Hydraulic Fracturing Increases Completion Efficiency

STIMPAC*
1 EA
* Mark of Schlumberger
Completion Skin is a Problem

Many references document presence of high skins with cased
hole gravel packs.
Shell (SPE 26564, 1993)

BP (SPE 26562, 1994
Pennzoil (SPE 30470)
ARCO (SPE 27899, 1994)
Petrobras (SPE 27360, 1994)
Skin present at time zero

Skin increases with time
2 EA
What Causes High Skin?

Pre-existing formation damage

LCM / Kill pills
Low conductivity gravel/proppant
Fines migration / plugged perforation tunnels
Depositions
Multi-phase flow
Incomplete perforation packing
Fluid Losses
Filter cake deposits on sand face
Deep bed filtration
3 EA
Gravel Placement in the Field

Gravel volume required to fill perf tunnels is small
(~0.01 - 0.02 ft3/ft)

During most gravel packs an order of magnitude more
gravel is usually placed outside casing (~0.25 ft3/ft or

more)
This implies at least one of the following:
Voids are present outside cement sheath

A fracture is created during prepacking stage
4 EA
Benefits of Hydraulic Fracturing

Higher injection rates and pressures coupled with high
proppant loadings significantly increase probability of

packing a large portion of total pay interval.
True reservoir stimulation achievable.
Undamaged well
Damaged well
5 EA
Gravel Placement Methods

HRWP - High Rate Water Pack
5 to 15 BPM - pumping completion fluid with low

concentration gravel. Typically (1 to 2 PPA)
Frac Pack
5 to 20 BPM - pumping gel with ramped concentration

gravel. Typically (.5 - 15 PPA)
6 EA
Optimization of the Treatment

Minimize Fluid Loss to Formation
After Perforating (Frac Past Damage)
Running Production (Mechanical Fluid Loss Control)
High Conductivity Flow Path
Adequate Prop Placement
Through Entire Interval
High Conductivity Proppant

Fluid Selection
Optimized Pump Schedule
Large Inflow Area
Reduced Sand Face Velocity and Fines Migration
7 EA
STIMPAC
Annular Pack
Fracture Pack
8 EA
Field Results: 152 Completions

Completion Skins for Frac-Packs (FP), High Rate Water Packs (HRWP), and Slurry
Packs (SP)
Percentage of Completions
60
50
40
30
FP
HRWP
SP
20
10
0
<0
0-5
5-10
10-20
Skin Factor
9 EA
20-30
30-50
50+
Field Results in 152 Completions
1 2 0
Frac Pack
HRWP
GP
1 00
8 0
Probability
Percentage of Completions
90
6 0
4 0
2 0
FP
HRWP
GP
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
Skin
10 EA
40
50
Skin <5
Skin <0
Reservoir Stimulation
1 .6
L f = 2 5 ft
1 .5
s in g le p h a s e flo w
Completion Efficiency
k f w = 8 0 0 0 m d *ft
1 .4
1 .3
1 .2
k f w = 4 0 0 0 m d *ft
1 .1
1
100
1000
R e s e r v o ir P e r m e a b ility (m d )
N o te : c o m p le tio n e ffic ie n c y is 1 fo r u n d a m a g e d , o p e n h o le c o m p le tio n .

11 EA
10000
Production Comparison
2000
F r a c -P a c k
HRW P
S lu r r y P a c k
1800
s FR A C = + 3
Oil production rate (bbl/d)
1600
1400
s HRW P = + 8
1200
1000
s SP = + 1 2
800
600
400
200
k = 2 5 0 m d , h = 5 0 ft, p = 2 5 0 p s i
0
0
12 EA
10
20
30
T im e (d a y s )
40
50
60
Cost Comparisons
(Gravel Pack Cost = 1)
Relative Cost
2.5
2
Gravel Pack
HRWP
Frac Pac
1.5
1
0.5
0
Pumping $
13 EA
AFE $
Frac vs GP Wells Drawdown Effects

Comparison of Near-Wellbore Pressure Distributions for
Fractured and Unfractured Wells
2650
Note: x is parallel to fracture
y is perpendicular to fracture
Pressure (psi)
2600
2550
2500
Lower Velocity
Near the Wellbore
2450
x pressure,radial
y pressure, radial
x pressure, fracture
y pressure, fracture
k=100 md, h=25 ft, rw=0.3 ft

xf=25 ft, kfw=5000 md*ft
q=500 bpd, t=30 days
2400
2350
0
20
40
60
80
Distance from center of wellbore (ft)

svp 12/95
14 EA
100
Drawdown Effects
rw
Low Skin Well

High Skin Well
P = 50 PSI
P = 800PSI
Pr = 3,600 psi
Pb = 2,500 psi
P = 1,000 psi
(Abandonment)
Radial Flow Path

15 EA
Drawdown Effects
rw
Low Skin Well

High Skin Well
Pr = 3,000 psi
Pb = 2,500 psi
P = 1,000 psi
(Abandonment)
Radial Flow Path
16 EA
Drawdown Effects
rw
Low Skin Well

High Skin Well
Pr = 2,800 psi
Pb = 2,500 psi
P = 1,000 psi
(Abandonment)
Radial Flow Path
17 EA
Drawdown Effects
rw
Low Skin Well

High Skin Well
Abandoned
Pr = 2,600 psi
Pb = 2,500 psi
P = 1,000 psi
(Abandonment)
Radial Flow Path
18 EA
Drawdown Effects
rw
Low Skin Well

High Skin Well
Abandoned
Pr = 2,600 psi
Pb = 2,500 psi
P = 1,000 psi
(Abandonment)
Radial Flow Path
19 EA
Lower Drawdown - Higher Recovery Factor

$$$
Cum Production
3 ,0 00
Low Skin
Well
2 ,5 00
2 ,0 00
1 ,5 00
1 ,0 00
High Skin
Well
5 00
Z e ro S k in
TIME
More reserves due to lower abandonment pressure

Sooner abandonment due to rapid depletion.
20 EA
Fines Migration
Fines are Mobilized by .
Velocity
Viscosity
Multi Phase Flow
Water Breakthrough
21 EA
Eliminating the Fines

Increase the sand-face area
Reduction of Drawdown
Reduction of Velocity
Increase PI
Reduce near wellbore pressure drop
22 EA
Keep the Drawdown Away from the Wellbore

C o m p a r is o n o f N e a r -W e llb o r e P r e s s u r e D is tr ib u tio n s fo r
F r a c tu r e d a n d U n fr a c tu r e d W e lls
2650
N o te : x is p a ra lle l to fra c ture
y is p e rp e nd ic ula r to fra c ture
Pressure (psi)
2600
2550
FRACTURED WELLS
Minimal Drawdown
in Near Wellbore
Area
2500
NON Fractured
Co mpletion
Drawdown
k = 1 0 0 m d , h= 2 5 ft, r w = 0 .3 ft
x f = 2 5 ft, k f w = 5 0 0 0 m d *ft
q = 5 0 0 b p d , t= 3 0 d a ys
2450
2400
x
y
x
y
p re s s ure ,ra d ia l
p re s s ure , ra d ia l
p re s s ure , fra c ture
p re s s ure , fra c ture
2350
0
20
40
60
80
D is ta n c e fr o m c e n te r o f w e llb o r e (ft)
s vp 1 2 /9 5
23 EA
100
What Does the Wellbore Look Like?

Gravel
Pack
24 EA
Hydraulic Fracture
W
Relative Sand-face Areas

Gravel
Pack
3 ft Half
Length Frac
20 ft Half
Length Frac
600 ft2
130 ft2
4,000 ft2
H = 50
Rw = 0.4
25 EA
Velocity at the Sandface is Reduced by 85%

HRWP
FRAC PACK
Xf = 3 ft
Sand-Face
Area
4,000 ft2
600 Ft2
26 EA
H = 50
ft
9 7/8 OH X 50 ft = 130
ft2
Xf = 20 ft
4,000Ft2
Fracture Flow
Fracture flow depends on
contrast between the

formation permeability and
the fracture permeability
Conductivity is a way to
describe the contrast
27 EA
Traditional vs High K Fractures

Low Perm Hydraulic Fracture
Avg.
Avg. Prop. Conc.
Conc. = 2 #/sq
#/sq.ft.
sq.ft.
Long Fracture & small width
yields sufficient perm Contrast
High Perm Hydraulic Fracture

Avg..
Avg.. Prop. Conc.
Conc. = 88-10 #/sq
#/sq.ft.
sq.ft.
Short Fracture & Big width
to create perm Contrast
28 EA
Production Estimation
rw
xf
29 EA
Fracture Conductivity
Fcd definition: Dimensionless conductivity
Fcd is used to measure fracture productivity potential

K .w
Fcd = f f
K.x
f
K =Fracture permeability
f
w =Average supported width of the fracture
f
K=Formation permeability
x = Productive length of the fracture
f
30 EA
Physical Representation of the Fcd

Multiplying by H (the producing Height)
one can recognize as the numerator, the product
section x fracture permeability
and as the denominator, the product
the formation x formation permeability
Kf
K
xf
H
wf
31 EA
of the transversal
of the surface in contact with
K .w .H
Fcd = f f
K. x . H
f
Fracture Conductivity
Objective : Get the best Fcd
The greater the Fcd value is, the more the production potential
increases
One can vary:
Kf : Fracture permeability :
choose the the more permeable support possible

eliminate the maximum of the residues
( conc gel, choice of the crosslinker, conc breaker)
wf : Fracture width :
increase gel viscosity

design tip screen out
high proppant concentration 8 ,10, 12, 14, 16 ppa
32 EA
Pseudo Radial Flow

Equivalent wellbore concept proposed by Prats is Simple to use
based on time to reach pseudo radial flow.

t = 3,788 Ct Xf2 tDxf, / K
t, time (hr)

, porosity (fraction)
viscosity (cp)
Ct,, total compressibility (psi-1 )
Xf, fracture half length (ft)
K, reservoir permeability (md)
tDxf, dimensionless time (approximately two).
33 EA
Equivalent Wellbore
rw' = rw
s
e
rw
xf
34 EA
Production Forecasting and Evaluation

1
rw '
xf
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
CfD
35 EA
100
Equivalent Wellbore
A Fcd of approximately 10 or greater indicates that rw= Xf/2, and production is

a function of fracture length only.
For Fcd values less than 10, production will be a function of fracture length
and conductivity, and rw will be a function of the dimensionless conductivity.
The effective propped length is noticeably restricted for Fcd values less than
1.6. At very low Fcd values (<0.2, that is, in high permeability reservoirs)
production will be independent of fracture length and a function of fracture
conductivity and formation permeability only. The effective wellbore radius
will vary linearly with the ratio of fracture conductivity to formation
permeability, and may be approximated by rw = 0.28 kfw / k or rw= 0.28 Fcd Xf.
36 EA
Equivalent Wellbore
As the reservoir permeability increases, the effective
propped fracture length required for stimulation will be

limited by the obtainable fracture conductivity. Ideally,
a dimensionless fracture conductivity value of 10 or
greater should be created to minimize pressure losses
along the fracture length. However, even with tipscreenout designs increasing width, this is rarely
practical for high-permeability cases.
37 EA
Fracture Design for Soft Rocks
38 EA
What it Takes to Frac 50 / 100 mD

Qmax =
4.917 E 6 Kh ( Pfg )( D) Pr SafetyFactor
ln re r + Skin
w
The for a fluid that does not build a filter cake, the rate required to create a
fracture can be calculated from Darcys law.
The main factors that control what this fracturing rate will be are:
Kh product
Injection Fluid Viscosity
Fracturing Pressure
Reservoir Pressure
Of these factors, only the Injected fluid viscosity can be controlled unless we
use a wall building fluid loss agent. A wall building fluid loss agent would
have the effect of reducing the Kh product.
39 EA
Frac Rate vs Viscosity

Rate vs Pressure w/ Different Viscosities
Water
2 cP
5 cP
10 cP
50 cP
100 cP 200 cP
BHP Frac
Pressure
10,000
BHP @ sand face (psi)
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1
5
Rate (BPM)
>60 BPM with water

40 EA
<1 BPM with 100cp fluid
10
15
50
Fluids for STIMPAC

Reality
Shear sensitive polymers
Whole fluid leakoff
Changing leakoff
High Friction
Breaker interference
Desired Traits
Good proppant transport
properties (Usually
obtained by high viscosity)
Controlled leakoff
Low friction
Non-damaging (Complete
and easy break)
41 EA
Fluids in Use
Crosslinked systems
Linear HEC polymer
Guar & HPG borate
60 - 100 ppt loading
20 - 50 ppt loading
Temperature Range <200*F
Temperature range >200*F
High leak-off in very high

permeability (>500 mD)
Better leak-off control in

very high permeability (>500
mD)
Breakers include
Oxidizers
Enzymes
42 EA
Breakers include
Oxidizers
Enzymes
Fluids in Use
Viscoelastic surfactant systems
Solids-free, micellular liquid

Shear thinning with high viscosity & low gel strength
Requires no breaker
Higher fluid loss at very high permeability (>500 mD)
43 EA
Proppants in Use
Sizing based on conductivity contrast
Increasing size range 20/40 vs 40/60
Increasing size range has had limited downside
potential
Ceramic
Sphericity
Strength
44 EA
Fracture Optimization
Fracture optimization depends on the goals to reach
Production for a cash flow

NPV : Net present Value
ROI : Return on investment
There is not an absolute criterion of optimization:
criteria are mutually exclusives
For a given formation, an optimization in NPV leads to a

different fracture than the one obtained in ROI.
45 EA
Candidate Selection: Systems Analysis Model

2800
a P wh = 150 psi
b P wh = 300 psi
c P wh = 400 psi
2100
c
b
Pwf (psig)
1400
1
2
3
4
700
0
0
2000
=
=
=
=
-2.000
0.000
5.000
15.000
4000
Production (B O PD )
46 EA
S kin
S kin
S kin
S kin
6000
8000
Candidate Selection
47 EA
Candidate Selection
48 EA
Candidate Selection
49 EA
Trends in Completions - Gulf Coast Operator -A1991
1992
31%
40%
5%
23%
Slurry Packs
55%
46%
Frac Packs
From 1994
1993
64%
Water Packs
7%
29%
50 EA
98%
2%
Technology Trends
More Effective Carrier Fluids
Shunt Tube Screen Technology
Perforate and Pack in one run
51 EA

Hydraulic Fracturing Increases Completion Efficiency

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STIMPAC*

Completion Skin is a Problem

hole gravel packs.

Shell (SPE 26564, 1993)

Skin present at time zero

What Causes High Skin?

Pre-existing formation damage

Gravel Placement in the Field

(~0.01 - 0.02 ft3/ft)

gravel is usually placed outside casing (~0.25 ft3/ft or

Voids are present outside cement sheath

Benefits of Hydraulic Fracturing

proppant loadings significantly increase probability of

Gravel Placement Methods

5 to 15 BPM - pumping completion fluid with low

5 to 20 BPM - pumping gel with ramped concentration

Optimization of the Treatment

Through Entire Interval

High Conductivity Proppant

Field Results: 152 Completions

Field Results in 152 Completions

N o te : c o m p le tio n e ffic ie n c y is 1 fo r u n d a m a g e d , o p e n h o le c o m p le tio n .

Oil production rate (bbl/d)

(Gravel Pack Cost = 1)

Frac vs GP Wells Drawdown Effects

k=100 md, h=25 ft, rw=0.3 ft

Distance from center of wellbore (ft)

Low Skin Well

Radial Flow Path

Low Skin Well

Low Skin Well

Low Skin Well

Low Skin Well

Lower Drawdown - Higher Recovery Factor

More reserves due to lower abandonment pressure

Eliminating the Fines

Keep the Drawdown Away from the Wellbore

What Does the Wellbore Look Like?

Relative Sand-face Areas

Velocity at the Sandface is Reduced by 85%

contrast between the

describe the contrast

Traditional vs High K Fractures

High Perm Hydraulic Fracture

Fcd is used to measure fracture productivity potential

Physical Representation of the Fcd

of the surface in contact with

choose the the more permeable support possible

increase gel viscosity

Pseudo Radial Flow

based on time to reach pseudo radial flow.

Production Forecasting and Evaluation

A Fcd of approximately 10 or greater indicates that rw= Xf/2, and production is

propped fracture length required for stimulation will be

Fracture Design for Soft Rocks

What it Takes to Frac 50 / 100 mD

4.917 E 6 Kh ( Pfg )( D) Pr SafetyFactor

Frac Rate vs Viscosity

BHP @ sand face (psi)

>60 BPM with water

<1 BPM with 100cp fluid

Fluids for STIMPAC

Linear HEC polymer