1

Introduction
1.1
1.2

Energy Use by Sectors .......................................................... 1-3

Electrical Capacity Additions to 2030 ................................ 1-4

1.3
1.4

Present Status and Potential of Renewable Energy ........... 1-5

Role of Energy Conservation............................................... 1-7

Transportation

Forecast of Future Energy Mix

D. Yogi Goswami
University of South Florida

1.5
Energy Conversion Technologies.......................................
Defining Terms................................................................................
References ........................................................................................
For Further Information ................................................................

1-10
1-10
1-10
1-11

Global energy consumption in the last half-century has increased very rapidly and is expected to continue
to grow over the next 50 years. However, we expect to see significant differences between the last 50 years
and the next. The past increase was stimulated by relatively cheap fossil fuels and increased rates of
industrialization in North America, Europe, and Japan, yet while energy consumption in these countries
continues to increase, additional factors have entered the equation making the picture for the next 50
years more complex. These additional complicating factors include the very rapid increase in energy
intensity of China and India (countries representing about a third of the worlds population); the
expected depletion of oil resources in the not-too-distant future; and, the global climate change. On the
positive side, the renewable energy (RE) technologies of wind, biofuels, solar thermal, and photovoltaics
(PV) are finally showing maturity and the ultimate promise of cost competitiveness.
Statistics from the International Energy Agency (IEA) World Energy Outlook 2004 show that the total
primary energy demand in the world increased from 5536 MTOE in 1971 to 10,345 MTOE in 2002,
representing an average annual increase of 2% (see Figure 1.1 and Table 1.1).
Of the total primary energy demand in 2002, the fossil fuels accounted for about 80% with oil, coal
and natural gas being 35.5, 23, and 21.2%, respectively. Biomass accounted for 11% of all the primary
energy in the world, almost all of it being traditional biomass in the developing countries which is used
very inefficiently.
The last 10 years of data for energy consumption from British Petroleum (BP) Corp. also shows that
the average increase per year is 2%. However, it is important to note (from Table 1.2) that the average
worldwide growth from 2001 to 2004 was 3.7% with the increase from 2003 to 2004 being 4.3%. The rate
of growth is rising mainly due to the very rapid growth in Asia Pacific which recorded an average increase
from 2001 to 2004 of 8.6%.
More specifically, China increased its primary energy consumption by 15% from 2003 to 2004.
Unconfirmed data show similar increases continuing in China, followed by increases in India. Fueled by
high increases in China and India, worldwide energy consumption may continue to increase at rates
between 3 and 5% for at least a few more years. However, such high rates of increase cannot continue for
too long. Various sources estimate that the worldwide average annual increase in energy consumption for

1-1
q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-2

Energy Conversion
12,000
Other renewables

10,000

Biomass and waste

MTOE

8,000

Hydro

6,000

Nuclear
Gas

4,000

Oil

2,000

Coal

0
1971

2002
Year

FIGURE 1.1 World primary energy demand (MTOE). (Data from IEA, World Energy Outlook, International Energy
Agency, Paris, France, 2004.)

the next 25 years will be 1.6%2.5% (IEA 2004; IAEA 2005). The Energy Information Agency (EIA), U.S.
Department of Energy projects an annual increase of 2% from now until 2030 (Figure 1.2).
Based on a 2% increase per year (average of the estimates from many sources), the primary energy
demand of 10,345 MTOE in 2002 will double by 2037 and triple by 2057. With such high-energy demand
expected 50 years from now, it is important to look at the available resources to fulfill the future demand,
especially for electricity and transportation.
TABLE 1.1

World Total Energy Demand (MTOE)

Energy Source/Type

1971

2002

Change 19712002 (%)

Coal
Oil
Gas
Nuclear
Hydro
Biomass and waste
Other renewables
Total

1,407
2,413
892
29
104
687
4
5,536

2,389
3,676
2,190
892
224
1,119
55
10,345

1.7
1.4
2.9
11.6
2.5
1.6
8.8
2.0

Source: Data from IEA, World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2004.

TABLE 1.2

Primary Energy Consumption (MTOE)

Region

2001

2002

2003

2004

Average Increase/
Year (%)

2004 Change
Over 2003 (%)

North America including

U.S.A.
U.S.A.
South and Central
America
Europe and Euro-Asia
Middle East
Africa
Asia Pacific
World

2,681.5

2,721.1

2,741.3

2,784.4

1.3

1.6

2,256.3
452

2,289.1
454.4

2,298.7
460.2

2,331.6
483.1

1.1
2.2

1.4
5

2,855.5
413.2
280
2,497
9,179.3

2,851.5
438.7
287.2
2,734.9
9,487.9

2,908
454.2
300.1
2,937
9,800.8

2,964
481.9
312.1
3,198.8
10,224.4

1.3
5.3
3.7
8.6
3.7

1.9
6.1
4
8.9
4.3

This data does not include traditional biomass which was 2229 MTOE in 2002, according to IEA data.
Source: Data from BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2006.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-3

Introduction

800

Quadrillion Btu
History

Projections
722
665
613
563

600
510
421
400
283

309

347 366

200

25

20

30
20

20

15

10

03

95

20

20

20

20

85

90

19

19

19

19

80

Sources: History: Energy Information Administration (EIA),

International Energy Annual 2003 (May-July 2005), web site
www.eia.doe.gov/iea/. Projections: EIA, System for the Analysis of Global Energy Markets (2006).

FIGURE 1.2 Historical and projected energy consumption in the world. (From EIA, Energy Information Outlook
2006, Energy Information Agency, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2006.)

1.1

Energy Use by Sectors

The major sectors using primary energy sources include electrical power, transportation, heating,
industrial and others, such as cooking. The IEA data show that the electricity demand almost tripled from
1971 to 2002. This is not unexpected as electricity is a very convenient form of energy to transport and
use. Although primary energy use in all sectors has increased, their relative shares except for
transportation and electricity have decreased (Figure 1.3). Figure 1.3 shows that the relative share of
primary energy for electricity production in the world increased from about 20% in 1971 to about 30% in
2002. This is because electricity is becoming the preferred form of energy for all applications.
Figure 1.4 shows that coal is presently the largest source of electricity in the world. Consequently, the
power sector accounted for 40% of all emissions in 2002. Emissions could be reduced by increased use of
RE sources. All RE sources combined accounted for only 17.6% share of electricity production in the
world, with hydroelectric power providing almost 90% of it. All other RE sources provided only 1.7% of

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1971
Power generation
Industry

2002

2010
Other transformation
Other

2030
Transport

FIGURE 1.3 Sectoral shares in world primary energy demand. (From IEA, World Energy Outlook, International
Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2004.)

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-4

Energy Conversion

Nuclear, 15.80%

Coal, 40.10%
Hydro, 15.90%

Renewables,
17.60%

Combustible
renewables and
waste, 1.00%
Oil, 6.90%

Gas, 19.40%

Other renewables,
0.70%

FIGURE 1.4 World electricity production by fuel in 2003. (From IEA, Renewables Information 2005, International
Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2005.)

electricity in the world. However, the RE technologies of wind power and solar energy have vastly
improved in the last two decades and are becoming more cost effective. As these technologies mature and
become even more cost competitive in the future they may be in a position to replace major fractions of
fossil fuels for electricity generation. Therefore, substituting fossil fuels with RE for electricity generation
must be an important part of any strategy of reducing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere and combating
global climate change.

1.2

Electrical Capacity Additions to 2030

Figure 1.5 shows the additional electrical capacity forecast by IEA for different regions in the world. The
overall increase in the electrical capacity is in general agreement with the estimates from International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA 2005) which project an average annual growth of about 2%2.5%
up to 2030. It is clear that of all countries, China will add the largest capacity with its projected electrical
needs accounting for about 30% of the world energy forecast. China and India combined will add about
40% of all the new capacity of the rest of the world. Therefore, what happens in these two countries will have
important consequences on the worldwide energy and environmental situation. If coal provides as much as
70% of Chinas electricity in 2030, as forecasted by IEA (IEA 2004), it will certainly increase worldwide CO2
emissions which will further affect global climate.

China
OECD North America
OECD Europe
Other Asia
Transition economies
OECD Pacific
Africa
India
Other Latin America
Middle East
Brazil
Indonesia
0

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

GW
Under construction

Planned

Additions needed by 2030

Source: IEA analysis. Data for plants under construction and planning are from Platts (2003).

FIGURE 1.5 Electrical capacity requirements by region. (From IEA, World Energy Outlook, International Energy
Agency, Paris, France, 2004.)

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-5

Introduction

100

Percent

80
60
40
20
0

1971

1980

1990

2002

Share of transport global oil demand

Share of oil in transport energy demand

FIGURE 1.6 Share of transport in global oil demand and share of oil in transport energy demand. (Data and
Forecast from IEA, World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2004.)

1.2.1

Transportation

Transportation is another sector that has increased its relative share of primary energy. This sector has
serious concerns as it is a significant source of CO2 emissions and other airborne pollutantsand it is
almost totally based on oil as its energy source (Figure 1.6). In 2002, the transportation sector accounted
for 21% of all CO2 emissions worldwide. An important aspect of future changes in transportation
depends on what happens to the available oil resources, production, and prices. At present 95% of all
energy for transportation originates from oil. Since oil production is expected to peak in the near future,
there is an urgent need for careful planning for an orderly transition away from oil as the primary
transportation fuel. An obvious replacement for oil would be biofuels, such as ethanol, methanol,
biodiesel, and biogases. Hydrogen is another alternative which has been claimed by some to be the
ultimate answer as they propose a hydrogen-based economy to replace the present carbon-based
economy (Veziroglu and Barbir 1994). However, other analysts (Kreith and West 2004; Hammerschlag
and Mazza 2005; West and Kreith 2006) dispute this based on the infrastructure requirements of
hydrogen, and the lower efficiency of hydrogen vehicles as compared to hybrid or fully electric vehicles.
Electric transportation presents another viable alternative to the oil-based transportation (West and
Kreith 2006). Already hybrid-electric automobiles are becoming popular around the world as petroleum
becomes more expensive. Complete electric transportation will require development of long-range and
long-life batteries. However, any large-scale shift to electric transportation will require large amounts of
additional electrical generation capacity.

1.3

Present Status and Potential of Renewable Energy

According to the data in Table 1.3, 13.3% of the worlds total primary energy supply came from RE in
2003. However, almost 80% of the RE supply was from biomass (Figure 1.7), and in developing countries
it is mostly converted by traditional open combustion which is very inefficient. Because of its inefficient
use, biomass resources presently supply only about 20% of what they could if converted by modern, more
efficient, and available technologies. As it stands, biomass provides only 11% of the world total primary
energy which is much less than its real potential. The total technologically sustainable biomass energy
potential for the world is 34 TWe (UNDP 2004), which is more than the entire present global generating
capacity of about 3 TWe.
In 2003, shares of biomass and hydro in the total primary energy of the world were about 11 and 2%,
respectively. All of the other renewables including solar thermal, solar PV, wind, geothermal and ocean
combined, provided only about 0.5% of the total primary energy. During the same year, biomass

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-6

Energy Conversion

TABLE 1.3

2003 Fuel Shares in World Total Primary Energy Supply

Source

Share (%)

Oil
Natural Gas
Coal
Nuclear
Renewables

34.4
21.2
24.4
6.5
13.3

Source: Data from IEA, World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency,
Paris, France, 2004.

combined with hydroelectric resources provided more than 50% of all the primary energy in Africa,
29.2% in Latin America, and 32.7% in Asia (Table 1.4). However, biomass is used very inefficiently for
cooking in these countries. Such use has also resulted in significant health problems, especially
for women.
The total share of all renewables for electricity production in 2002 was about 17%, a vast majority
(89%) of it being from hydroelectric power (Table 1.5).

Liquid biomass
1%
Renewable municipal
Waste
0.7%

Geothermal
3.1%

Gas from biomass

0.7%

Solar, Tide
0.3%

Combustible
renewables
and Waste
79.9%

Hydro
16.2%

Solid
biomass/charcoal
77.5%

Wind
0.4%

FIGURE 1.7 2003 Resource shares in world renewable energy supply. (Data from IEA, World Energy Outlook,
International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2004.)

TABLE 1.4

Share of Renewable Energy in 2003 Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) on a Regional Basis
MTOE

Region

TPES

Renewables

(%)

Africa
Latin America
Asia
India
China
Non-OECDa Europe
Former USSR
Middle East
OECD
U.S.A.
World

558.9
463.9
1,224.4
553.4
1,425.9
103.5
961.7
445.7
5,394.7
2,280.8
10,578.7

279.9
135.5
400
218
243.4
9.7
27.5
3.2
304.7
95.3
1,403.7

50.1
29.2
32.7
39.4
17.1
9.4
2.9
0.7
5.6
4.2
13.3

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Source: IEA, Renewables Information 2005, International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2005.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-7

Introduction

TABLE 1.5

Electricity from Renewable Energy in 2002

2002

Energy Source

TWh

Hydropower
Biomass
Wind
Geothermal
Solar
Tide/wave
Total

2610
207
52
57
1
1
2927

89
7
2
2
0
2
100

Source: Data from IEA, World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency, Paris,
France, 2004.

Table 1.6 summarizes the resource potential and the present costs and the potential future costs for
each renewable resource.

1.4

Role of Energy Conservation

Energy conservation can and must play an important role in future energy use and the consequent impact
on the environment. Figure 1.8 and Figure 1.9 give us an idea of the potential of the possible energy
efficiency improvements. Figure 1.9 shows that per capita energy consumption varies by as much as a factor

TABLE 1.6

Potential and Status of Renewable Energy Technologies

Technology
Biomass Energy
Electricity
Heat
Ethanol
Bo-Diesel
Wind Power
Solar Energy
Photovoltaics
Thermal Power
Heat
Geothermal
Electricity
Heat

Ocean Energy
Tidal
Wave
OTEC
Hydroelectric
Large
Small
a
b

Annual Potential

Operating
Capacity 2005

Investment Costs
US$ per kW

Current Energy
Cost

Potential Future
Energy cost

276446 EJ
w44 GWe
Total or 813 TW w225 GWth
MSW w6 EJ
w36 bln lit.
w3.5 bln lit.
55 TW Theo.
59 GW
2 TW Practical
O100 TW
5.6 GW
0.4 GW

5006000/kWe
1701000/kWth
170350/kWth
5001000/kWth
8501700

312 /kWh
16 /kWh
a
2575 /lit(ge)
b
2585 /lit.(de)
48 /kWh

310 /kWh
15 /kWh
610 $/GJ
1015 $/GJ
38 /kWh

500010000
25006000
3001700

25160 /kWh
1234 /kWh
225 /kWh

525 /kWh
420 /kWh
210 /kWh

600,000 EJ useful
resource base
5,000 EJ
economical in
4050 years

9 GW

8003000

210 /kWh

18 /kWh

11 GWth

2002000

0.55 /kWh

0.55 /kWh

2.5 TW
2.0 TW
228 TW

0.3 GW

17002500
20005000
800020000

815 /kWh
1030 /kWh
1540 /kWh

815 /kWh
510 /kWh
720 /kWh

1.63 TW Theo.
0.92 TW Econ.

690 GW
25 GW

10003500
7008000

210 /kWh
212 /kWh

210 /kWh
210 /kWh

ge, gasoline equivalent liter.

de, diesel equivalent liter.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-8

Energy Conversion

1.0
Italy
0.9

France

Argentina
Hungary

United States

Finland
Belgium
Singapore

Iceland

Slovak Republic

0.8
Russia
Brazil

Ukraine

HDI

0.7

Gabon

0.6

Zimbabwe
0.5
Nigeria
0.4
Mozambique

0.3

0.2
0

1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000
Per capita energy consumption (kgoe/capita)

FIGURE 1.8 Relationship between human development index and per capita energy use, 19992000. (From UNDP,
World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability, 2004.)

of three between the U.S.A. and some European countries with almost the same level of human
development index. Even taking just the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) European countries combined, the per capita energy consumption in the U.S.A. is twice as much.
It is fair to assume that the per capita energy of the U.S.A could be reduced to the level of OECD Europe of
4.2 kW by a combination of energy efficiency improvements and changes in the transportation
infrastructure. This is significant because the U.S.A. uses about 25% of the energy of the whole world.

Asia

25

China

38

Sub-Saharan Africa

25

Middle East and North Africa

68
46

Latin America and Caribbean

133

Former USSR
69

Non-OECD Europe

142

OECD Europe

180

OECD Pacific

281

OECD North America

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Notes: Asia excludes Middle East, China, and

OECD countries; Middle East and North Africa
comprises Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq,
Israel,Jordan,Kuwait,Lebanon, Libya, Morocco,
Oman,Qatar,Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia,
United Arab Emirates adn Yemen; Latin
America and Caribbean excludes Mexico;
OECD Pacific comprises Australia, Japan
Korea, and New Zealand; Former USSR
comprises Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Albania, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus,
Gibraltar, Macedonia, Malta, Romania, and
Slovenia; OECD North America includes
Mexico.

Gigajoules per capita

FIGURE 1.9 Per capita energy use by region (commercial and non-commercial) 2000. (From UNDP, World Energy
Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability, 2004.)

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-9

Introduction

The present per capita energy consumption in the U.S.A is 284 GJ which is equivalent to about 9 kW
per person while the average for the whole world is 2 kW. The Board of Swiss Federal Institutes of
Technology has developed a vision of a 2 kW per capita society by the middle of the century (UNDP 2004).
The vision is technically feasible. However, to achieve this vision will require a combination of increased
R&D on energy efficiency and policies that encourage conservation and use of high-efficiency systems. It
will also require some structural changes in the transportation systems. According to the 2004, World
Energy Assessment by UNDP, a reduction of 25%35% in primary energy in the industrialized countries is
achievable cost effectively in the next 20 years, without sacrificing the level of energy services. The report
also concluded that similar reductions of up to 40% are cost effectively achievable in the transitional
economies and more than 45% in developing economies. As a combined result of efficiency improvements
and structural changes, such as increased recycling, substitution of energy intensive materials, etc., energy
intensity could decline at a rate of 2.5% per year over the next 20 years (UNDP 2004).

1.4.1

Forecast of Future Energy Mix

Since oil comprises the largest share of world energy consumption and may remain so for a while, its
depletion will cause a major disruption unless other resources can fill the gap. Natural gas and coal
production may be increased to fill the gap, with the natural gas supply increasing more rapidly than coal.
However, that will hasten the time when natural gas production peaks. Additionally, any increase in coal
consumption will worsen the global climate change situation. Although research is going on in CO2
sequestration, it is doubtful that there will be any large-scale application of this technology anytime in the
next 2030 years.
Presently, there is a resurgence of interest in nuclear power; however, it is doubtful that it alone will be
able to fill the gap. Forecasts from IAEA show that nuclear power around the world will grow at a rate of
0.5%2.2% over the next 25 years (IAEA 2005). This estimate is in the same range as that of IEA.
Based on this information, it seems logical that the RE technologies of solar, wind, and biomass will
not only be essential but also hopefully be able to provide the additional resources to fill the gap and
provide a clean and sustainable energy future. Wind and Photovoltaic Power are growing at rates of over
30%35% per year for the last few years, keeping in mind that this growth rate is based on very small
existing capacities for these sources. There are many differing views on the future energy mix. The IEA
estimates (Figure 1.10) that the present mix will continue until 2030 (IEA 2004).

7000
6000

MTOE

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1970

1980
Coal

1990
Oil

Gas

2000

2010

Nuclear

2020
Hydro

2030
Other

FIGURE 1.10 (See color insert following page 19-52.) World primary energy demand by fuel types. (According to
IEA, World Energy Outlook, International Energy Agency, Paris, France, 2004.)

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1-10

Energy Conversion

Geothermal
Other
renewables
Solar thermal
(heat only)

1,600

Primary energy use (EJ/a)

1,400
1,200

Solar power
(photovoltaics
and solar thermal
generation)

1,000
800

Wind
Blomass
(advanced)
Blomass
(traditional)
Hydroelctricity
Nuclear power
Gas
Coal
Oil

600
400
200
0
2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050

Year

FIGURE 1.11 The global energy mix for year 2050. (According to WBGU, World in TransitionTowards
Sustainable Energy Systems, German Advisory Council on Global Change, Berlin, 2003.)

On the other hand, the German Advisory Council on global change (WBGU) estimates that as much
as 50% of the worlds primary energy in 2050 will come from RE, (Figure 1.11). However to achieve that
level of RE use by 2050 and beyond will require worldwide effort on the scale of a global Apollo Project.

1.5

Energy Conversion Technologies

It is clear that in order to meet the ever growing energy needs of the world, we will need to use all of
the available resources including fossil fuels, nuclear and RE sources for the next 2040 years. However, we
will need to convert these energy resources more efficiently. It is also clear that renewable resources will
have to continue to increase their share of the total energy consumption. There are many new developments in the conversion technologies for solar, wind, biomass, and other RE resources. In addition,
there are newer and improved technologies for the conversion of fossil fuel and nuclear resources. This
Handbook provides a wealth of information about the latest technologies for the direct and indirect
conversion of energy resources into other forms such as thermal, mechanical, and electrical energy.

Defining Terms
MTOE: Mega tons of oil equivalent; 1 MTOE
GTOE: Giga tons of oil equivalent and 1 GTOE
Quadrilion Btu: 1015 British thermal units or Btu;
also known as Quad; 1 Btu

Z 4:1868 ! 104 TJ Terra Joules

Z 3:968 ! 1013 BTU
Z 1000 MTOE
Z 1055 J

References
BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006.
EIA 2006. International Energy Outlook 2006. Energy Information Agency, U.S. Department of Energy,
Washington, DC. Website: http://eia.doe.gov
Hammererschlag, R. and Mazza, P. 2005. Questioning hydrogen. Energy Policy, 33, 20392043.
IAEA. 2005. Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates to 2030. Reference data Series No. 1, July
2005.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Introduction

1-11

IEA 2004. World Energy Outlook. International Energy Agency, Paris, France.
IEA 2005. Renewables Information 2005. International Energy Agency, Paris, France.
Kreith, F. and West, R. E. 2004. Fallacies of a hydrogen economy. JERT, 126, 249257.
UNDP. 2004. World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability. United Nations
Development Program, New York, NY.
Veziroglu, T. N. and Barbir, F. 1992. Hydrogen: The wonder fuel. International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy, 17(6), 391404.
WBGU 2003. World in TransitionTowards Sustainable Energy Systems. German Advisory Council
on Global Change, Berlin. Report available at http://www.wbgu.de
West, R. E. and Kreith, F. 2006. A Vision for a Secure Transportation System without Hydrogen. ASME
Journal of Energy Resources Technologies, 128, 236243.

For Further Information

Historical energy consumption data are published annually by the Energy Information Agency (EIA),
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris, and BP
Corp. EIA and IEA also publish forecasts of future energy consumption and energy resources.
However, their projections for individual fuels differ from other projections available in the
literature.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC