Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
TEACHING VOCABULARY
For many people, the question What is vocabulary? has a simple answer: Words. But
which words? Are am, is, was, had and of vocabulary items, or are they something else?
On the other hand, we may wish to say that such words as am, is, was, has, etc. are part
of our vocabulary in a general sense. What is a word? Is put up with (tolerate) one word or
three? It has three parts, certainly, but only one meaning. Beat, on the other hand, has several
meanings; is it one word or more?
One way of avoiding this dilemma is to refer to items of vocabulary with a single meaning
as lexical items, whether they consist of one word or more. The term word can then be
reserved for a group of letters preceded and followed by a space.
Whatever linguistic distinctions we choose to make, however, it is clear that our pupils
need to know both lexical items and grammar words in order to communicate in English.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
explain what vocabulary is and what role it plays in the system of a language and
its culture
set up, apply and monitor a variety of interactive classroom tasks for developing
vocabulary
integrate vocabulary activities with the development of one or more of the four
skills
have reconsidered and improved your own repertoire of skills in the area of
language teaching
Knowing a Word
To know a word is to know much more than just its stress, its spelling and its most
commonly accepted meaning. It is to know its grammar: is it a verb? an adjective? a noun? Is it
followed by a gerund, an infinitive or a clause? What is its range of meaning (e.g. head of a
school, head of a bed, etc.)? its diversity of meaning (e.g. light weight; light literature, light food;
light: illuminate; lamp, etc.)? its collocations (e.g. keen on; interested in; to gamble on; raw
materials; heavy traffic), and its connotations (e.g. dustman vs. refuse collector; chairman vs.
chairperson; trendy vs. fashionable)?
Harmer (1991: 158) suggests that, in order to know a vocabulary item, we must be aware
of its:
meaning: many words have more than one meaning. For the noun face, for
instance, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English lists fourteen meanings.
use: a word may carry information about register or style. Both Good morning and
Hi are greetings, but they indicate different levels of formality. A words meaning can also be
extended in metaphor and idiom*.
formation: words change shape according to the affixes attached to them, and also
according to their function, e.g.: lie, liar, lying, lied.
grammar: nouns may be countable, uncountable; adjectives and adverbs may have
degrees of comparison, etc.
Anca Cehan
In addition to all this, as Penny Ur suggests (1996: 61, ff) we need to know what a lexical
item sounds like and what it looks like: that is its pronunciation and spelling. We also need to be
aware of its denotation*, connotation* and collocations*.
Denotation and connotation both reflect the meaning of an item. However, while
denotation refers to the usual dictionary definition, connotation is concerned with socio-cultural
factors, with the feelings associated with the item. For example, thin and slim have roughly
the same denotative meaning: they are the opposite of fat. But when used to describe people,
slim has favourable connotations while thin is unflattering. Learners need to appreciate this
kind of differences.
To conclude, to know a word is to be able to use it accurately in all its possible usages.
Many of us advise their pupils to write new words in special vocabulary notebooks.
However, these are of little practical use unless some indication is given of how the new lexical
item is used. Words do not have meaning in isolation. If we see the single word beat, for
instance, we have no way of knowing whether it is a noun meaning rhythm, an area for which
a policeman is responsible, or a verb meaning defeat. Similarly, round may refer to the shape
of something, but it is also another name for a bullet, a type of song and a number of drinks.
Words take their meaning from the context in which they occur. It therefore makes sense to
teach new vocabulary as part of a sentence or utterance that makes the meaning clear.
Coming to know a word is to absorb all the elements of its usage over time. In other
words, during the first few encounters with a word the pupils will acquire a rough idea of what it
means and the way it is used. This rough idea will become more accurate with each new
encounter of the word in context.
Certain words tend to go together. We make coffee, we make the beds, but we do
the dishes and the shopping We speak of sweet and sour taste, but the opposite of sweet
wine is dry wine. We say that wine collocates with dry, that coffee collocates with make
and that the shopping collocates with do. Pupils therefore need to learn not only new items of
vocabulary but also the words and phrases that collocate with these items. The collocations of a
word are the combinations that it regularly makes with other words.
There is a fundamental difference between the native speakers process and the foreign
language learners process of learning vocabulary. This is to do with the semantic networks that
each of them carries in his/her mind. To the native speaker, a new word is simply a new way of
referring to something in an already very familiar cultural setting. To our pupil, a new word in
English is a way of referring to something in an unfamiliar cultural setting. So the pupil tends to
incorporate the meaning of the new word into his/her own familiar cultural and semantic system.
The meanings, both semantic and cultural, of the forms of a new language are most
readily and precisely learned in the milieu where the language is spoken. Failing this, we need
to surround the learner in the classroom with as much authentic speech, writing, aspects of the
cultural environment, and contacts with native speakers as possible. Why? Because a language
can only be truly and thoroughly absorbed in conjunction with its culture.
To what extent can you aim at accuracy in the use of vocabulary
in the classroom?
Anca Cehan
hand, a word that pupils may have in their passive store may become active of the situation or
context provokes its use (Harmer, 1991: 159).
Consequently, you need to spend more time on active vocabulary, with examples and
questions, but to present passive vocabulary briefly and allow pupils to guess the meaning from
context where possible. Not all pupils will start guessing automatically, so you need to invest a
little time in training this skill.
Vocabulary is only learnt if it is understood. Nothing can be learnt unless it can be
incorporated into an existing mental picture of the way things are, a sort of framework of
perceptions and associations. Pupils therefore need careful guidance about the meaning of
lexical items, and about their grammatical use, before they can place them in their internal
networks of meaning.
A problem, however, may be one of interference from concepts in Romanian and English
that seem to have associations with the target item. This is unavoidable, and has to be
countered with clear examples of how the English word is used (or not used) in that context and
in comparison with other words.
The vocabulary that pupils encounter will only be assimilated if it has relevance to the
messages they want to understand or to the messages they want to convey. Only those lexical
items are learnt that are perceived as having personal significance for the pupil. Personal
significance can take many forms, e.g. I need it to understand this text, I need it to
understand a letter from my English pen-friend, I need it to understand the instructions in my
grammar book, etc.
In your own words, try to formulate the classroom implications of
these views of vocabulary. Think of what is taught versus what is
learnt, of the pupils motivation for learning vocabulary, and of the
strategies you may want to use in teaching vocabulary.
Classroom Vocabulary
It is not always easy to decide which lexical items should be part of the active
vocabulary. However, it is fairly clear that classroom vocabulary is a high priority. By this we do
not simply mean the names of classroom furniture, although it is obviously important for the
pupils to know and use desk, board, wall, picture, book, chalk as well as write, read,
draw. Classroom vocabulary includes the key words we use in instructions to the learners.
Here are some of the more common ones:
true/false
get into pairs/groups
tick/cross
grid/chart/map/form
regular/irregular
fill in/cross out/leave out/underline
gaps/blanks
top/middle/bottom
offer/accept/refuse/invite
instructions/description/suggestion/opinion
feel that a number between five and eight would be more reasonable. A great deal depends on
the aims of the lesson, the pupils level of ability, motivation, aptitude and so on. Nor can we
expect that the pupils will remember all the vocabulary they are taught. In fact, they will not
remember very much of it at all unless the items are recycled* in later lessons.
Pedagogic Considerations
Your decisions about what to teach will be affected by considerations referring to the
pupils, the resources and the linguistic components, but also by pedagogic ones, that is by the
factors that affect how you teach, and which choice you will make. These considerations are:
teachability/learnability
You will teach according to the level of your pupils, and to how easy is an item to put
over. Even at low levels, you can teach:
i) international words (e.g. taxi, television, hotel, cinema, weekend)
ii) cognates, that is words which are similar in both form and meaning in the two
languages (e.g. the names of many school subjects like chemistry, geography, biology,
mathematics, etc., or verbs such as obtain, admire, insult, form, etc.). These are obviously very
easy to learn.
Can you think of any other words of Romanian which are similar
to English words in both form and meaning (cognates), and of any
others which are false friends (similar in form, but not in meaning)?
extendability
Some words allow the use of prefixes and suffixes; others enter various combinations or
include the meaning of other words (their hyponyms):
i) word families: photo graph, -graphy, -graphic, -grapher.
ii) combinable items: hand bag, home work, guitar string
iii) cover words: (at early levels): seat for chair / stool/ sofa / bench, nice with people /
weather / events, house for house / flat / home / building, etc.
Writers distinguish between the acquisition and the learning of vocabulary. Vocabulary
can be acquired or picked up, through exposure to authentic samples of the target language. It
may also be consciously learned, and this process may depend to a great extent on your
presentation and learner techniques. Memory is aided if the pupil is encouraged to make as
many cues or memory triggers as possible when committing the vocabulary item to memory.
These cues can take the form of:
a visual reminder such as a picture or diagram (the use of colour can be very
effective)
the sound and rhythm of the word (this is why repetition practice is helpful)
a. comptimire
b. gol, vid; loc liber; rgaz
c. a relua, a rencepe
d. spectacol
e. ochelari
f. vacan
g. marf, produs
h. cazare, gzduire
i. hrnicie
j. comoditate
k. a ajuta
l. discuie, controvers
m. dobnd
n. ser
they are taught and reviewed for brief periods in several different parts of the
lesson;
translation: often the simplest way to present a new item is to translate it.
Which techniques you choose will depend upon circumstances and type of item being
introduced. Concrete items are often best introduced through pictures or translation. Asking the
pupils to suggest synonyms and antonyms is a way of extending vocabulary by considering
various shades of meaning and of expanding the range of the pupils command of English.
Anca Cehan
The view that vocabulary is in some way systematic has been partly responsible for the
idea of teaching vocabulary in lexical sets where this is possible and appropriate. Hence, you
may use sets such as:
types of transport
English money
rooms in a house
professions
services
weather, etc.
or sets such as:
degrees of fear (e.g. anxious / petrified)
ways of walking (e.g. stagger, tiptoe)
degrees of raining (e.g. drizzling / bucketing down)
opposites in food description (e.g. disgusting vs. delicious; savoury vs. sweet), etc.
personal characteristics concerning people (e.g. sociable)
There are, however, areas of vocabulary where it might not be appropriate to teach in
sets:
1.
where a word has multiple meaning, you would want not to teach all the
meanings of that word at the same time.
2.
collocations are by nature one-offs.
3.
connotation: for instance, youths is used to mean something different from young
people; and slim is used to mean something different from skinny. The connotational meaning of
words can be taught in contrasting pairs, but other than this they are not systematically
teachable.
4.
idioms: these are more likely to occur in informal language than in formal
language. Idiomatic language includes such commonly used phrases as as well (e.g. He took
out an insurance policy as well) and such uncommonly used phrases as between the devil and
the deep blue sea. Clearly, we cannot teach idiomatic language systematically; what we must
do, however, is systematically select what aspects of it are worth teaching to our pupils.
To summarise, the knowledge that lexis does (to a certain extent) have a system should
help you to make decisions about how to select and organise vocabulary for teaching purposes.
The basic principle of lexical meaning is that: the meaning of a word is in its use and in
its relationship with other words, so, when teaching vocabulary, contexts are better than
definitions and network diagrams of lexical relationships are useful too.
enable your pupils to become independent learners of vocabulary outside the classroom. There
are a number of ways of fostering learner independence in the area of vocabulary:
Brainstorming*
A useful technique is getting pupils into the habit of brainstorming around a topic area
that is being focussed on. This helps them to reactivate known vocabulary and also warm them
for a particular topic. In class, for example, ask your pupils in groups to note down every item of
vocabulary that relates to, say, bedroom. This can work particularly well at later levels and can
be made competitive.
The visual element in brainstorming can reinforce learning. The pupils may be given a
key word and asked to put it in a box in the middle of a piece of paper. They then think of all the
associated words they can. Each of these branches off on a line drawn out from the key word
and is written in its own circle. Each word may itself become a minor key word with branches
going off it.
If you give them the word bedroom, for example, ask them to think first of the large
items in a bedroom, then of the small ones, and finally of the things that surround them.
If you were asked to draw the network of associated words for
bedroom, what words would you contribute, and how would you
organize them? Draw your meaning network for the word bedroom.
The point of the exercise is that the pupils are creating their own word associations, and
the information collected is visually striking and thus they likely to be remembered more easily.
Out of class, they may mentally run through or note down any words they can think of
related to, for example, the topic of a film they are about to watch on TV, or of an article they are
going to read for homework. It can be done in preparation for a task (e.g. writing about a
particular topic; explaining areas of interest or hobbies, etc.)
Dictionary work
Pupils must be trained in this and there are a number of exercises in many textbooks.
Once the pupils have acquired this skill, dictionaries can lend themselves to a number of useful
classroom activities:
Can you remember any classroom activity that involves the use
of the dictionary?
A lot has been said about the use of dictionaries. While all EFL teachers will agree that a
dictionary, properly used, is a valuable tool for the language learner, it is also recognised that
there are potential problems. Sensible use of a good dictionary can lead to learner autonomy;
that is, the learner will be able to continue learning outside the classroom. Over-reliance on the
dictionary, on the other hand, can slow down the learning process. The meanings of many
words can be guessed form the context in which they occur, and if pupils automatically reach for
Anca Cehan
the dictionary every time they come across a new word, they are denying themselves genuine
learning opportunities.
Dictionary work is helped if pupils are familiar with the names of the parts of speech and
their dictionary abbreviations, as this allows them to become immediately familiar with the new
words function in an utterance.
The dictionaries themselves vary in their value to the learner. At one end of the scale are
the small bilingual dictionaries which provide one-word Romanian equivalents. As the meaning
of a word tends to change according to the context in which it is used, the chances of getting
the wrong meaning with this type of dictionary are fairly high. At the other end of the scale, we
find dictionaries where the definition of the word is written in language too complex for the pupil
to understand. It is probably better to choose a dictionary specially produced for pupils, which
recognises this problem and tries to simplify its definitions. In this type of dictionary, definitions
are not reduced to note form: they usually consist of a full sentence showing how a lexical item
is used in a particular situation or for a particular purpose.
By facilitating the pupils use of dictionaries and other skills concerning vocabulary, you
are helping them become more independent and more in control of their own learning outside
the classroom.
Although a symbol chart looks rather frightening at first glance, it is really quite
easy to learn the phonemes of English. There are only 44 of them, and half of these are the
normal English letters, with others very close.
10
Use of games
Puzzles always entertain, and word puzzles develop vocabulary at the same time. Tell
your pupils you are going to get from sick to well by changing one letter at a time so that
each new formation is an acceptable word. Demonstrate as follows: sick silk sill sell
well. Then ask the pupils in pairs to get from cold to warm in the same way (cold
cord word worm warm).
Ask your pupils to find hidden words in a text. For example, ask them to find six capital
cities in the following text. The answers are highlighted here for easy reference, but would not
be in the pupils text, of course.
I needed to call on Donald last week and found the trip a risky one. I went on my horse
and had a mad ride along the street charging at hens and cocks, boys and girls. Go slowly, I
shouted. Was I brave? A hero? Me? Never.
Young learners also enjoy taking words to pieces and making new words out of the
letters. This is an activity which is simple to prepare and mark, can be made into a competition,
and provides an opportunity for them to experiment and be creative with language in group
interaction. The word tempo, for example, yields met, pot, toe, mop, mope mote,
me, pet, top and poem.
These are just a few ideas for developing vocabulary. Many others can be found in
methodology books and textbooks. What you need to do is to develop a clear programme for
the systematic development of your pupils vocabulary, as vocabulary acquisition is much too
important to be left to chance.
Bear in mind, however, that vocabulary should be taught:
regularly
in balance with all the other aims of your syllabus
whenever the pupils express a desire to know.
It is your job to establish priorities and make choices.
11
Those pupils who are able to follow the general ideas in a text (based on their sufficient
command of vocabulary, grammar and reading/listening skills), and who bring relevant
background knowledge to the text, can use a specific strategy to ensure that they are making
good use of the available context clues. The strategy consists of five steps.
Can you arrange the steps of this strategy from the first to the
last? Use numbers from 1 5 to arrange the steps in an order that
makes sense to you:
guessing the meaning of the unknown word
checking that the guess is correct
looking at the relationship between the clause containing the
unknown word and surrounding clauses
and sentences
finding the part of speech of the unknown word
looking at the immediate context of the unknown word and
simplifying this context if necessary
The aim of such a guessing strategy is to make pupils aware of the range of information
available from context so that after practice they have no need to keep to any rigid guessing
procedure.
Summary
This unit explores aspects of the lexicon and vocabulary teaching within the framework of
the communicative approach to language pedagogy. It does not claim to say all there is to say
about vocabulary or vocabulary teaching. In spite of the long history that vocabulary teaching
has, applied linguists and language teachers are paying now renewed attention to it after
decades of relative neglect. There is still much work to be done and many perspectives to be
considered and tried in the classroom. In this unit, we looked at the difference between active
and passive vocabulary and at the pedagogic considerations that you need to take into account
when dealing with vocabulary. We described many techniques for the teaching of vocabulary,
discussing their advantages and disadvantages, including both new and old activities.
In more traditional textbooks, new vocabulary appears as columns of words to be
learned, with the Romanian translation provided. Often there is no general pattern to the words:
it is simply a matter of rote learning. This does not mean that rote learning is to be condemned.
For many pupils it is a valuable learning tool. We do however need to be aware of its limitations
and introduce a variety of techniques in our teaching.
Key Concepts
Anca Cehan
12
Further Reading
1. Carter, R. and McCarthy M., 1988, Vocabulary and Language
Teaching, Longman, pp. 39-60, 62-83, 97-111, 181-201
2. Ur, P., 1996, A Course in Language Teaching, CUP, pp. 60-69
Anca Cehan
13