CURS 1

WOOD STRUCTURE:
Microstructural appearance of wood:
- main directions
- main elements

ANOMALIES AND DEFECTS OF WOOD

These may occur due to natural causes (tree life
time) but also because of processing, storage and
wood drying and are some of the most important
factors influencing the wood classification and
behavior.
From the anomalies and defects of wood point of
view the quality classification criteria must consider
the following:
- lumber structure (annual rings, knots, resin
pockets,
ingrown
bark,
cracks,
splits,cheks,heart eccentricity)
- geometrical distortion and shape defects(bow,
cup, crook, twist, conicity)
- processing defects
- fungi alterations
- insects attack

- wood volumic mass

1.Annular rings

The rings width represents a quality criteria. The

value taken into consideration is a mean value of
the annular rings width measured on a 75 mm
segment along a radius.

2. Knots
Knots are reminders of branches in the stem, and
are considered to be the most common defects of
wood.
The presence of knots in wood cross sections
considerable reduces their strength in tension,
bending and compression. On the other side,
transversal compression strength may be by the
presence of knots.
In order to establish a predictable strength and the
wood grade it is important to know the diameter of
each knot and also their sum along a given distance
function of the c.s.dimensions.
Knots maybe divided function of:
- connection with the wood piece:
tight knots, partially loose and loose knots.

1.

- degree of soundness
knots can be sound, partially sound or unsound
A sound knot is solid across the face,as hard as the
surrounding wood, and shows no indication of decay.
Unsound is a knot containing decay.

- shape of the knots: round, oval, double

- way of grouping: isolated, closter
knots,branched

- location of knots: face knots, edge knot , arris

knot

2.1.1.1
2.1.1.2
2.1.1.3
2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
2.1.2.3
2.1.2.4
2.1.3.2
2.1.3.3

Round knot
Oval knot
Splay (spike) knots
Face knot
Edge knot
Arris knot
Traversing splay knots
Group (cluster) knots
Branched knots

Knots dimension is measured by measuring the

distances between the tangents located parallel to
the grains

The influence of knots on the wood structural

element is expressed by a number of mathematical
expressions function of the diameter of the knot, type
and way of grouping and also type of structural
element.
3.Resin pockets
Are cavities within the annual rings filled with raisin
leading to the decrease of wood strength. The length
of the pocket is measured parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the element
4. Ingrown bark
Is a piece of the trunk bark embedded in the wood
mass, and leads to decrease of mechanical
properties.
5. Cracks

Cracks are discontinuities within the wood mass

mainly due to strong frost, wind load, shrinkage..
Cracks may be: checks, shakes or splits. Splits are
continuos on the element surface.

2.1.1
2.2.1.2
2.2.1.3
2.2.2.1
2.2.2.2
2.2.2.3

Heart shakes
Ring shakes
Checks
Face shakes and checks
Edge shakes and checks
End shakes and checks

6. twisted and sloped fibres

Sloped fibre elements result following the processing

of twisted fibres raw elements or because of oblique
cuts of the wood elements.

Measuring slope of grain

The slope of grain is expressed as a ratio of rise to
run. For example, if the grain rises 1 cm over a run of
10 cm, the slop of grain will be 1 in 10.
The best way to measure slope of grain is to find the
worst section in the piece, measure 300 mm along
the length, and find out what the rise is over that
distance.
The example above shows a rise of 20 mm to a run
of 300 mm.

DEZAVANTAJELE CONSTRUCTIILOR DIN

LEMN
Principalele dezavantaje ale construciilor
realizate din lemn sunt determinate de natura

sa organic i de condiiile de dezvoltare ale

arborilor. Experiena practic i vechimea
utilizrii materialului lemnos din cele mai
vechi timpuri ne ofer ns soluiile de
combatere a neajunsurilor, ncepnd din
faza de concepere (proiectare) a unei
construcii din lemn, i trecnd apoi prin
fazele de execuie, de exploatare i,
respectiv, de ntreinere a acestora.
Ca principale dezavantaje, pot fi enumerate:
Anizotropia anatomic a materialului
lemnos, care face ca rezistenele sale
mecanice s aib o valoare diferit n funcie
de unghiul determinat de direcia forei n
raport cu direcia fibrelor. Lemnul este un
material complex, alctuit din pri i
elemente distincte ca forma, natura,
dimensiuni i, mai important, cu proprieti
diferite. Totalitatea prilor componente ct i
natura, aezarea i proporia lor n masa
lemnoas, de asemenea construirea, natura
morfologic
i
proporia
elementelor
componente ale fiecrei pri constituie
structura lemnului. Din punct de vedere
structural, lemnul este un material fibros,

direcia principal a fibrelor fiind paralela cu

axul trunchiului, motiv care influeneaz
proprietile
mecanice
ale
lemnului,
transformndu-l ntr-un material anizotrop.
Neomogenitatea structurii lemnului
face ca rezistena materialului din apropierea
rdcinii s fie de cca. 15-20% mai mare
dect cea a materialului din imediata
apropiere a coroanei. Att anizotropia ct i
neomogenitatea lemnului se manifest cu o
influen negativ mai crescut cu ct
dimensiunile elementului din lemn sunt mai
mari. Neomogenitatea structural micoreaz
rezistenele mecanice ale lemnului, i-i
nrutesc comportarea la aciunile fizice i
mecanice.

 Proprietile de contragere i umflare a

lemnului constituie alte dou dezavantaje ce
trebuie luate n considerare. Lemnul verde
conine ntre 40 i 50% umiditate, din care
aproape jumtate este ap liber, restul
reprezentnd apa de higroscopicitate. Apa
legat chimic (apa de construcie) reprezint
doar 1%.
Umiditatea higroscopic satureaz pereii
celulelor lemnului, n urma condensrii
capilare a vaporilor de ap n cavitile
submicroscopice ale celulozei; ea este
reinut parial, de asemenea, datorit

adsorbiei de ctre suprafeele substanelor

lemnoase. Odat cu creterea umiditii
substanei lemnoase, se produce umflarea
lemnului, iar odat cu scderea umiditii va
avea loc fenomenul de contragere a
acestuia.
n aerul saturat cu vapori de ap la
temperatura de 200C, lemnul poate conine
o umiditate higroscopic (n funcie de
esen) de la 25 pn la 33% cnd este
perfect uscat. Aceast valoare a umiditii
lemnului se numete punct de saturaie al
fibrei (la t=200C). Odat cu creterea
temperaturii, cantitatea de umiditate, pe
care o absoarbe higroscopic lemnul, se
micoreaz. n figura 1.1 sunt reprezentate
curbele umiditii de echilibru a lemnului n
funcie de umiditatea relativ a aerului
nconjurtor la diferite temperaturi.
Umezirea lemnului peste punctul de
saturaie al fibrelor se produce prin umplerea
cu ap a microcapilarelor, adic a cavitilor
celulelor; acest proces este posibil doar prin
contactul direct al lemnului cu apa. Peste
limita impus de punctul de saturaie al

fibrelor, proprietile mecanice, contragerea

i umflarea lemnului nu mai sunt influenate.
Datorit anizotropiei lemnului,
contragerea i umflarea nu sunt uniforme, ci
variaz n funcie de direciile caracteristice
(axial, radial i tangenial), ntre
urmtoarele limite: contragerea axial l
0,2 0,3%, radial r=3,15,5% i
tangenial t = 7,712,4%.
Putrezirea lemnului este un proces
biologic, care decurge ncet (n timp de luni,
ani, decenii) pentru t cuprins ntre 00C i
400C i numai ntr-un mediu umed.
Contaminarea construciilor de lemn cu sporii
ciupercilor ce distrug lemnul este posibil
peste tot; ciuperca ajuns la maturitate
rspndete zeci de miliarde de spori.
Distrugerea direct este produs de hifele
ciupercilor, greu vizibile cu ochiul liber (cu
grosimea de 5-6 mm), care ptrund n
cuprinsul grosimii lemnului. Dup structura
hifelor (o serie de fire foarte subiri dezvoltate
din spori), ciupercile se impart n dou
categorii: ciuperci inferioare (provoac numai

defecte de culoare, fr s afecteze

proprietile mecanice ale lemnului) i,
respectiv, superioare.
Filopatologii disting peste 1000 de
varieti de ciuperci care distrug lemnul. La
cldiri i construcii se ntlnesc cel mai des:
ciuperca de cas (Merulius), ciuperca alba
(Poria), ciuperca de cas cu pojghi
(Coniophora), ciuperca de min (Paxillus),
ciuperca de traverse (Lentinus), ciuperca de
depozite de cherestea (Lenzites). Toate
ciupercile enumerate, care distrug lemnul de
construcii, provoac o putrezire caracterizat
prin apariia unor crpturi longitudinale i
transversale pe suprafaa atacat. n
concluzie, ciupercile superioare provoac
lemnului defecte mult mai importante, fapt
care duce i la scderea greutii specifice,
iar o dat cu aceasta i la reducerea drastic
a proprietilor mecanice ale materialului
lemnos.

Figura 1.1
Varietatea limitat a sortimentelor de
material lemnos pentru construcii, att din
punct de vedere al formei, al dimensiunilor
seciunilor transversale ct i ca lungime a
pieselor de lemn, ngreuneaz proiectarea i
executarea construciilor de lemn.
Natura combustibil prin nsi
compozitia lemnului natural (celuloza
componenta principala a lemnului, care
determin naltele caliti mecanice ale
acestuia i lignina mai puin stabil din
punct de vedere chimic dect celuloza) face

ca n cazul unui incendiu, elementele de

lemn s se carbonizeze la suprafaa lor; n
decursul timpului, grosimea stratului de lemn
carbonizat creste cu viteza medie de 0,6-1,00
mm/min.
n urma carbonizrii lemnului, seciunea
util a elementelor se micoreaz; nafara
acestui neajuns, din cauza nclzirii se
micoreaz rezistena prilor de lemn, care
au rmas nearse. n concluzie, n timpul unui
incendiu elementele de rezisten ale
construciilor de lemn i pierd treptat
capacitatea lor portant.
Glossary
Annual ring
wood layer created each growth season (in the temperate zone). It is composed of
the earlywood and the latewood, which are more or less distinct, depending on
species. Annual rings are distinct in softwoods and ring-porous hardwoods. In
diffuse-porous hardwoods the borders are less visible. The appearance of the
annual rings on the transverse surface is as circles, on the radial surface as
parallel lines and on the tangential surface usually as parabolas. Some timbers
feature undulated annual rings (on the transverse surface).
Burr
or also called burl. It is a kind of figure. It is a wartlike, deformed growth that
occurs usually on the root of trunk. The wavy or twisted fibres result in a
characteristic figure.

Diffuse-porous hardwoods
pores of more or less the same diameter (as seen on the transverse surface) are
spread evenly over the whole annual ring. No matter if visible to the naked eye
or not.
Earlywood
a part of the annual ring that is created at the beginning of the growth season. In
the case of the softwoods it is the lighter part of the annual ring (as seen on the
transverse surface). In the case of the ring-porous hardwoods it is the zone of
visible pores arranged along the annual ring border. In the case of the diffuseporous hardwoods it is not possible to distinguish the earlywood from the
latewood. The transition between the earlywood and the latewood is the
important feature for softwoods identification.
False heartwood
is a kind of wood defect. It is affecting timbers that are characterized by the
absence of the heartwood. It is a discoloration of the central part of a tree,
usually irregular in shape (as seen on the cross-section). It develops because of
fungal attack, mechanical injury or other unfavourable factors.
Figure
special or unusual markings that may be found on the surface of wood (typically
on side-grain surfaces). It comprises a combination of colour, grain, lustre and
can be brought about by peculiarities of normal growth through to defects or
abnormalities. Different kinds of figure can appear depending on the way the
wood is cut. Burr, birds eye or curly are examples of some demanded ant
decorative figures.
Grain
the arrangement of the fibres that forms the timber or the pattern produced by
fibres on the surface of the timber. The term relates to characteristic pattern of
the timber, compared to the term figure that refers to irregularities.

Hardness
additional feature in the terms of timber identification. It does not mean exact
measurement of the hardness with special device, but estimation and
categorisation into three basic groups (soft medium hard hard timbers).
Hardwoods
timber of broadleaved species (Angiospermae), characterised by features that
make it possible to distinguish them from softwoods. It is especially more
complex structure, often visible rays or pores. More complex structure usually
results in more interesting figure. It has nothing to do with the hardness of the
timbers from this group. It comprises ring-porous hardwoods, with quite distinct
annual rings borders, and diffuse-porous hardwoods, with less visible annual
rings borders.
Heartwood
is a central darker part of a stem, compared to the lighter sapwood at the
peripheral part. Timbers can differ in colour and width of the heartwood. The
transition from the heartwood into the sapwood can be abrupt or gradual.
Latewood
a part of the annual ring that is created in the second half of the growth season.
In the case of the softwoods it is the darker part of the annual ring (as seen on the
transverse surface). In the case of the ring-porous hardwoods it is the zone of
invisible pores. In the case of the diffuse-porous hardwoods it is not possible to
distinguish the latewood from the earlywood. The transition between the
earlywood and the latewood could be helpful feature for softwoods
identification.
Pith
a soft and light tissue that is situated in the centre of a tree. The diameter of the
pith is several millimetres, depending on the species. It is usually round (as seen
on the cross-section), but some exceptions in the terms of shape are possible.

Pith flecks
distinct dark lines or dots, visible on the all surfaces. They are limited just to one
annual ring and the appearance is not much influenced by the surface, so they
should be never mistaken with rays.
Pores
a term used for vessels. They are present only in the hardwoods. Visibility of
pores depends on species. If visible, the appearance on the transverse surface is
as small openings and as grooves on side-grain surfaces.
Radial surface
is produced by sectioning a stem through its pith. It is cut at right angle to the
annual rings. The annual rings appear as longitudinal strips.
Rays
bands running from the pith to the bark, perpendicularly to the annual rings.
That is the reason they look different depending on the surface. Visibility of rays
depends on species. They are visible on the all surfaces in some timbers, only on
the radial surface and in some species they are not visible.
Resin canals
present only in some softwoods. There are more or less visible depending on
species. The resin canals are visible on the side-grain surfaces as short lines or as
light dots on the transverse surface. Occurrence of the resin pockets or the
resinosis can be regarded as the evidence of the resin canals presence.
Resin pocket
small holes filled with resin. The occurrence of the resin pocket is characteristic
for softwoods with the resin canals presence.
Resinosis
local increase in resin content in timber due to the injury. It results in colour
changes of the timber. It is affecting softwoods with the presence of the resin
canals.

Ring-porous hardwoods
the annual ring features the presence of pores of two different diameters. The
large ones are visible to the naked eye and they are arranged along the annual
ring border in the earlywood. The pores of the small diameter are located in the
latewood and they are not visible to the naked eye. In some timbers the small
pores form characteristic bands that are well visible.
Sap stain
a bluish discoloration of the sapwood. It is caused by the growth of fungi in the
interior and on the surface of wood. It is quite frequent in the case of pine, but it
can also affect the sapwood of other timbers (e.g. spruce).
Sapwood
is a peripheral lighter part of a stem, compared to the darker heartwood at the
central part. Besides colour, the width of the sapwood and its transition into the
heartwood are the features of interest.
Semi-ring-porous woods
a transitional group between the ring-porous and the diffuse porous hardwoods.
They exhibit a gradual transition of pore size from the earlywood to the latewood
(walnut) or greater concentration of pores into the earlywood (cherry).
Softwoods
timber of coniferous species (Gymnospermae), characterised by features that
make it possible to distinguish them from hardwoods. It is especially marked
difference between the light earlywood and the dark latewood. That is the reason
the annual rings borders are quite distinct. Rays are not visible to the naked eye.
Pores are not present. In some species the resin canals are present.
Surfaces
because of the arrangement of the annual rings in a tree, it is necessary to
consider the wood structure from three-dimensional view. Three basic sections
(planes) with different orientation to the stem axis (pith) are possible to cut
through the stem, providing three basic surfaces transverse, radial and
tangential surface.

Swirl
growing irregularity, characteristic for some timbers. Fibres are growing
unevenly, not following the direction of the stem axis,. The cross-section of the
stem differs from circular shape.
Tangential surface
is produced by sectioning a stem parallel to the stem axis (pith), but not passing
through it. It is cut at a tangent to the annual rings. The annual rings appear
usually as curves.
Transverse surface
is produced by sectioning a stem perpendicularly to the stem axis (pith). The
annual rings appear usually as cirles.
Vessels
a kind of components forming timber that are present only in the hardwoods. The
equivalent term that is used more frequently for vessels is pores.
Weight
additional feature in the terms of timber identification. It does not mean exact
measurement of the weight with special device, but estimation and
categorisation into three basic groups (light medium heavy heavy timbers).