Council for Research in Music Education

Symbols Used in Music Analysis

Author(s): George Thaddeus Jones
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 9 (Spring, 1967), pp. 2328
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music Education
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40317152
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SYMBOLS USED IN MUSIC ANALYSIS

george thaddeus jones

In the second issue of the Bulletin,

published in the winter of
a study then in progress
on
an
interim
author
this
1964,
report
gave
Branch
of the U.S. Office of
Research
the
Cooperative
sponsored by
In the intervening two years the study has been completed,
Education.
made throughthe final report has been printed and limited distribution
for a copy of the final
Since numerous requests
out the United States.
from throughout the United States and from
report have been received
it may be useful to the scholarly
countries
at least seven foreign
of
this study and to summarize the
community to make a final report
of the chronology of the entire
A brief recapitulation
conclusions.
project will be made for the benefit of new readers.
Research
In June 1963, a grant was received from the Cooperative
and
to
Welfare
Education
of
the
study
symbols
Health,
Department
Program
and
to
some
make
recommendations
in
music
used
analysis
being
currently
A questionnaire
was sent
of these symbols.
toward the standardization
of
to 262 schools which were then members of the National Association
received a list of 43 representaSchools of Music and from the replies
In addition,
tive textbooks on music theory was assembled for study.
of popular sheet music contributed
12 commercial publishers
samplings
in that field so the chord symbols could be studied and compared with
those used in theory textbooks.
The research procedure which was followed in the study was explained
and will not
article
in the Bulletin
in the earlier
somewhat in detail
not
the
was
be repeated here.
study
complete when the
However, since
to
useful
was written, it would seem
first article
review, in a very
the
of the study and
ensuing recommendations.
general way, the results
of the project and the documentation and reasons for each
The details
can be found only in the full report.
conclusion

-24The two most basic conclusions

which seem evident from the study
are (1) that the differences
in symbolization
are not as great as they
first appeared to be and, therefore,
(2) it is entirely within the realm
of possibility
that analytic
if some
symbols could be standardized
authoritative
in seekagency could be persuaded to take the initiative
To deal more in detail
ing a real consensus within the music profession.
with the first conclusion
it is necessary
to separately
each of
discuss
the three basic areas of symbolization:
Chord
1. Figured Bass, 2.
Nonharmonic Tones.
Symbol, 3.
1.

In this area there is better agreement among

Figured Bass.
the various authors of theory textbooks than in the other two.
this is because
Possibly,
figured bass is the oldest system of
musical shorthand and because it benefits from certain
Bach flVersuch.fl The
works such as the C.P.E.
authoritative
are these:
main points to be reconciled
of the figures

or below the bass

a.

Placement

b.

The use of abbreviations

alone.
the accidental

c.

in relation
Placement of the accidental
or
before
after.
numeral; i.e.,

d.

Nonharmonic tones

(above

such as the slanting

in the bass

line

line).

stroke

and

to the Arabic

itself.

Recommendations :

2.

be placed

below the bass

rather

a.

The figures should

than above it.

b.

The slanting stroke to indicate

accidental
alone, which refers
bass note, are well established
be used.

c.

The accidental

d.

A nonharmonic tone in the bass line must be shown by the

actual
figures of the tones sounding above it (preferred),
of the previous
the continuation
or by a dash indicating
figure.

should

It is
Chord Symbol.
occur.
authors
among
a.

precede

line,

a raised figure and the

to the third above the given
and should
abbreviations
the figure.

in this area that the greatest discrepancies

The principal
points to be considered are:

Should all triads be symbolized by large

or should the quality
VII),
(I, II, III,
shown (I, ii, III+,
vii)?

Roman numerals
of the triad be

-25b.

How should

c.

Should the chord symbol indicate

of the chord?

d.

How should

seventh

altered

chords

tones

be indicated?
the actual

and modulation

inversion

be treated?

Recommendations for this area have taken into consideration

shown by the greatest number of
not only the preferences
to offer the clearest,
most
what
seems
authors but also
succinct and unambiguous symbol.
of quality,
VII).
III,

indicated

a.

All triads,
regardless
Roman numerals (I, II,

b.

chords indicated
Seventh (and ninth, etc.)
by placing
the Arabic numeral at the upper right of the Roman
numeral (I7 , V^) .

c.

Most authors agree that the chord symbol should show the
While there have been several
of the chord.
exact inversion
different methods invented to show this, we already have
the well understood numerals from figured bass.
Therefore,
the accidentals
the recommendation is to combine, exactly,
and Arabic numerals from figured bass with the Roman
This allows the chord symbol to show the chord
numeral.
function in its correct inversion with any alterations
are placed to
The numerals and accidentals
which occur.
numeral
Roman
the upper right, or to the right, of the

by large

(V7, V|> V bfe},

d.

tones
To show altered
need to be clarified.

in the chord symbol, certain

situations

the accidental
is altered,
If the root of a root position
is placed before the Roman numeral (bll> #IV, rVI^5).
below,
Other altered
tones, with the exception discussed
However,
should be shown by the figured bass numerals.
no abbreviations
of clarify,
(such as
in the interest
be used
should
the
or
stroke)
accidental
slanting
alone,
nor
not
chord
the
with
connection
in
symbol:
IX|>
HJg
^J*
The exception occurs when the bass tone of an inverted chord
to
Since figured bass only shows alterations
altered.
is
be
not
would
the upper parts, this alteration
normally
This alteration
included.
may be shown by the numeral one
A#
(1) preceded by the proper accidental
r^j

-26used in the music is

ln all cases the real accidental
For example:
used in the chord symbol.
V*p in the key
of C minor, but Vl/rjin che key of D minor.
are begun by showing the key to which the
All analyses
indicate major keys
enord symbols relate.
Large letters
indicate minor keys (c , bb, f#) .
(C, Bb, F#) ; small letters
This covers all cases except those occurring in a modulaA common chord modulation shows a dual interpretation
cin.
of the common chord; in a direct modulation, where a new
in a new key, and in a chromatic
phrase begins directly
modulation the common chord will normally not receive a
double interpretation.
Commonchord:

G:

IV

V^
D:

Chromatic

or direct:

G:

I6
IV6
IV

l\
D:

V*3
V5
#1

I
and so forth.

tones which occur during a modulation are

All altered
That
to the printed key signature.
in
relation
symbolized
in
the
notes
diatonic
even
altered
the
tones,
though
is,
in the first key, just
new key, are shown as alterations
in the two
For
bass.
in
are
as they
example,
figured
next- tothe
for
above
modulation,
given
progressions
the note C
contain
would
last chord in each progression
D
note in
major, requires
sharp, which, while a diatonic
since this is a modulation within the more
an accidental,
important tonic key of G major.
3.

of nonchord tones explain

The definitions
Nonharmonic Tones.
chord tone
to its adjacent
tone is related
how the dissonant
this is commonly done by defining how the dissonant
(or tones);
tone is approached and left and/or whether it is accented or
unaccented.
It is recommended that each nonharmonic device be defined
it exhibits
relationship
primarily according to the spatial
be
with the chord tones around it, and only secondarily
The
to
its
accent.
relative
rhythmic
according
cataloged
syntax of thirteenth and twentieth century music is quite
different from that of the eighteenth century and, if the
do not depend upon having to determine the
definitions
accents
then they will fit music of widely
relative
involved,
and
different periods
(It is more succinct to show
styles.
since
does not include
in
but
this article
these devices
notes,
word
definitions
are
of
the possibility
using staff-notation
attempted . )

-27a.

Passing tone- stands between two chord tones,

and left by step in the same direction.

fa.

between two statements of the

Neighboring tone-stands
same chord tone, approached by step in one direction,
returning by step in the opposite direction.

c.

Changing tones- a skip from upper to lower neighboring

tone, or vice versa, before returning to the chord tone.

d.

into the next chord and resolving

Suspension-prolonged
a
chord tone (may be tied or
to
down
or
by step up

reiterated)

e.

anticipates
Anticipationmay be approached by step
repeated.

f.

Appoggiatura- -approached
a chord tone.

g.

Escape

h.

Pedal- a held tone or reiterated

begin and end as a chord tone.

i.

Free tone - approached

These basic
to a neighboring

tone-

approached

approached

a tone from the next chord;

or skip and may be tied or
by skip and resolved

by step and left

and left

by step

it

to

by skip.

note or figure;

it should

by skip.

concepts may be combined as,

tone, and so forth.

for example,

an appogitura

among publishers
Jazz chord symbols are fairly well standardized
were found. The two
of popular music, though some discrepancies
of showing the correct
weaknesses of the system are the difficulty
of
and the difficulty
chord
bass note when this is not the root of the
in
such as chords built
fourths, and
sonorities,
coping with nontriadic
so forth.
of reaching some
we must discuss
briefly the feasibility
Finally,
that we would
While it is undeniable
consensus within our profession.
set of terms and symbols, it must be admitted
profit from a standardized
enthusiasm
little
is
among eminent musicians to pursue the
there
that
This is
to reach such agreement.
be
would
that
road
necessary
tedious
whether
creative
composers,
more
the
musicians,
of
true
especially
for seeking such agreement at the basic
performers or musicologists;
than
and much less interesting
less
is
much
exciting
theory level
or
research.
in
composition
solving a problem

-28the college
theory
Perhaps it is the theory teacher, particularly
to be
is
if
who
to
the
initiative
have
take
will
teacher,
any progress
involved with this
made.
For he is the musician who is most directly
At any rate, the first step is to obtain some general discussion,
problem.
and to allow as many people as possible
to be heard.
Panel discussions
such as the one conducted at the 1967 MTNA
level for an exploraConvention provide an opportunity on the national
what the next
these
can
discover
tion of the problem, and perhaps from
The emphasis is
symbolization.
steps might be toward a standardized
made that in no case should these recommendations be adopted without
serious scrutiny.
The problem is worthy of consideration
by a national
men in the field of music theory.
commission, composed of distinguished

The research reported herein was supported by the Cooperative Research

U.S. Department of Health, Education,
Program of the Office of Education,
and Welfare .