
reasoning we meet in our opponents case
ARRANGEMENT OR PARTS OF ARGUMENTS
MAJOR PREMISE a proposition stating a generalization (All As are Bs)
MINOR PREMISE a proposition stating a specific instance related to the generalization
(C is an A)
CONCLUSION necessarily must follow from these premises (Therefore, C is a B)
Maj P: All men are mortal.
Min P: All Greeks are men.
Concl.: Therefore, All Greeks are mortal.
THREE TYPES OF SYLLOGISM
1. CATEGORICAL the major premise is an unqualified proposition characterized by words
like all, every, each, and any, either directly expressed or clearly implied
Maj P: All legally insane persons are incompetent to make binding agreements.
Min P: John Doe is legally insane.
Concl.: Therefore, John Doe is incompetent to make binding agreements.
2. DISJUNCTIVE the major premise contains mutually exclusive alternatives and the
separation of alternatives is usually indicated by such words as either, or, neither, nor,
but, and although, either expressly stated or clearly implied
Maj P: Either Congress will amend this bill or the president will veto it.
Min P: Congress will not amend this bill.
Concl.: Therefore, the president will veto it.
3. CONDITIONAL also known as the hypothetical syllogism
the major premise deals with uncertain or hypothetical events that may or
may not exist or happen and the conditional event is usually indicated by if,
assuming, supposing, or similar terms, either expressly stated or clearly
implied
major premise contains an antecedent statement, which expresses the
conditional or hypothetical event under consideration, and a consequent
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statement, which expresses the event that is maintained as necessarily

following the antecedent
Maj P: If the present measures have reduced greenhouse emissions, then we will
not need to implement a cap-and-trade system.
Min P: Present measures have not reduced greenhouse emissions.
Concl.: Therefore, we will need to implement a cap-and-trade system.

The premises and conclusion of a syllogism can be any of four types, which are labeled by
letters as follows. The meaning of the letters is given by the table:
Code

Quantifier

Subject

Copula

Predicate

Type

Example Form Shorthand

All

Are

Universal
Affirmatives

All
humans
are
mortal.

All A
is B

AaB

No

Are

Universal
negatives

No
human
is
perfect.

No A
is B

AeB

Some

Are

Particular
affirmatives

Some
Some
humans A is B
are
healthy.

AiB

Some

Are
not

Particular
negatives

Some
Some
humans A are
are not not B
clever.

AoB

Examples:
1. A
All men are mortal. (MaP)
All Greeks are men. (SaM)
All Greeks are mortal. (SaP)
2. E
No reptile has fur. (MeP)
All snakes are reptiles. (SaM)
No snake has fur. (SeP)
3. I
All rabbits have fur. (MaP)
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Some pets are rabbits. (SiM)

Some pets have fur. (SiP)
4. O
No homework is fun. (MeP)
Some readings are homework. (SiM)
Some reading are not fun. (SoP)
5.
Stars exist in outer space. (premise)
_______________________________________
Comets are stars. (false premise)
_______________________________________
Therefore, comets exist in outer space. (conclusion)
_______________________________________
6.
All fish have stripes. (false premise)
________________________________________
Whales are fish. (false premise)
________________________________________
Therefore, all whales have stripes. (false conclusion)
________________________________________
VALID vs. SOUND ARGUMENTS
There is a (technical) difference between a valid argument and a sound argument.
VALID ARGUMENT - is an argument whose conclusions follow from its premises, but it is an
argument whose conclusions might not be true (as we have seen above) because its
premises might not be true.
SOUND ARGUMENT - is a valid argument whose premises are true. A sound argument
therefore arrives at a true conclusion.
A syllogism is valid if and only if the conclusion necessarily follows the premises, i.e., if
the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Although there are 256 possible
forms (4 possible variations (a, e, i, o) for each part, three parts (major premise, minor
premise, conclusion), and four figures, so 4*4*4*4=256) of syllogism, only 19 of them
are valid.

HOW TO UNDERSTAND SYLLOGISMS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Know the basic structure of syllogisms.

Think of each term as representing a category.
Understand each part is expressed as "Some/all/no A is/are [not] B," with four possible
variation.
Determine the figure of the syllogism.
Determine whether a given syllogism is valid.
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Sources:
Freeley, A. & Steinberg, D. (2014). Argumentation and debate: Critical thinking for reasoned
decision making. (13th ed.). USA: Wadsworth CENGAGE Learning.
How to understand syllogisms 5 steps. Retrieved July 26, 2013 from the World Wide Web at
http://www.wikihow.com/Understand-Syllogisms.

<.keniken.opina.> <07.26.13> <adapted from FHAbangan & AKVillaruel>