"The lessons of The Anatomical Man: Astrological Medicine in the Book of

Hours of the Duke de Berry"

Introduction
The book of hours Les Trs Riches Heures du Duc de Berry was crafted by the brothers
Limbourg between 1411 and 1416 under the request of the Duke Jean of Berry. We can
find here an eye-catching and curious representation of two figures which, back to back,
are found in the centre of an oval shape surrounded by the zodiacal signs. These are also
scattered around different parts of the frontal body figure. At first, this composition seems
to be unrelated with the rest of the book.
This essay intends to analyze that representation bearing in mind the actual investigations
on astral medicine and esotericism towards the end of the Medieval Age and the
beginnings of Modernity. In this way, it is aimed to explain this uncanny representation
and see which coherence lies behind its incorporation into this well-known book of hours.
Furthermost, it will be sought to understand the elements of the picture and their relation
to the medicinal and religious practices of Europe around the XVth century.

Books of Hours. Art, Devotion and Time

Books of Hours are texts typical of Late Medieval Europe, and they became especially
popular during the XV and XVI centuries.1 They are known by this name since they are
composed mainly of texts that correspond to the different times of the day and liturgies.2
Thus, their role was to lead the good Christian layman through prayers and excerpts from
the psalms for them to exercise their private devotion. Over time, the content was
extended and the books incorporated calendars that served to elucidate religious days
and holidays, and also illustrations related to the texts. Arguably somehow such creations
are a continuation of the ecclesiastical computus, which began to be drawn up given the

For further information about the interests of nobility during this time, see Veenstra, Magic and Divination
at the Courts of Burgundy and France (esp. the Appendixes).
2

Books of Hours, generally intended for private use, were the most popular devotional books of later
Middle Ages. They were collections of the text for each liturgical hour of the day, hence their name. in
Longnon, Introduction, The Trs Riches Heures of Jean, Duke of Berry, 16.

need to resolve disputes that arose before the different annual Easter dates. The use of
astronomy by the Church had always had this aim into account.3
Usually this type of breviary was commissioned by the literate nobility, which did not only
use it as a worldly form of fulfilling the same function as that of monasteries, but were
themselves works of art, sometimes very skillful paintings which possession gave its owner
aesthetic pleasure and social prestige. Yet it must be emphasized that at that time
calendars were a significant source of information which provided details of great
importance for day to day activities.
In the present case, the book of hours Les Trs Riches Heures du Duc de Berry was
commissioned by the Duke of Berry to the Limbourg brothers (Herman, Paul and Johan).
They worked on this piece until 1416, when all these men involved on the project (even
the Duke himself), died. The cause was, allegedly, an epidemic. In any case, the legacy of
the Duke of Berry was remarkable, since he was a great collector of art.4 Amongst his
collection, this book remains the most famous artwork.5
This devotional piece begins with a calendar whose pictures of the year are celebrrimas.
Indeed each one of them shows the different activities that were executed according to
the time of year, activities performed by the nobility (promenade time, hunting, courtship)
as well as the agricultural work carried out by the peasantry (planting, harvesting,
mowing). Further, the variety of scenarios is exquisite: through these pages, the Limbourg
brothers show in detail the various properties and castles of the wealthy Duke. In turn,
each of the scenes of the calendar is crowned at the top by a zodiacal tympanum, which
indicates the time of year in astrological terms.6 Following these calendar pages and their
illustrations,7 the so-called "anatomical man"8 is displayed, the main subject of this work.
3

Bober, Zodiacal Miniature, 6.

Jeans collection included 14 Bibles, 16 psalters, 18 brevaries, 6 missals and 15 Books of Hours, among other things. For
the complete catalogue, see Longnon, Introduction.
5

Other famous Books of Hours commissioned by the Duke were: The Petites Heures from 1388 (Bibliothque Nationale,
ms. lat. 18.014), The Grandes Heures from 1409 (Bibliothque Nationale, ms. lat. 919), The Trs Belles Heures from 1402
(Bibliothque Royale de Belgique, ms.11060-1) and of course The Belles Heures from 1413 (The Cloisters, New York). For
more references, see Longnon, Ibid.
6

For an extensive analysis, see Bober, Zodiacal Miniature.

Each month consists of two pages, one with a miniature illustration of the month and another one with its calendar.
Thus for example the 8v. folio is the miniature illustration of the month of August and its calendar is on folio 9. Folio 9v.
September miniature, 8v. the calendar for that month, and so on, ending this cycle on folio 13. Folios 13v. and 14 are
blank, and the called Anatomical Man appears on folio 14v. Then the folios 15 and 16v. are in blank again, restarting
with texts from Saint John on folio 17. Perhaps these blank pages were left in this way due to the sudden death of the

The text continues with illustrations of different psalms, which are not the work of the
Limbourg brothers but allegedly those of Jean Colombe. Today this magnificent piece of
art is found in the Muse Cond located in the Chteau de Chantilly, France.
The Anatomical Man is located in the fourteenth folio of the book. The figure in question
is a clear International Gothic Style example, like the rest of the illustrations. The
International Gothic Style is characterized, in general terms, by elegance: the figures are
slender and their bodies harmonious.9 At the same time there is a deep richness in the
details and in the use of colors. This relates to the fact that these books were
commissioned mostly by members of the nobility since it required the use of various
pigments, which were very expensive, in order to be executed with precision, such as the
color blue.10 Due to its refined manners, its noble-religious themes, the richness in
materials and details, the International Gothic was related to nobility, being typical of this
style the thematic representation of courtesans and fine animals, such as the sighthound,
which were used to highlight delicate curves in the composition. The richness of detail can
be seen especially in the refined fabrics and costumes of the characters portrayed.
On a descriptive level the Anatomical Man portrays a pair of nude men,11 standing back to
back in the middle of a sort of oval. The one that is facing us has the zodiacal signs
Limbourg brothers (in fact it has been estimated that the November painting was made by the painter Jean Colombe
after the brothers deaths).
8

Also referred as Astrological Man, it is more appropriate to use the term Homo Signorum or Melothesia. For more
references, see Hegedus, Early Christianity and Ancient Astrology.
9

For more on Gothic Art, see Toman, R., Gothic: Visual Art of the Middle Ages 1150-1500, Hamburg: Knemann 1999.

10

The blue pigment generally consisted of a crushed lapis lazuli stone base. This made it a very expensive color, and
therefore, it is a tone that entails the noble status of its commissioner. This is why many altarpieces and books of hours
have an important predominance of blue, because through it, it became clear the commissioner nobility and wealth
being. A clear example of this is the Wilton Diptych (National Gallery, London) allegedly commissioned by the King
Richard II of England, whose second panel abounds in blue, in the garb of the angels and the Virgin Mary. On the use of
pigments see Bucklow, S., The Alchemy of Paint: Art, Science and Secrets from the Middle Ages: Colour and Meaning
From the Middle Ages, Great Britain: Marion Boyars Publishers Ltd 2009; also Clarke, M., The Art of All Colours:
Mediaeval Recipe Books for Painters and Illuminators, London: Archetype Publications Ltd 2001.
11

Though there has been a major discussion regarding the genders of these two figures (see Bober, Zodiacal
Miniature, 18-19, and De Mly, Les trs riches heures du Duc de Berry et les trois Grces de Sienne), the suggestion
made in this present research is that, as androgynous as they may be, these figures correspond to the male gender. It is
often suggested that the back figure is male and the front one is female, the latter mostly because if male, he does not
seem to have sexual genitals. Even so, we may argue that they are covered by the Scorpio symbol, which corresponds, in
fact, to the sexual genitals. The same cannot be argued for the lack of breasts in the case it was a woman. But moreover,
the rectangular shape of the torso and the muscular, though slim, complexion of the arms and legs suggest strongly
that the frontal figure is also male.

represented along his body, from head to foot, following the known order, starting with
the first zodiac sign, Aries, on the head and ending with the last astrological sign, Pisces,
on his feet.12 The background seems to be composed of golden clouds in a clear sky.
Around the oval, which can be interpreted as a mandorla, there is, once again, a
representation of the zodiacal signs. Furthermore, in every corner, inscriptions in Latin
state the characteristics of the four different groups of signs with its correspondent four
elements, humors, and cardinal points. In the upper right corner, the fire signs: Aries,
Leo, Sagittarius. Dry and warm. Choleric. Male. Oriental. Over the earth signs, in the
upper left corner: Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn. Dry and cold. Melancholic. Female. Western.
Air signs are in the lower right corner: Gemini. Aquarius. Libra. Humid and warm. Blood.
Male. Southerners. And finally, in the bottom left corner, the water signs: Cancer.
Scorpio. Pisces. Wet and cold. Phlegmatic. Female. Northerners.13 Below the upper
inscriptions, there is the coat of arms of the Duke of Berry, consisting of three fleurs-de-lis
on a blue background embroidered in red. To achieve altogether sense in all these
elements described, it is necessary to examine them into their cultural context and
comprehend what role this representation would have had. One possibility is to do this
through the analysis of medical practices during medieval times.

Astrology and Medicine. Medical theories towards late medieval and early modern
times.
The fifteenth century medicine was mainly a receptor of the Greco-Latin thinkers,
particularly Hippocrates and the writings of his commentator, Galen. Through them
various theories or principles important for understanding medieval medicine were put
into practice. First, there was a wide reception of the theory of humors. According to it,
the human body had four humors (or fluids): black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood and
peoples health would depend on the proportion of these fluids existent within their
bodies. This balance could be disturbed in many ways, i.e. the patients diet or daily
activities. Moreover, the stars could influence these fluids, and among the planets, the

12

J. Testers Introduction in his book A History of Western Astrology works as a useful reference to get initiated into
the basics of practical astrology. For a complete guide on the art of astrology, a great start point is William Lillys
magnum opus, Christian Astrology.
13

All these elements will be further analyzed in the present investigation, but is interesting to bear in mind that they are
rooted in a long lasting tradition, whose main references during these times are Galen and Hippocrates. For more on
this, see Winiarczyk, Homo Signorum, 43-44.

moon exerted the greatest influence.14 Therefore, it can be noted the importance of
knowing the phases of the stars in order to see their influence on the health of people.
But more importantly, it must be taken into account that people were naturally
dominated by a predominance of one of these humors, depending on the time of their
birth. In fact, this would determine which planets were more influential at that crucial
moment of a persons life: his entering into the world was marked by a specific cosmic
arrangement. This situation had an impact not only on health but also on personality.15
Thus, it was thought that the predominance of yellow bile implied a choleric personality;
black bile, a melancholic temperament; blood, a sanguine temperament; phlegm,
indifferent and laconic people. All these issues had a direct impact on the medical
treatment with which the patient was treated. When one of these fluids was in excess, the
bodys harmony was hampered, and the doctor had to decide the applicable treatment
taking into consideration these variables. The main treatment was phlebotomy, i.e.
perform a bleeding procedure of the patient, in order to release the pressure caused due
to the excess of this body fluid.16 Other medical treatments consisted of hot baths,
purging or vomiting, aromatherapy, etc.17
Stargazing had a fundamental importance in all of these practices. In this way, and after
observing the most favorable star momentum, the treatments could be carried out
without major risks. Indeed, there were critical days where the practice could be fatal for
the patient. Once more we can find the belief that it existed () a network of supposed
correspondences between planets, houses, and zodiacal signs on the one hand and parts
of the body, temperamental qualities, humors, virtues, phases of pregnancy, diseases, and
14

In medieval theory the balance of humours in the human body was believed to fluctuate with the phases of the
moon. The moon was thought to control the amount of moisture in the human body, and the brain, as the moistest part
of the body, was believed to be particularly subject to its influence in Thomas, Religion and the decline of magic, 351.
Hence it is clear to see the reason why when a crazy person is called "lunatic" is because his brain fluids are affected by
the lunar influence, thus, creating such a situation. See also Carlino, Books of the Body: Anatomical Ritual and
Renaissance Learning, Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1999 and Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1990.
15

These humours corresponded, it was held, to the cosmic elements and to the divisions of time; they controlled the
whole existence and behavior of mankind, and, according to the manner in which they were combined, determined the
character of the individual. in Klibansky, Panofsky and Saxl, Saturn and Melancholy, 3.
16

The practice of bloodletting in religious communities appears to have varied greatly. Those who were sick were bled
individually as part of a therapeutic regime, while group bleedings were performed as a prophylactic measure. in
OBoye, Astrology and Medicine, 16.
17

For more on Miasma and other theories in disease transmission regarding ambiences, see Cole, L., OF MICE AND
MOISTURE: Rats, Witches, Miasma, and Early Modern Theories of Contagion, Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies
10:2 (2010), 65-84.

varieties of medicinal action (purging, strengthening, and so on) on the other.18

Henceforth, a doctor could not perform any treatment responsibly without consulting the
aforementioned astrological information.
This relates to another principle of paramount importance: the relationship of "sympathy"
between the macrocosm (the planets, the zodiacal constellations) and the microcosm
(men and organs). This means that there is a correspondence between what happens in
the celestial spheres and what happens in the earthly world: All events in the cosmos and
on earth are linked together by an invisible magic bond.19 The human being is a
microcosm within which all the powers of the cosmos are present in each of its organs and
body parts. As long as these powers and astral influences are in harmony, a person is
healthy. If this were not the case, then the doctor had to find a way to balance these
influences to return the body to a universal harmony. This knowledge was expanded at
the time by important thinkers, such as Marsilio Ficino. In her work about the philosopher,
Melissa Bullard argues that For Ficino, the astral forces and humors, which according to
accepted wisdom originated in the planets, resided also in man, where they can be more
easily observed and managed.20
Moreover, another basic principle states that both, the microcosm and the macrocosm,
human beings and planets, are composed by the four elements (water, fire, earth and air)
and therefore exhibit the four qualities (heat, cold, humidity and dryness). Following that
correlation, a change in the qualities of the celestial spheres will ultimately affect the
human body and how fluids react within it.21
At this point, it is necessary to analyze some crucial concepts. On one hand,
Iatromathematics. In a few words, this is defined as the use of astrology for medical
purposes, a clear characteristic of medicine at the time: This iatromathematics (iatros is
18

Grafton and Siraisi, Between the Election and My Hopes, 78.

19

Schoener, Astrology, 30.

20

Bullard, The inward zodiac, 699. For a more on Ficino relation to astrology, see Three Books on Life (De vita libri
tres). It is very well known the concern Ficino had about Saturn and Melancholic temperament. The first [cause] is
celestial, the second natural, and the third human. The celestial: because both Mercury, who invites us to investigate
doctrines, and Saturn, who makes us persevere in investigating doctrines and retain them when discovered, are said by
astronomers to be somewhat cold and dry (or if it should happen to be true that Mercury is not cold, he is nonetheless
often very dry by virtue of his nearness to the Sun), just like the melancholic nature, according to physicians. And this
same nature Mercury and Saturn impart from birth to their followers, learned people, and preserve and augment it day
by day. Ficino, Three Books on Life, 113-114.
21

The various planets transmitted different quantities of the four physiological qualities of heat and cold, dryness and
moisture. In the resulting interaction was comprised all physical change in Thomas, Religion, 337.

the Greek designation for doctor, and in the ancient world, but also in the Middle Ages
and Early Modernity, every type of star observation and calculation was called
mathematics) was not only in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, but also into early
modern times the common medicine ().22 The latter was used not only to elucidate the
course of the treatment to be followed by the ill person,23 but also to predict the likely
course of evolution of the disease or even to explain the fatal outcome of the patient: In
the first case, astrology played the same role that autopsy often played in similar cases: it
offered a retrospective explanation for a devastating event. In the second case, it offered
a prediction based, so both the astrologer and his clients might think on much richer data
than a medical doctor could lay claim to.24 On the other hand, the exact distribution of
the parts of the human body under the rule of a planetary divinity and the signs of its
sect is called melothesia.25 With this regard, melothesia expresses the specific form of
interpretation of the relationship between the macro and microcosms.26 We can find an
exact example of this in Manilus Astronomica:
Now learn how the parts of the human body are distributed among the
constellations, and how the limbs are subject each to a particular authority: over
these limbs, out of all the parts of the body, the signs exercise special influence.
Aries as chieftain of them all is allotted the head, and Taurus receives as of his
estate the handsome neck; evenly bestowed, the arms to shoulders joined are
accounted to Gemini; the breast is put down to Cancer, the realm of the sides and
the shoulder blades are Leos, the belly comes down to Virgo as her rightful lot;
Libra governs the loins, and Scorpio takes pleasure in the groin; the thighs draw
near to Sagittarius, Capricorn is tyrant of both knees, whilst pouring Aquarius has
the lordship of the lower legs, and over the feet Pisces claims jurisdiction.27

The importance of all of these conceptions can be observed through the analysis of the
different typical practices known at the time. A very interesting example of this is the use
and manufacture of talismans. Talismans were items made with the purpose to offset the
symptoms of a given disease by means of the patients contact with the aforementioned
22

Schoener, G. A., Op. Cit., 33.

23

Wise use of knowledge thus gained might help him prescribe medication for patients at appropriate times or enable
them to avoid the worst effects of malign astral conditions. in Grafton and Siraisi, op cit., 108.
24

Grafton and Siraisi, Op. cit., 95.

25

Hanegraaff (Ed.), Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism, 113.

26

See Von Stuckrad, Jewish and Christian Astrology in Late Antiquity, 22.

27

Manilus, Astronomica, 118-19. See also Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos 3.12, 3.13.

object whose effects would be beneficial for the patients health.28 The procedure
consisted in an analysis carried out by the doctor in order to determine the body part
affected by the disease and when it had started. With this information at hand, the doctor
would make a horary astrological reading for the patient (this is, reading the skys
situation for the moment the inquiry is made about the development of the patients
disease), and then he proceeded to make a talisman that would represent the body part
or organ affected in astrological terms. In this way, if the patient suffered problems of the
heart, the doctor would prescribe the use of a talisman that would symbolically represent
the zodiacal sign that governed that vital organ, which, in the present example, would be
the lion for Leo in the sign that rules the heart. Additionally, the materials used to create
the talisman were also closely analyzed. In the case of the example given, due to the fact
that the heart is governed by the solar sign, Leo, the talismans metal used should have
had a solar correspondence: certainly the noblest of all metals, gold, would have been the
chosen one for the matter. Indeed, many treatises were written to this respect, but only
some of them are still preserved. For example, one of these is called De Sigilis by the
author Arnold of Villanova (ca. 1300), and deals with the functions of the various metals
and treatments that ought to be followed in each case: Naturally, each medal bore the
picture of the zodiacal sign. The Arnaldine paragraph then concludes with a list of ailments
that may be cured, as well as indications for some other uses of the medal.29
Another issue that should be considered relates to the moment in which the talisman was
made, which sometimes could be of more significance than the material used for its
manufacture. Indeed, it had to be fabricated in an astrologically convenient time, so as to
bring into being the desired effects:
The talisman Libra (ibid., fol. 240r), to pick just another case at random, dealt
mostly with ailments of the stomach. While, according to Bernard, it could be
made of any kind of metal, much attention and care had to be given to celestial
conditions: Sole in Libra existente in prima facie ipsieus, et non sit Venus
retrograde, et Luna sit in augment. Et si sit in Libra erit valde bonum. Fiat quoque

28

So, instead of manipulating the sky, the idea is to take something that God gives to allplanetary influences in
orderly, predictable cyclesand to contrive devicesi.e., talismansthat manipulate how we receive those balances
here on Earth. Talismanic technology depends on the mechanism by which astral influences reach us. We moderns
might think of them as being a bit like radio receivers. Radio receivers (talismans) receive all frequencies all the time, but
are tuned to respond far more strongly to the narrow band occupied by one station (planet) while suppressing signals
from all the rest. So, while we cannot hold back the hip-hop, we can set our radio tuner to respond more strongly to
some other, more desirable, signal. in Kwan, A., Tychos Talisman, 102-103. Also, see Ficino, De vita libris tres, 3.1.
29

Shatzmiller, In Search of the Book of Figures, 391.

in die et hora solis et non tamen aliter quam percutiendo. Similarly, precise
specifications were spelled out repeatedly for each sign of the zodiac.30

This practice acquired so much importance that even Pope Boniface VIIIs kidneys
affection was treated with a talisman.31
Another notion inherent to this period and extremely useful in determining the
widespread practice of the medical-astrological procedures was the so-called theory of
the miasma. This concept relates to the idea that there were bad airs, distinguishable by
their smell emanated from decaying matter (also from backwaters) which caused the
sickness of healthy people and the worsening of the already ill ones. These pestilences or
stenches were fought through the use of aromatic therapies, fanning environmental
renewal or simply by removing the sick person from the affected site, as well as by
sanitizing it.32
As the planets caused atmospheric changes, especially the ones related to humidity, and
changed the trends in fluids, it was clear that according to the progressions of the stars we
could have found a more favorable (or unfavorable) moment for miasmatic tendencies.
This theory was so accepted by society at the time that some of its influence can even be
found in literature. Accordingly, in the work Arthur Groos wrote on Wolfram's work
Parzival (XIIIth century), he analyzes the fragment that portrays the situation of the Grail
Kings wound and its treatment according to those days trends. He observes the effect of
the planetary motions presented in the Kings healing process: () conjunctions of Mars
and Jupiter generally occasion pestilences, which derive from fetid and excessively moist
air. The effects of these planets on the air around the Grail castle would thus exacerbate
an already potentially pestilential situation occasioned by the presence of standing water
(Lake Brunbane), closed quarters, and especially Anfortas putrifying wound. () The
prescribed medical response to this situation would be to change the bad air to good,
either by moving the patient, or if this is not possible by treating the air with the
appropriate aromatics.33

30

Shatzmiller, Op. Cit., 393.

31

Ibid., 389.

32

For more on Miasma Theory see Byrne, Encyclopedia of the Black Death, 235-236. Also, Cipolla, Public Health and the
Medical Profession in the Renaissance, 24.
33

Groos, Treating the Grail King, 79. Also 80: the two principal elements of bad air - foul stench and cloudy, vaporous
humidity - are corrected by burning woods with allopathic aromatic and dry qualities.

Even though this theme exceeds the scope of the current investigation, it must be taken
into account that these medicinal practices were not exclusively found within Christianity,
and while they were very well-known, in some cases they contradicted and challenged the
doctrines of the main religions of the time. In general lines, we can differentiate the
existence of a permitted astrology from that of an illicit or superstitious astrology:
Astrology is superstitious if it wants to predict the character and the fate of a native with
reference to his or her horoscope () Although this branch is not necessarily wrong (like
many others, Isidore speculated about the Star of Bethlehem), it is definitely illicit.34
The permitted type of astrology was defined as a natural concept: The accepted branch astrologia naturalis - is focused on metereological and mundane aspects of nature, and it
also includes astrological medicine.35 This was so as long as the superior authority of the
Church was respected: astrology can determine the naturalia (natural causes) but not the
contingentia (things that are dependent on chance and Gods will).36 This differentiation,
which theoretically seemed very sound and clear, was not so uncomplicated in its
practice.
Since early medieval times, debates about the role of astrology were carried on by the
most important minds of the time. One important issue was that about the pagan origins
of astrology. But moreover,
Church fathers attacked judicial astrology for two basic reasons. First, its practice
bore traces of pagan superstition and star worship. Second, it denied the
fundamental Christian principle of mans freedom of will. Quite simply, if the stars
controlled all human actions, men were not responsible for their good or evil
deeds, and the economy of salvation was meaningless.37

St Augustine (354-430 AD) added another argument for the inaccuracy of astrology: that
of brothers born at the same time, whose destinies turned out to be different. Many
centuries after, Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), gave a long-termed solution on the free
wills controversy. The stars have influence on the bodies, but The will, however was free
to resist such impulses. () But most men followed their passions, according to Thomas.
Hence a great many of the predictions of the astrologers were true.38 This recognition, by
34

Hanegraaff (Ed.), Dictionary, 122.

35

Ibid., 122. Also see: Isidore of Seville, Ethymologiarum libri XX, in: Migne (ed.), Patrologia cursus completus, Series
latinae, 82:73ff., Turnhout: Brepols 1969.
36

Ibid., 123.

37

Ackerman Smoller, History, Prophecy and the Stars, 5-26.

38

Ibid., 31.

such an important thinker, of the relation between stars and bodies had positive
consequences for astrological medicine. But even before Thomas defense, medieval
Church attackers of astrology had recognized astrology as an essential part of agriculture
or medicine.39 The main problem has always had to do with judicial (predictive)
astrology, and not natural astrology.40 But what is fascinating about this debate is that, in
general lines, those philosophers were dealing with a problematic topic that required a
delicate equilibrium consensus between religion and science: Too great an insistence
on either astrological or theological principles would undermine the compromise. () No
one wanted to deny either Christian theology or Aristotelian physics, and so they accepted
a compromise, which, at least on the surface, preserved them both.41
But even in the case of astrological medicine, it is interesting to analyze the use of
talismans by both Christian and Islamic doctors.42 Indeed, as the Pope Boniface VIII was
treated by one of these astrological therapies, suspicion arose between those churchmen
that witnessed the situation: () the cardinals were quite astonished about the whole
thing, about the master who gets involved in such things, and about the pope; how could
he publicize such things or even tolerate them?43 In a continent in which there was still
exchange of knowledge between different religions, Jewish doctors, who also used this
element to perform their healings were not strangers to this controversy.44
It is interesting that the belief in the miasma theory also shows the exchange of
information between scholars of different religions, and was not reserved to a unique
theory under Christianitys intellectuals.45 Furthermore, it is remarkable that the
desperate search for healing had led to situations that could even question the lawfulness
39

Thomas, Op. Cit, 428.

40

Writers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were forced to wrestle with the problem of reconciling the theory of
celestial influences with early Christian rejection of astrology. In general, scholars accepted astrologys place in
medicine, meteorology, and alchemy, while wavering somewhat on the effects of the stars on human behavior. in
Ackerman Smoller, Op. Cit., 30.
41

Ibid., p. 32.

42

The use of talismans and amulets with astral symbolism flourished during the whole era under consideration, both
under Islamic and Christian authority. in Hanegraaff (Ed.), Dictionary, 126.
43

As quoted in Shatzmiller, Op. Cit., 390.

44

That around 1301-1303 the talisman of Leo gave trouble to members of both Christian and Jewish communities
indicates that these scholars were quick to exchange information. in Ibid., 406.
45

Abumashar [Ab Ma shar], the other leading Arabic expert on conjuctions, also adduces manifestations of anger in
conflict as well as pestilential inflammations from the same planetary constellation. in Groos, Op. Cit., 79.

of melothesia: But the kind of help patients expected to get from the stars could only too
easily lure the medical astrologer into practices that were both frankly magical (and thus
potentially likely to incur in religious censorship) and plainly unsuitable to the dignity of a
learned physician.46

The Anatomical Man

Thus, it becomes important to understand the meaning of The Anatomical Man according
to the medical-astrological practices analyzed before.
It must be first point out that unlike the rest of the book's illustrations this are set against
a background that is no longer mundane. On the contrary, they seem to be in an
intermediate state between Earth and Heaven. This symbolizes the abstract idea of
macro-micro cosmic correspondences and connections. It can therefore be observed how
the human figures are located within the framework of an oval that could be assimilated
to the symbolic figure of a mandorla. A mandorla is a symbol with Christian religions
connotations, due to the fact that Since the pagan shield was circular or oval, Christian
art used both forms for the mandorla, the oval being the one preferred.47 This motif is
also used in representations of Christ ascending to heaven seated in a mandorla. 48 The use
of this symbol in a religious book such as a Book of Hours should be clearly understood
under this line of interpretation. But moreover, this symbol can be analyzed from several
perspectives.
On one hand, the mandorla is related to the idea of protecting an important element by
situating it inside the hard shell of an almond.49 This corresponds with the idea that (...)
in the Middle Ages the almond was also interpreted as a symbol of the human germ
enclosed within the womb.50
46

Grafton and Siraisi, Op. cit., 109.

47

Elderkin, Shield and mandorla, 233. Also: The Bawit fresco of the Virgin holding a mandorla toward the spectator is
a Christian reuse of the Victory holding a shield, so that one may see what is represented upon it. Another, but rare type
of mandorla, which is pointed at the top and the bottom is derived from the circular shield.
48

49

Ibid., 234.
() La almendra, en griego amygdale, es un antiguo smbolo del encierro de valioso contenido en una cscara muy

dura, casi impenetrable. [(...) The almond, Greek amygdale, is an ancient symbol of the closure of valuable content in a
very hard shell, almost impenetrable.] in Biedermann, Diccionario de Smbolos, 289.
50

In the original text: [] en la Edad Media se interpret tambin a la almendra como smbolo del germen humano
encerrado en el tero. from Ibid., 290.

But at the same time, this figure represents the dual relation between the heavenly and
earthly worlds: (...) their union, intersection and interpenetration zone (appearance) is
the mandorla, almond shape, obtained by the intersection of two circles (...) this
symbolizes the perpetual sacrifice that renews the creative force produced by the dual
ascent and descent current (appearance, life and death, evolution and involution).51 This
all seems to be reinforced by a background of clouds, another element of great symbolic
meaning: The clouds are part of a continuous and reciprocal exchange between the
ethereal and the earthly, and move between formlessness and form (...) Since the clouds
are floating between heaven and earth, they constituted an image expressing both the
hidden nature of the divine as well as its manifestation.52
In this way, it can observed the symbolic meaning of the image that seeks to represent by
means of an illustration an abstract, yet very well known and widespread idea in the
period analyzed, of bonding and interaction between the microcosm (represented by men
standing) and the macrocosm (enclosed by the mandorla). In sum, it can be argued that
men represent that which is Earthly while the Zodiac mandorla illustrates macrocosmic
forces that are in turn reflected on the human body. Thus, the zodiac images portrayed in
the frontal facing figure (correspondence between the organs of the body and the
zodiacal signs) represent a visual embodiment of the melothesia.
Due to the fact that there are two figures it must still be inquired about the meaning of
each of them.53 We can venture to state that the frontal one represents the ideal human
being, with all the celestial characteristics explicitly expressed, while the figure who is at
his back, would be the earthly man, a shadow figure of this platonic ideal man, but who
still shares with him his divine essence (and therefore, cosmic correspondences).54
51

In the original text: [] su unin, la zona de interseccin e interpenetracin (aparicin) es la mandorla, figura
almendrada, obtenida por los dos crculos que se cortan. [] Por ellos simboliza tambin el sacrificio perpetuo que
renueva la fuerza creadora por la doble corriente de ascenso y descenso (aparicin, vida y muerte, evolucin e
involucin). from Cirlot, Diccionario de smbolos, 302-303.
52

In the original text: Las nubes forman parte de un intercambio continuo y recproco entre lo etreo y lo terrenal, y se
mueven entre la informidad y la forma. [] Debido a que las nubes flotan entre el cielo y la tierra, constituan una
imagen que expresaba tanto el carcter oculto de lo divino como su manifestacin. from Martin (Ed.), El libro de los
smbolos, 58.
53

It could even be suggested that these two figures symbolize Geminis twins, and that could have been an arguable
case if Jean, Duc de Berry would have been born under this sign. But he was born on November 30th, 1340, being
therefore under the solar sign of Sagittarius.
54

For other interpretations see: Sekules, Medieval Art. Here the author considers that this image is a Vanitas, reflecting
on the brevity of life and fragility of youth. Though interesting, the present investigation follows other interpretative
paths.

Moreover, the Zodiacal mandorla contains practical information on the number of days of
each month (in Roman numbers, it specifies which months are of 28, 30 or 31 days), and
shows the correspondence of months with each specific zodiacal sign. All these references
are of substantial importance for medical practice.55
There are two ways to use this information for medical purposes. First, by using horary
astrology. Following this method, the medical astrologer inquires about the patients
illness, and creates a horary chart for the exact time the question was made, interpreting
the location of the planets and houses in that specific moment to make an accurate
astrological reading.

Horary Chart for a sick person56

The houses were very important for this practice since each one represented an aspect or
role in the analysis of a certain issue or question: the first house and the ascendant were
usually considered to represent the patient himself; the sixth house entailed the disease,
the seventh the figure of the doctor and the tenth the medical treatment needed to cure
the patient.57

55

[Astrology] was necessary for the understanding of physiology and therefore of medicine in Thomas, Op. Cit, 338.

56

This horary chart corresponds to Chapter XLVI of the book Christian Astrology (1647) by William Lilly (1602-1681). In
that chapter of this important treatise he explains the horary questions regarding the sixth house (house of diseases)
giving many examples of horary charts and their interpretation. Even though he is not contemporary to the piece of art
we are analyzing, it is important to note that Lilly follows very ancient traditions, and his book is in debt mainly of
Ptolemy and his Tetrabiblos. Therefore, the practice he describes in this book gives us a very accurate idea of the
procedure made by the iatromathematicians before his own time.
57

See more in Lilly, Christian Astrology.

The planets also had a symbolic meaning for the matter, and according to their location
and the relationship between them, the doctor could predict the evolution of the disease
and the treatment that ought to be followed. For example, if a person suffered headaches,
the planets in Aries would have been closely looked at, since this sign represents the head.
Indeed, continuing with this example, the planets located in Aries would have been those
representing the development of the disease and would have been closely examined
when looking at the patients astrological chart.
Hence, it becomes very clear the importance of a diagram that would show all these
correspondences at a simple glimpse. This standing figure with the twelve zodiac signs is a
very common depiction which is known as Homo Signorum or Zodiac Man.58 Its main
function was to guide the physician in his treatments, such as bloodletting or phlebotomy.
We can find many different illustrations of this type since at least the XIIIth century.59

Zodiac Man (c. 1550).60

Bloodletting Man (c. 1400).61

58

See Bober, Zodiacal Miniature, 14-15.

59

Ibid., 14.

60

British Library, Egerton 2572 fol. 50.

61

Medical Treatise of Jean of Damascus, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris, Ms. hebr. 1181, folio 264v.

All the above mentioned was observed in accordance with the theory of the humors (since
the disease is defined by an imbalance of the humors in the patient's body) and this would
have been analyzed in light of the characteristics of each planet involved in the situation,
for some are dry and hot, others dry and humid, etc.62 According to their location, both in
terms of the zodiacal signs and the houses, the planets showed the patients situation
(this is, the humoral imbalances suffered and the needed steps towards the rebalance of
the fluids in his body). This rebalance can be achieve not only by ingesting food according
to a certain planet, or taking talismans made of the according metal, but also by
performing acts which correspond to different planets. An example of this could be a
romantic gesture such as giving a rose to someone, would arise energies correspondent to
the planet Venus.63 Being a static representation of a given moment, but whose actors
have continued to move in cosmic reality, the analysis of the planets and their
progressions would show the doctor the course of the disease, once clearly identified the
role of each planet in the framework of the investigated issue.
The second way to inquire into the cause of the patients illness was to perform the same
analysis but from the moment the patient became ill, called decumbitura.64 Thus, with the
use of this very effective system, the doctor did not even require seeing the patient: he
62

It is important to note that the qualities of hot or cold and dry or moist applies to things on earth. To give an example,
plants have different degrees of these qualities which are of utmost importance for the physician. Nicholas Culpeper
(1616-1654), in his treatise Complete Herbal (1653), gave precise enumerations of this. Based on Galen, he stated: My
opinion is that those herbs, roots, plants which grow near man, are far better and more congruous to his nature than
any outlandish rubbish whatsoever () therefore I am so copious in handling of them, you shall observe them ranked in
this order: 1. The temperature of the roots, herbs, flowers &c. viz. hot, cold, dry, moist, together with the degree of each
quality. 2. What part of the body each root, herb, flower, is appropriate to, viz. head, throat, breast, heart, stomach,
liver, spleen, bowels, reins, bladder, womb, joints, and in those which heat those places, and which cool them. 3. The
property of each simple, as they bind, open, mollify, harden, extenuate, discuss, draw out, suppure, cleanse, glutinate,
break wind, breed seed, provoke or stop the menses, resist poison, abate swellings, ease pain. in Culpeper, Complete
Herbal, 363. Thereafter he organizes the lists of plants, herbs, roost and flowers according to this pattern.
63

It is interesting to compare Ficinos thoughts and how the different planets energies play with each other: If we
should wish to uplift awhile and otherwise to console a person who is too occupied by Saturnine contemplation or
oppressed with cares, and should attempt it by the Venereal act, games, and jokes, as a curethrough opposites, our
effort would be futile and even harmful; and conversely if we should wish to rein in anyone abandoned to the works of
Venus or relaxed in gaming or joking, we will not easily prevail to amendhim through Saturnine severity. No, the best
discipline is to recall to the mean those declining to either side through certain pursuits and remedies of Phoebus and of
Jupiter, who are the middle planets between Saturn and Venus. In Ficino, Three Books on Life, 227.
Also, The job of the soul is not to combat or eliminate any of those planetary qualities, even the malign ones. ()
Rather, for Ficino, the soul mediates among the various influences to achieve a healthy balance. in Bullard, Op. Cit.,
703.
64

By casting a figure of the decumbiture, or moment when the patient fell ill, and by resolving a question on sight of his
urine, the astrological doctor claimed to be able to diagnose the disease, prescribe the treatment, foretell when the
sickness would reach its crisis, and prognosticate its eventual outcome. en Thomas, Op. Cit, 339-340.

could carry out his work by receiving the question through the consult of a relative of the
patient, or just by a question delivered by regular mail: The through-going astrological
doctor proceeded entirely by the stars and did not even demand to see the patient. () by
celestial signs, aspects and constellations he could tell at once what the cause of the
illness might be.65 However, in order to make the aforementioned interpretation, he
needed to have a clear outline of the "celestial" human anatomy, and this was the
objective clearly portrayed in the analyzed miniature.

Conclusion
What motivated this investigation was the idea of finding an interpretative meaning to the
analyzed illustrated miniature, not only within its internal coherence, but also to perform
an analysis in the light and context of the book in which it appeared. Given the
abovementioned outlines, some conclusions could be made.
On one hand, this image was a necessary working tool for the physician-astrologer of the
fifteenth century since the melothesia was widely recognized as the main medical practice
of that time. Furthermore, it was not merely a marginal practice but the common way to
practice medicine in the context in which the picture was created. Therefore, it is not a
polemic or anti-religious image, but an instrument usually used in a daily practice of the
period analyzed.
Moreover, its appearance in this book seems to be dictated by an element which is overtly
present in all the work: time. Thus, the book can be considered to evince three ways of
marking time: the calendar year marks the different stages of worldly life, with its
mundane activities, holidays and seasons; the psalms and prayers mark the hours in which
private devotion should be carried out; and finally, the cosmic time, which, represented by
the zodiacal mandorla, states and systematizes the different planetary times that affect
the health (and life) of men. All these issues were of great importance to the life of people
of the period analyzed: the knowledge to understand the elapse of time in all its facets
reverberated in everything they did. The concept of time for the pre-rationalist man
seems to have been different and, it could be argued, more complex than ours. In any
case, the Duke of Berry, a nobleman, surely wanted to combine and collect in an exquisite
book all this valuable information. Thus, after finding the underlying denominator (time),
the inclusion of the image of the Anatomical Man finds coherence, and is finally consistent
with regards to the rest this famous work of the fifteenth century.
65

Ibid., 375.

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