Imperialism

Imperialism:

The policy of extending a nations power by gaining political and economics control over more
territory.
Largely observed in Africa and Asia where there was an abundant supply of valuable minerals
and raw materials, required by the developing industries of Europe.
Countries had huge desire to acquire overseas possessions which led to rivalry between
European nations.
Industrial growth in USA and European countries gave birth to the development of strong
navy and overseas bases.

Scramble for Africa:

By 1900 over 90% of the African content was under the colonial rule of European nations.

Strategic Causes:

British won control of Cape Colony in southern Africa and established a port.
Later the British constructed the Suez Canal which linked the Mediterranean Sea and the Red
Sea. This allowed Europeans countries to travel to India and other Asian regions, faster. But
instability in Egypt meant that the ships were in danger.
As a result the British took over the administration of Egypt. This occupation triggered the
scramble for Africa.
Political power: Countries looked overseas in order to increase their wealth, power, prestige
and influence. The only way they could do it was by expanding to other countries.

Economic Causes:

Industrial Revolution: The rapid increase in manufactured good in industries of Europe

created a need for new markets aswell as greater investment opportunities. Businessman
also hoped to find vast amount of raw materials which could power all their industries.
Medical advancement and Exploration: Africa was believed to be home to diseases such
as Malaria. Medical advancements such as an effective vaccine for Malaria dramatically
reduced the fear in Europeans of the Dark Continent. As a result more explorers ventured to
Africa, keen to find new resources, trading opportunities and to secure treaties with local
chieftains.
Weaponry: The development of advanced arms and artillery meant that the invaders were
better equipped to fight wars if the situation arose.

Social Causes:

Abolition of slave trade: Before the wave of imperialism, Europeans nations used to indulge
in trade of slaves with Africa. But the abolition of slavery in 1871, led the European
businessman and leaders to opt for other forms of trade with Africa.
Superiority complex: The Europeans were convinced of their racial superiority and believed
that it was their duty to spread their culture, norms and religion to the Africans. Many
missionaries flew in Africa to spread Christianity. This complex also led the Europeans to
believe that they were not tyrants, but rather, they were improving the lives of other people.

For what reasons did the European powers partition Africa in the nineteenth century?
When, and why, did the partition become a scramble?

After 1875 a series of events accelerated this process of partition and turned it into a
scramble. The period of informal empire, when European powers were anxious to trade
with Africa but reluctant to face the expense of acquiring and administering colonies, was
about to end.
The chain of events, the 'accelerators' which led to the scramble for Africa began with
the movement towards protection which ended the free trade era, and was stimulated by
Leopold IIs activities in the Congo Basin; the De Brazza Treaties with Makoko; the British
occupation of Egypt in 1882; Bismarcks entry into the race for colonies in 1884 and his
convening of the Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-85).
The results of decisions taken at this conference e.g. the establishment of the principles
of effective occupation and of spheres of influence acted as guidelines and rules for
future annexation of African territory.
These decisions were the trigger for more than a decade of frantic activity by many
European powers which constituted the scramble and led to most of Africa being
colonised by 1900.

What do you understand by the terms 'informal empire' and 'formal empire' in Africa?
When, and why, did the latter replace the former?

Limited amount of territory under European rule in 1875 as most were interested in profit
from trading with Africa without the responsibility and expense of administration. This was
the concept of 'informal empire'.
The prospects of 'profit without responsibility' were seriously diminished, if not removed,
by the trend towards protectionism in international trade and the challenge to free trade
posed by the activities of Leopold II in the Congo Basin after 1876.
It became clear that the only way to ensure profitable trade with any part of Africa was to
annex it and control its trade.

Why was there a Scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century?

In 1870, little of Africa was controlled by European countries. By the end of the century,
Liberia and Ethiopia were virtually the only independent areas.
Industrial revolutions in European nations led to rapid increase in production and profits
businessmen needed new places to sell their goods and invest their money.
Industrialists were also keen to find new sources of raw materials. Products of the
Industrial Revolution were also influential; steamships and railways had speeded up travel
and heavy artillery and machine guns made European victory against Africans
almost certain.
The Congress of Berlin (1878) had settled the map of Europe and only war could change.
Nations were forced to look elsewhere to add to their possessions.
Africa was weak and undefended war against spear-throwing tribesmen was viewed as
better than full-blown conflict with European neighbors Bismarck referred to war
against Africans as sporting wars.
More was now known about the dark continent as a result of the work of explorers such
as Stanley and Livingstone.
France regarded empire, especially in Africa, as a means of compensating for the defeat
by Prussia in 187071
Some parts of Africa were seen as vital for guarding existing trade routes, e.g. Britain
originally took control of Egypt to guard her trade route with the Far East through Suez
canal.

The discovery of gold and diamonds was a further impetus for colonialism and rivalry
Prestige European nations felt it was essential to have colonies in order to maintain
prestige/status with other European nations, e.g. Germanys East African colonies cost
her more than they were worth.
Individuals may have had their own motives such as missionaries wanting to bring
Christianity to Africans, administrators wanting to serve their country and bring order to
the natives, those looking for adventure and those who desired influence and power,
e.g. Rhodes.

Explain the main reasons for the growth of New Imperialism

After the industrial revolution, there was a huge augmentation of colonization and
scramble between European countries for economic interests. These competitions were
pervaded and monopolization of the capital started to ascend to through its zenith. This
would pave the way a new system for world economy and power. When we look at the
late 19th century, we see that there is a huge conflict between the European countries for
overseas territories. This is called New Imperialism or Free Trade Imperialism.
This new imperialism led to European countries to split Asia and Africa among
themselves. The existence of competion between new nation state was the major
determinant in the growth of new imperialism.
As the European competion of the economic interests grew, European states acquired to
find new market and colonies abroad that provided ports and coaling stations for their
navies.
On the other hand, for European states establishment of colonies abroad was a source of
international prestige. Their aim was not conquest of the new territory because they
already have colonized these Asian and African countries
Imperialism was tied to social Darwinism. Social Darwinist theories were used to justify
European imperialism and colonialism. According to this theory, superior races must
dominate the inferior races by military force to show how strong and competent they are.
Economic reasons: There was a great demand for natural resources and products not
found in Western countries, such as rubber, oil, and tin. Instead of trading for these
products with these countries, they choose the direct control over the areas that raw
materials were found. The growing of European industry, the increase in production
capacity, and the surplus of capital created the necessity of finding new markets, new
sources of raw materials, and new areas for capital investment in the big countries.
Furthermore, economic expansion demanded cheap labor, access to or control of
markets to sell or buy product.
Europeans believed that they had moral responsibilities for non-European peoples.
According to the Europeans, they would bring civilization to the non-civilize ignorant
countries. Moreover, they were more humanitarian and humanism should be brought to
the unenlightened countries.

Governments were involved in imperialism more for defensive than aggressive

reasons. How far do you agree with this claim about the period from c.1870 to 1900?
(You should refer to Britain and at least two other European countries in your
answer.)

Imperialism was not completely defensive or aggressive

economic motives, including the search for inexpensive raw materials, markets and
opportunities for investment. These might be seen as either defensive or aggressive.
On the one hand, countries tried to protect themselves from more competition during a
period of domestic depression. On the other hand, these motives led countries to try to
exclude rivals, but the economic gains seemed limited.
Imperialism was seen as a means to gain international power and reputation. For
example, France sought to reassert itself after the 1870-71 defeat by Prussia. The new
Italy had the dream of imperial expansion to reflect its view of itself as a major power.
Britain gave priority to its growing empire rather than the continent as the symbol of its
greatness. This motive could also be defensive. Egypt and East Africa were important to
British interests in India.
As one country moved into parts of Africa, others felt bound to establish their own regions
of influence. Britain and Germany, or Britain and France, or Germany against Britain and
France might be seen as examples of this. The same was true of China and other regions
in the Far East.
Social Darwinism might be seen today as evidence of European aggression but at the
time it seemed neither aggressive nor defensive but altruistic. Individuals such as Rhodes
and Carl Peters will probably be seen as aggressive.
Governments tried to defuse possible tensions, for example at the Conference / Treaty of
Berlin (188485)where spheres of influence were agreed, but with limited success.

Berlin conference:

The main dispute among Europeans was over navigation and commercial rights in the
Congo River basin. The first Europeans to claim the area were the Portuguese who
explored the mouth of the river in the 15th century.

The Portuguese claims went unchallenged for several centuries until French naval officer
Pierre-Paul-Franois de Brazza-Savorgnan (known simply as Savorgnan de Brazza)
began to explore the area.

On February 26, 1884 Britain and Portugal signed a treaty that reserved navigation rights
on the Congo River to Britain alone, in exchange for Britain's support for Portuguese
control of the mouth of the river. The treaty angered all of the other major European
powers, and in particular, prevented the French from taking advantage of Savorgnan de
Brazza's treaties.
Germany's Bismarck took advantage of the diplomatic outcry over the Anglo-Portuguese
Treaty to call an international conference that met in Berlin from November 15, 1884 to
February 26, 1885

Berlin Act of 1885:

The General Act fixed the following points:

The Congo Free State was confirmed as the private property of the Congo Society, which
supported Leopold's promises to keep the country open to all European investment.
The 14 signatory powers would have free trade throughout the Congo Basin as well as Lake
Niassa.
The Niger and Congo rivers were made free for ship traffic.
A Principle of Effectivity (based on "effective occupation", see below) was introduced to stop
powers setting up colonies in name only.
Any fresh act of taking possession of any portion of the African coast would have to be
notified by the power taking possession, or assuming a protectorate, to the other signatory
powers.

The principle of effective occupation stated that powers could acquire rights over colonial lands
only if they possessed them or had "effective occupation": in other words, if they had treaties with
local leaders, if they flew their flag there, and if they established an administration in the territory to
govern it with a police force to keep order. The colonial power could also make use of the colony
economically. This principle became important not only as a basis for the European powers to acquire
territorial sovereignty in Africa, but also for determining the limits of their respective overseas
possessions, as effective occupation served in some instances as a criterion for settling disputes over
the boundaries between colonies.
The Berlin Act was also the first time where the term spheres of influence was introduced to the
world.

Consequences of Berlin Act

The most important consequence of the Berlin Act was the reduction of tensions that had
resulted from the French explorations in the Congo basin (Savorgnan de Brazza, 1876-1877),
the establishment of Belgian posts in the Congo (1879-1884), the French invasion of Tunisia
(1881), and the British takeover of Egypt (1882).
The Scramble for Africa sped up after the Conference, since even within areas designated as
their sphere of influence; the European powers still had to take possession under the
Principle of Effectivity.
The British moved up from South Africa and down from Egypt conquering Arabic states such
as the Mahdist State and the Sultanate of Zanzibar and, (having already defeated the Zulu
Kingdom in South Africa, in 1879), moving on to subdue and dismantle the
independent Boer republics of Transvaal and Orange Free State.
By 1895, the only independent states were: Liberia, Abyssinia and Majerteen Sultanate.

The Boer republics were conquered by the United Kingdom in the Boer war from 1899 to
1902. Morocco was divided between the French and Spanish in 1911, and Libya was
conquered by Italy in 1912. The official British annexation of Egypt in 1914 ended the
colonial division of Africa.