Resistance Welding

RESISTANCE
WELDING
Theory and Use
Prepared by
Resistance Welding Committee.
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY,
REINHOLD
PUBLISHING CORPORATION
NEW YORK
CHAPMAN &
HALL, LTD., LONDON
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Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.hathitrust.org/access_use#pd-google
1956
East EngftiJ
library
copyright 1956 by
American Welding Society
33 West 39th Street
New York 18, N. Y.
All rights reserved
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 56-9808
REINHOLD PUBLISHING CORPORATION
Publishers of Chemical Engineering Catalog, Chemical Materials Cata-
log, "Automatic Control," "Materials & Methods," "Progressive Ar-
chitecture"; Advertising Management of the American Chemical Society

PRINTED IN THE USA BY WAVERLY PRESS
PERSONNEL OF AWS RESISTANCE WELDING
COMMITTEE
J. J. MacKinneyf, Chairman The Budd Co.
E. A. Bussard*, Vice Chairman The Coleman Co., Inc.
S. A. Greenbergf, Secretary American Welding Society
R. C. Becker International Harvester Co.
Commander Wright Air Development Center
F. L. Brandt Thomson Electric Welder Co.
Bureau of Ships Navy Department
W. F. Burchfield The International Nickel Co., Inc.
C. H. Burgston Deere & Co.
J. F. Cantalin General Motors Corp.
J. J. Chyle A. O. Smith Corp.
C. R. Dixon Aluminum Company of America
W. D. Doty United States Steel Corp.
0. C. Frederick (A. C. Young, Alternate). General Electric Co.
R. T. Gillette Consulting Engineer
N. B. Gilliland** Electroloy Co.
F. G. Harkins Solar Aircraft Co.
W. D. Harrison Douglas Aircraft Co.
1. W. Johnson General Electric Co.
J. W. Kehoe Westinghouse Electric Corp.
P. Klain The Dow Chemical Co.
T. R. Lichtenwalter Republic Steel Corp.
J. Maltz Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department
K. W. Matthes Precision Welder and Flexopress Corp.
F. Matthews Boeing Airplane Co.
F. W. McBee, Jr. (M. L. Begeman,
Alternate) University of Texas
C. W. Middlestead C. W. Middlestead Co.
E. B. Morris Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp.
E. F. Nippes Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
I. A. Oehler American Welding & Manufacturing Co.
R. A. Parsons Pullman-Standard Car Manufacturing Co.
A. R. Pfluger (L. A. Cook, Alternate)... Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp.
N. E. Promisel Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department

J. J. Riley Taylor Winfield Corp.
A. J. Rosenberg General Electric Co.
H. E. Schultz General Electric Co.
W. Scottf Westinghouse Electric Corp.
A. E. Taylor Armco Steel Corp.
F. J. Wallace Pratt & Whitney Aircraft
R. M. Wilson, Jr.f*** The International Nickel Co., Inc.
W. J. Wilson Kaiser Metal Products, Inc.
R. E. Wolf Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co.
F. R. Woodward Taylor Winfield Corp.
* Resigned November 1955.
** Deceased May 1955.
*** Resigned June 1955.
t Members of Subcommittee on Resistance WeldingTheory and Use, W. Scott,
Chairman.
FOREWORD
The application of resistance welding has rapidly expanded in the past
fifteen years. While much technical data has been published to assist in
making most effective use of resistance welding in new applications, as for
example the AWS Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding and the
AWS Recommended Practices For Spot Welding Aluminum and Aluminum
Alloys, little consideration has been given to reviewing the published in-
formation on the fundamentals of resistance welding.
The AWS Resistance Welding Committee has prepared this book because
it believes that an understanding of the basic principles is vital to most
effective use of resistance welding. While much of this information has been
published previously in one form or another, it is presented here in a manner
that will be understandable even to someone encountering resistance weld-
ing for the first time. At the same time the book should be equally useful
for more experienced designers, engineers and shop personnel.
This book covers all the resistance welding processes, and describes the
different types of resistance welding machines, electrodes and controls
which are used. It discusses the weldability of different metals and how
quality control and inspection tests and methods are applied to obtain
consistently good welds.
The AWS Resistance Welding Committee is anxious to have this book
serve the users of resistance welding to the fullest. Your comments and
suggestions will be most welcome. Address them to Secretary, Resistance
Welding Committee, American Welding Society, 33 West 39th Street, New

York 18, New York.
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword v
Chapter
1. Definitions of Resistance-Welding Terms 1
Definitions of welding terms 1
Standard resistance-welding definitions 1
Welding processes 1
Welding equipment 3
Controls 4
Welding Details 11
Master chart of welding processes 13
2. Principles of Resistance Welding 16
Heating fundamentals 16
Heat losses 17
Current flow 17
Heat balance 18
3. Resistance-Welding Processes 20
Spot welding 20
Welding sequence 20
Seam Welding 21
Welding sequence 22
Projection welding 22
Projection design 23
Welding sequence 23
Flash welding 24
Welding sequence 26
Upset welding 26
Welding sequence 27
Percussion welding 28
4. Resistance-Welding Equipment 29
Machines 29
Spot and projection welding machines 29
Seam welding machines 33
Flash and upset welding machines 35
Percussion-welding machines 36

vii
viii CONTENTS
Electrical system 37
Power supply 37
Single-phase, a-c machines 39
Three-phase machines 41
Stored-energy machines 42
Controls 43
Contactors 43
Timing and sequencing devices 47
Accessory devices 52
Electrodes 56
Functions and requirements of resistance-welding electrodes 56
Electrode materials 56
Types of electrodes 59
Electrode holders 65
Electrode care and maintenance 65
Equipment calibration 73
Purpose 73
Primary current 73
Secondary current 74
Electrode force 74
Time 75
5. Welding Symbols 77
Standard Symbols 77
Basic material and general provisions 77
Spot welds 86
Seam welds 88
Projection welds 90
Flash and upset welds 92
6. Weldability of Metals and Precautions Required 100
Physical properties influencing weldability 100
Low-carbon steels 102
Medium- and high-carbon and low-alloy steels 102
Stainless steels 103
Nickel and nickel-base alloys 104
Copper and copper alloys 105

Aluminum, magnesium, and their alloys 107
Plated and coated metals 107
Dissimilar metals 108
Welding schedules 108
7. Weld Quality 109
Surface preparation of parts 109
Weld characteristics of spot, seam and projection welds Ill
CONTENTS ix
8. Procedure Specifications and Qualification 122
Purpose of procedure specifications 122
Factors to be included 123
Application of procedure specifications 123
Procedure qualification 124
Changes in a qualified procedure 127
Forms for resistance welding data sheets 127
9. Inspection and Testing 128
Standard methods for testing resistance welds 129
Types of test 130
Preparation for testing 131
Test methods 131
Evaluation of weld consistency 143
Control of weld quality by statistical methods 144
Resistance welding statistical quality control 145
A.W.S. Standards and Books 153
Fundamentals of welding 153
Training, inspection and control 153
Processes 154
Industrial applications 154
Books 155
Binder 155

Index 156
Chapter 1
DEFINITIONS OF RESISTANCE-
WELDING TERMS
DEFINITIONS OF WELDING TERMS
As with most industrial processes, welding requires the use of some terms
not otherwise used in everyday communications. Also, where everyday
words are used, they often have a special meaning with reference to weld-
ing. To provide for common understanding, these terms have been stand-
ardized and defined. Thus, the engineer can transmit his instructions to the
shop with the assurance that they will be clearly understood. So, too, the
inspector, when employing standard nomenclature, can be assured that his
thoughts are properly conveyed in records or reports he may have to pre-
pare.
The standard terminology used with the resistance-welding processes
and the definitions of some resistance-welding terms are given in this chap-
ter. For a more complete listing, including terminology for other welding
processes, refer to the American Welding Society's Standard Welding Terms
and Their Definitions (A3.0-49).
Where a term is listed but not defined, like "Weldor: See Welder" it
means that this term is sometimes used but is not standard. The term
welder is proper; the term weldor is sometimes used but is improper.
STANDARD RESISTANCE-WELDING DEFINITIONS
Welding Processes
Commutator-Controlled Welding: The making of a number of spot
or projection welds wherein several electrodes, in simultaneous contact
with the work, progressively function under the control of an electrical com-
mutating device.
Flash Welding: A resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
produced, simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces, by the
heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric current between the two
surfaces, and by the application of pressure after heating is substantially
completed. Flashing and upsetting are accompanied by expulsion of metal
from the joint.
Hydromatic Welding: See Pressure-Controlled Welding.

RESISTANCE WELDING
Longitudinal Seam Welding: The making of a seam weld in a direc-
tion essentially parallel to the throat depth of a resistance-welding machine.
Multiple-Impulse Welding: The making of spot, projection and upset
welds by more than one impulse of current. When alternating current is
used, each impulse may consist of a fraction of a cycle or a number of cycles.
Percussion Welding: A resistance-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced, simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces, by
the heat obtained from an arc produced by a rapid discharge of stored
electrical energy, with pressure percussively applied during or immediately
following the electrical discharge.
Poke Welding: See Push Welding.
Pressure-Controlled Welding: The making of a number of spot or
projection welds wherein several electrodes progressively function under
the control of a pressure-sequencing device.
Projection Welding: A resistance-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric
current through the work parts held together under pressure by electrodes.
The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by the design of
the parts to be welded. The localization is usually accomplished by projec-
tions, embossments or intersections.
Pulsation Welding: See Multiple-Impulse Welding.
Push Welding: The making of a spot or projection weld wherein the
force is applied manually to one electrode and the work or a backing bar
takes the place of the other electrode.
Resistance Welding: A group of welding processes wherein coalescence
is produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the work to the flow of
electric current in a circuit of which the work is a part, and by the applica-
tion of pressure.
Roll Spot Welding: The making of separated spot welds with (rotating)
circular electrodes.
Seam Welding: A resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric cur-
rent through the work parts held together under pressure by circular elec-
trodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping spot welds made pro-

gressively along a joint by rotating the electrodes.
Series Welding: The making of two spot or seam welds or two or more
projection welds simultaneously with three electrodes forming a series cir-
cuit. See Fig. 1.1.
Single-Impulse Welding: The making of spot, projection and upset
welds by a single impulse of current. When alternating current is used, an
impulse may consist of a fraction of a cycle or a number of cycles.
Spot Welding: A resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
DEFINITIONS OF RESISTANCE-WELDING TERMS
produced by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric current
through the work parts held together under pressure by electrodes. The
size and shape of the individually formed welds are limited primarily by the
size and contour of the electrodes.
Stored-Energy Welding: The making of a weld with electrical energy
accumulated electrostatically, electromagnetically or electrochemically at a
relatively low rate and made available at the required welding rate.
Transverse Seam Welding: The making of a seam weld in a direction
essentially at right angles to the throat depth of a seam welding machine.
Ultra-Speed Welding: <See Commutator-Controlled Welding.
Upset Welding: A resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
produced, simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces or pro-
gressively along a joint, by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of
electric current through the area of contact of those surfaces. Pressure is
applied before heating is started and is maintained throughout the heating
period.
Welding (Noun): The metal-joining process used in making welds. (See
Resistance Welding).
Welding Process: A metal-joining process wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by heating to suitable temperatures, with or without the application
of pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal. (See Resistance
Welding).
Welding Technique: The details of a manual, machine or semi-
automatic welding operation which, within the limitations of the prescribed
joint welding procedure, are controlled by the welder or welding operator.
Welding Equipment
Arm: See Horn.
Die: In resistance welding, a member usually shaped to the work con-
tour to clamp the parts being welded and conduct the welding current.
Electrode: In resistance welding, the part or parts of a resistance-weld-
ing machine through which the welding current and, in most cases, pressure
are applied directly to the work. The electrode may be in the form of a ro-

Figure 1.1 Series welding
RESISTANCE WELDING
tating wheel, rotating roll, bar, cylinder, plate, clamp, chuck or modification
thereof.
Electrode Holder: A device used for mechanically holding the elec-
trode and conducting current to it.
Horn: In resistance welding, a beam or arm, extending from the frame
of a welding machine which transmits the electrode force and usually con-
ducts the welding current.
Horn Spacing: In a resistance-welding machine, the unobstructed work
clearance between horns or platens at right angles to the throat depth. This
distance is measured with the horns parallel and horizontal at the end of the
downstroke.
Platen: In a resistance-welding machine, a member with a substantially
flat surface to which dies, fixtures, backups or electrode holders are at-
tached, and which transmits the electrode force or upsetting force.
Platen Spacing: See Horn Spacing.
Throat Depth: In a resistance-welding machine, the distance from the
center line of the electrodes or platens to the nearest point of interference
for flatwork or sheets. In the case of a seam-welding machine with a uni-
versal head, the throat depth is measured with the machine arranged for
transverse welding.
Throat Opening: See Horn Spacing.
Welding Machine: Equipment used to perform the welding operation.
For example, spot-welding machine, arc-welding machine, seam-welding
machine, etc.
Welding Wheel: See Electrode.
Controls
Cool Time: In multiple-impulse welding and seam welding, the time
interval between successive heat times. See Figs. 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4.
Electronic Heat Control: A device for adjusting the heating value
(rms value) of the current in making a resistance weld by controlling the
ignition or firing of the tubes in an electronic contactor. The flow of current
is initiated each half-cycle at an adjustable time with respect to the zero
point on the voltage wave.
Flashing Time: In flash welding, the time during which the flashing ac-

tion is taking place. See Fig. 1.5.
Forge-Delay Time: In spot and projection welding, the time between
the beginning of weld time, or weld interval, and the time when the elec-
trode force first reaches the specified pressure for forging. See Fig. 1.3.
Heat Time: In multiple-impulse welding or seam welding, the time
that the current flows during any one impulse. See Figs. 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4.
Hold Time: In spot and projection welding, the time during which force




RESISTANCE WELDING

10
RESISTANCE WELDING
is applied at the point of welding after the last impulse of current ceases to
flow. See Figs. 1.2 and 1.3. In seam, flash and upset welding, the time dur-
ing which force is applied to the work after current ceases to flow. See Figs.
1.4, 1.5 and 1.6.
Multiple-Impulse Weld Timer: In resistance welding, a device for
multiple-impulse welding which controls only the heat time, the cool time
and either the weld interval or the number of heat times.
Nonsynchronous Initiation: In resistance welding, the initiation or
termination of the welding transformer primary current at any random
time with respect to the voltage wave.
Off Time: In resistance welding, the time during which the electrodes
are off the work. This term is generally applied where the welding cycle is
repetitive. See Figs. 1.2 to 1.6.
Postweld Interval: In resistance welding, the heat time between the
end of weld time, or weld interval, and the start of hold time. During this
interval the weld is subjected to mechanical and heat treatment. See Fig.
1.3.
Preweld Interval: In spot, projection and upset welding, the time be-
tween the end of squeeze time and the start of weld time or weld interval,
during which the material is preheated. In flash welding, the time during
which the material is preheated. See Figs. 1.3 and 1.5.
Quench Time: In resistance welding, that part of the postweld interval
from the cessation of flow of welding current to the application of a current
impulse for postheating. See Figs. 1.3 and 1.5.
Seam Weld Timer: In seam welding, a device which controls the heat
times and the cool times.
Sequence Timer: In resistance welding, a device for controlling the
sequence and duration of any or all of the elements of a complete welding
cycle, except weld time or heat time.
Sequence Weld Timer: In resistance welding, a device for controlling
the sequence and duration of any or all of the elements of a complete weld-
ing cycle.
Squeeze Time: In spot, seam, projection and upset welding the time
interval between the initial application of the electrode force on the work

and the first application of current. See Figs. 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.6.
Synchronous Initiation: In spot, seam and projection welding, the
initiation and termination of each half-cycle of welding-transformer primary
current so that all half-cycles of such current are identical.
Temper Time: In resistance welding, that part of the postweld interval
during which a current suitable for tempering or heat treatment flows. The
current can be single or multiple-impulse, with varying heat and cool in-
tervals. See Figs. 1.3 and 1.5.
DEFINITIONS OF RESISTANCE-WELDING TERMS 11
Upsetting Time: In flash and upset welding, the time during upsetting.
See Figs. 1.5 and 1.6.
Weld Delay Time: In spot and projection welding, the time that the
weld time is delayed to insure proper sequence of mechanical functions in
relation to subsequent electrical functions. See Fig. 1.3.
Weld Interval: In resistance welding, the total of all heat and cool times
when making one multiple-impulse weld. See Figs. 1.2 to 1.4 and also
Fig. 1.6.
Weld Interval Timer: In resistance welding, a device which controls
heat and cool times and weld interval when making multiple-impulse welds
singly or simultaneously.
Weld Time: In single-impulse welding and flash welding, the time that
welding current is applied to the work in making a weld. See Figs. 1.2 to
1.6.
Weld Timer: In resistance welding, a device which controls only the
weld time.
Welding Current: The current flowing through the welding circuit
during the making of a weld. In resistance welding the current used during
preweld or postweld intervals is excluded.
Welding Cycle: In resistance welding, the complete series of events in-
volved in the making of a weld. See Figs. 1.2 to 1.6.
Welding Details
Blowhole: See Gas Pocket.
Button: In the destructive testing of spot-, seam- and projection-welded
specimens, that part of a weld, including all or part of the nugget, which
tears out.
Corona: The area sometimes surrounding the nugget of a spot weld at
the faying surfaces, which provides a degree of bonding.
Cross Wire Weld: A projection weld made between crossed wires or
bars.
Electrode Force:
Dynamic: In spot, seam and projection welding, the force (pounds)
between the electrodes during the actual welding cycle.
Theoretical: In spot, seam and projection welding, the force, ne-
glecting friction and inertia, available at the electrodes of a resistance-

welding machine by virtue of the initial force application and the
theoretical mechanical advantage of the system.
Static: In spot, seam and projection welding, the force between the
electrodes under welding conditions, but with no current flowing and
no movement in the welding machine.
12
RESISTANCE WELDING
FLASH WELD UPSET WELD
Figure 1.7. Types of resistance weld
Electrode Skid: During spot, seam or projection welding, the sliding of
an electrode along the surface of the work.
Faying Surface: That surface of a member which is in contact with
another member to which it is to be joined.
Flash: The molten metal which is expelled, or which is squeezed out by
the application of pressure, and solidifies around the weld.
Flash Weld: A weld made by flash welding. See Fig. 1.7.
Fused Zone: See Nugget.
Gas Pocket: A weld cavity caused by entrapped gas.
Heat-AfFected Zone: That portion of the base metal which has not
been melted, but whose mechanical properties or microstructures have
been altered by the heat of welding or cutting.
Indentation: In a spot, seam or projection weld, the depression on the
exterior surface or surfaces of the base metal.
Mash Seam Weld: A seam weld made in a lap joint wherein the thick-
ness at the lap is reduced plastically to approximately the thickness of one
of the lapped parts.
Nugget: The weld metal joining the parts in spot, seam or projection
welds.
Percussion Weld: A weld made by percussion welding.
Platen Force: In flash and upset welding, the force available at the
movable platen to cause upsetting. This force may be dynamic, theoretical
or static.

Projection Weld: A weld made by projection welding.
DEFINITIONS OF RESISTANCE-WELDING TERMS 13
Push Weld: A spot or projection weld made by push welding.
Seam Weld: A weld consisting of a series of overlapping spot welds,
made by seam welding or spot welding. See Fig. 1.7.
Sheet Separation: In spot, seam and projection welding, the gap sur-
rounding the weld, between faying surfaces, after the joint has been welded.
Spit: See Flash.
Spot Weld: A weld made by spot welding. See Fig. 1.7.
Tack Weld: A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper align-
ment until the final welds are made.
Tip Skid: See Electrode Skid.
Upset Weld: A weld made by upset welding. See Fig. 1.7.
Upsetting Force: In flash and upset welding, the force exerted at the
welding surfaces during upsetting.
Weld: A localized coalescence of metal wherein coalescence is produced
by heating to suitable temperatures, with or without the application of
pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal. The filler metal either
has a melting point approximately the same as the base metals or has a
melting point below that of the base metals but above 800 F.
Weldability: The capacity of a metal to be welded under the fabrication
conditions imposed into a specific, suitably designed structure and to per-
form satisfactorily in the intended service.
Weld Crack: A crack in weld metal.
Weld Metal: That portion of a weld which has been melted during
welding.
Weld Metal Area: The area of the weld metal as measured on the cross-
section of a weld.
Welded Joint: A union of two or more members produced by the ap-
plication of a welding process.
Welder: One who is capable of performing a manual or semiautomatic
welding operation.
Welding Force: See Electrode Force and Platen Force.
Welding Operator: One who operates machine or automatic welding
equipment.
Welding Pressure: The pressure exerted during the welding operation
on the parts being welded. (See also Electrode Force and Platen Force.)

Welding Procedure: The detailed methods and practices including
joint welding procedures involved in the production of a weldment.
Weldor: See Welder.
MASTER CHART OF WELDING PROCESSES
Although this book is confined to resistance welding, it is advanta-
geous to be acquainted with the other welding processes. The Master Chart

14
RESISTANCE WELDING
Figure 1.8. Master chart of welding processes
15
of Welding Processes shown in Fig. 1.8 gives all the welding processes cur-
rently used by industry.
This chart groups the various welding processes into several major
categories, i.e., arc, gas, resistance welding, etc. These processes themselves
may be further subdivided into methods.. For example, spot welding may
be done by the following methods: a-c; d-c, stored-energy; d-c, surge; etc.
These methods are all shown on Process Charts (AWS publication A3.1-

49), which are too large to be included here.
Chapter 2
PRINCIPLES OF RESISTANCE WELDING
Resistance welding is a group of welding processes wherein coalescence
is produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the work to the flow of
electric current in a circuit of which the work is a part, and by the applica-
tion of pressure. There is no external heat source. Heat is developed in the
part to be welded and pressure is applied by the welding machine through
the electrodes. No fluxes or filler metals are used. Hence, if any particular
chemical or metallurgical properties are desired in the weld, the elements
which impart these properties must be included in the work part or be a
direct result of the welding operation itself.
Current for resistance welding is usually supplied through a welding
transformer which transforms the high-voltage, low-amperage power sup-
ply to usable high amperages at low voltages.
Pressure, or more properly, the electrode force, is supplied either by air
or oil pressure through cylinders, mechanically by cams, manually by foot
or hand levers through linkages or some other means.
HEATING FUNDAMENTALS
In an electrical conductor, any current flow creates heat. The amount of
heat generated depends on three factors: (1) the amount of current flowing,
(2) the resistance of the conductor, and (3) the time of current flow.
These three factors affect the heat generated in resistance welding. It is
expressed in the formula
H = PRT
where
H = heat generated in joules
/ = current in rms amps
R = resistance of the work in ohms
T = time of current flow in seconds
The formula shows that the heat generated is proportional to the square
of the welding current and directly proportional to the resistance and the

16
17
time. The total heat generated is partly used to make the weld and partly
lost to the surrounding metal.
The welding current to produce a given weld is approximately inversely
proportional to the square root of the time. However, if the time is ex-
tremely short, the current required is abnormally high. With this combina-
tion of high current and short time, there may be an undesirable distribution
of heat in the weld zone, resulting in severe surface melting and rapid elec-
trode deterioration.
HEAT LOSSES*
Heat losses are of two kinds: radiation and conduction.
Radiation losses to the surrounding atmosphere are insignificant.
Figure 2.1. Temperature distribution in spot welding
Conduction losses are losses to the electrodes and to the surrounding
base metal. These losses are directly proportional to temperature dif-
ferentials. The higher the temperature differential between the weld zone
and the surrounding metal, the greater the lossses.The losses should be
minimized to reduce discoloration, warpage and undesirable metallurgical
changes in the metal immediately surrounding the nugget. This is ac-
complished by using the shortest practical time of current flow.
CURRENT FLOW
In making a weld, the current is passed from one electrode through the
base metal to the other electrode. During this passage, it encounters seven
separate resistance zones, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
* For a more quantitative discussion of the heat problem see Chapter 2 of the

Third Edition of the "Welding Handbook," American Welding Society.
18
RESISTANCE WELDING
Reading from one electrode to the other these resistances are:
(1) and (7): The electrical resistance of the electrode ma-
terial.
(2) and (6): The contact resistance between the electrode
and the base metal. The magnitude of this
resistance depends on the surface condition of
the base metal and electrode, the size and
contour of the electrode face, and the elec-
trode force. (Resistance is roughly inversely
proportional to the contacting force.) This
is a point of high heat generation, but due to
the high thermal conductivity of the elec-
trode material (1 and 7), and the fact that it
is usually water-cooled, the surface of the
base metal does not reach the fusion tempera-
ture during the current passage.
(3) and (5): The total resistance of the base metal itself,
which is directly proportional to the resis-
tivity of the base metal and its thickness and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional
area of the current path.
(4): The base metal interface is where the weld
formation starts. This is the point of highest
resistance, and therefore the point of greatest
heat generation. Also, since the hot spots at
(2) and (6) lie between it and the highly
conductive electrodes, the heat generated at
this interface is not readily lost to the colder
electrodes. It will be seen later how (2) and
(6) affect the formation of the weld at the
interface contact.
HEAT BALANCE
In making a satisfactory weld there is a factor not always given due con-
sideration because of the difficulty in accurately predicting the exact ef-

fect. This factor is correct heat balance.
Heat balance may be defined as a condition in which the fusion zones in
the pieces of material to be joined undergo approximately the same degree
of heating.
The majority of discussions on spot welding (and other resistance-welding
processes) are confined to the welding of two equal thicknesses of the same
19
material with electrodes of the same analysis and equal diameter. Heat
balance in these cases is automatic. However, probably half of the practical
applications do not have the above condition.
Heat balance may be affected by:
1. Relative electrical and thermal conductivities of the materials to be
joined.
2. Relative geometry of the parts at the joint.
3. Thermal and electrical conductivities of the electrodes.
4. Geometry of the electrodes.
If it is desired, for example, to spot weld equal thicknesses of a high con-
ductivity alloy (electrical and thermal) to an alloy of low conductivity, a
correct heat balance could be obtained by the following techniques:
1. By using an electrode having a smaller contact area on the high con-
ductivity alloy than on the lower conductivity alloy to obtain approxi-
mately equal fusion. The electrode with the smaller tip area will produce a
higher current density in the higher conductivity alloy, thus increasing the
heat generated and minimizing the heat losses to the electrode from the
contact area.
2. By using an electrode material of low conductivity on the higher
conductivity alloy, which will lessen the heat losses to the electrode.
3. By the use of a combination of (1) and (2).
In very heavy metal pile-ups of dissimilar thicknesses, a long time of
current flow or heating cycle permits a more uniform distribution of heat
in the asymmetrical resistance path between the electrodes. A correct heat
balance may be obtained by using multiple-impulse (pulsation) welding or
a single impulse of continuous current flow for an equivalent time.
In flash welding where the electrical and thermal conductivities of the
joint are asymmetrical due to joint geometry or alloys, a heat balance may
be obtained by projecting the piece which has the higher conductivity
farther from the clamping electrode so that the length of its resistance path
is increased. The electrode, being nearer to the weld on the lower conduc-
tivity side, removes more heat from that piece. Differences in the melting
points between the two alloys being welded will also affect the amount of
projection. The proper distance each piece projects is determined experi-

mentally.
Chapter 3
RESISTANCE-WELDING PROCESSES
SPOT WELDING
Spot welding is a resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric current
through the work parts held together under pressure by electrodes. The
size and shape of the individually formed welds are limited primarily by the
size and contour of the electrodes. A simple spot weld is shown in Fig. 3.1.
In the simple single spot weld shown in Fig. 3.2A the paths of current
and electrode force must be through the electrodes, the overlapped work
pieces and the weld. In other variations of spot welding shown in Figs. 3.2
and 3.3, the same principles apply whether the welds are single or multiple,
direct or indirect, parallel or in series. Spot welds may be made singly or
in multiples. For single welds the current path may be either direct, as
shown in Fig. 3.2A, B and C or indirect, as shown in Fig. 3.2D, E, F, G and
H. Fig. 3.2C shows a set-up for single spot welds, even though it may ap-
pear to be a multiple spot-welding condition. Current-time sequencing in-
sures against current flow through more than one weld at a time. In Fig.
3.2D, E and F the electrode is at the left while a contact block with a rela-
tively large contact area is at the right. There is no weld formed at the
right. Fig. 3.2G and H shows single indirect welds made with multi-trans-
formers. There is no weld formed at the right.
For multiple spot welds, current flows through more than one weld spot
during any specific period. Multiple spot welds may be either series as in
Fig. 3. 3C or parallel as in Fig. 3.3A and B.
Welding Sequence
There are four definite stages of time in the spot-welding cycle. These are
as follows:
1. Squeeze time: Time between the first application of the electrode force
and first application of the welding current.
2. Weld time: Time that welding current flows.
3. Hold time: Time during which the electrode force is still applied after
the current has stopped flowing.
4. Off time: Time during which the electrodes are off the work.

20
21
ELECTRODES OR
WELDING
TIPS
ELECTRODES
WELDING
WHEELS
ELECTRODES
OR DIES
PROJECTION
WELDS
AFTER
WELDING
PROJECTION WELD
SPOT WELD SEAM WELD
Figure 3.1. Comparison of spot, seam and projection welding
This is shown graphically in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3.
The length of the above time intervals is automatically controlled by
special control equipment described on pages 47-52.
SEAM WELDING
Seam welding is a resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric current
through the work parts held together under pressure by circular electrodes.
The resulting weld is a series of overlapping spot welds made progressively
along a joint by rotating the electrodes. A seam weld is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Seam welding has much in common with spot welding. Welds may be
single or multiple, that is, a single seam or two or more parallel seams pro-
duced simultaneously. Welds may be direct or indirect, similar to spot
welding (see page 20).
Seam welding may be done in several ways depending on travel speed
DIRECT
LulujuuuJ LuulujuuuuJ
r jQ
INDIRECT INDIRECT

Figure 3.2. Types of single spot welds
22
RESISTANCE WELDING
Figure 3.3. Types of multiple spot welds
and timing of welding current application. In continuous motion welding,
the electrodes (or work) are driven at a constant speed and welding current
is either interrupted or flows continuously. In either case, a continuous,
gas-and-water-tight seam is obtained. In intermittent motion welding the
electrodes (or work) travel the distance required for each successive weld
and then stop. The current comes on automatically and the weld is made.
In seam welding, warpage of the work is a factor to be considered. Several
cures for excessive warpage are used. On long seams, for instance, skip weld-
ing is used. A short length of weld is made, then a portion is skipped, an-
other portion is made, etc. Then, in a second pass, the skipped portions are
welded.
A second method employs flood cooling. The most common practice is to
use jets of cooling water immediately before and after the wheels.
Welding Sequence
The seam-welding cycle is divided into several sequences, as shown
graphically in Fig. 1.4. (p. 7).
PROJECTION WELDING
Projection welding is a resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric cur-
rent through the work parts held together under pressure by electrodes.
The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by the design of
the parts to be welded. Localization is usually accomplished by projec-
tions, embossments or intersections, which direct the flow of the welding
current from one work part to the other. The metal at the projection is
heated to a temperature suitable for welding by the resistance to the passage
of current.
A projection welding arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.1.

Generally, projection welding can be used where spot welding can to join
23
small parts to each other or to large parts. The economics of the two
processes will decide in favor of one or the other. However, there are some
considerations that should be kept in mind:
1. In some applications, particularly on thick sections, projection weld-
ing can be used to good advantage where spot welding is not feasible.
2. More than one weld can be made with the same stroke of the ma-
chine. Welds can generally be spaced more closely together and shunting of
current is not a problem, although current distribution may be.
3. A better heat balance may be obtained in difficult-to-weld combina-
tions of metals and thicknesses.
4. Parts are more easily welded in an assembly fixture.
5. Electrode life is longer because they can be made with larger contact
surfaces and of harder, higher resistance electrode alloys.
6. Finished appearance is often improved since the electrode on the
finish side will have a larger contacting area which eliminates electrode
indentation.
7. Preforming of projections required.
8. Limited to metal thicknesses in which projections can be made.
9. Careful control of projection dimensions required.
10. For multiple welding, higher capacity equipment is required.
Projection Design
In projection welding, the design of the projection is of prime importance.
Following are some of the points to be considered in designing projections:
1. They should be easy to form and cause no distortion in the part dur-
ing forming. It is also important that the material is not sheared during
forming of the projections.
2. They should be substantial enough to support the initial force before
the current is applied.
3. They should collapse during welding without excess expulsion of
metal and leaving the two work parts in intimate contact.
4. Effective use should be made of natural projections such as cross-wire
welding.
Welding Sequence
The projection-welding cycle is similar to the spot-welding cycle (see

page 5).
The sequence of events during the formation of a projection weld is
shown schematically in Fig. 3.4. In (a) the projection is shown on the top
work part. In (b) the current has started to flow and is conducted from
work part to work part through the projection thereby heating it to the
24
RESISTANCE WELDING
tc)
Figure 3.4. Formation of a projection weld
welding temperature. In (c) the electrode force has caused the heated pro-
jection to collapse, causing the weld. In (d) the completed weld is shown.
FLASH WELDING
Flash welding is a resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
produced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces by the
heat obtained from resistance to the flow of electric current between the
two surfaces, and by the application of pressure after heating is substan-
tially completed. Flashing and upsetting are accompanied by expulsion of
metal from the joint.
Flash welding is done by placing two work parts in the jaws of the
machine. As the parts are brought together into very light contact a voltage

of sufficient magnitude to form a flashing action between the parts is ap-
25
UUUUUUUUULU
LuuuulujuuJ
FLASH.
II
LIGHT CONTACT OR
MINUTE AIR GAP
Figure 3.5. Relationship of parts for flash welding
plied. Flashing continues as the parts advance until the work pieces reach
a forging temperature. The weld is completed by the application of suf-
ficient forging pressure and the interruption of current. Figure 3.5 shows
the relationship of the parts for this process.
In flash welding, it is necessary that the moving platen be advanced at
the proper speed to maintain a continuous flashing action. This speed is
determined by the dimensions of the work and the amount of current used.
If the flashing rate is too low, flashing is intermittent and heating is
not sufficient to result in a good upset. If the rate is too high, the parts may
only come together, prematurely stopping the flashing action, resulting in
an inadequate weld.
The over-all flashing time is also important. This is the total time during
which the flashing action takes place. If this time is too short, insufficient
heat is generated in the parts, and it is impossible to obtain the proper
upset. If it is too long, the weld area is overheated. It is therefore difficult to
expel the excessive molten metal and maintain adequate forging force.
The current flowing through the parts during upset must be sufficient
to prevent too rapid chiUing. If the current is too low at this time, all of the
oxides, slag inclusions, etc., will not be squeezed out. If the current is too
high, the metal adjacent to the weld may be blown out, causing a void.
While the upsetting force and travel must be sufficiently high to force
out all slag inclusions, it is possible to have too high a pressure or too great
a travel, or both. This results in the material, which is in the plastic state,
being forced out of the region of the weld. Conversely, a lack of upsetting
force or travel, or both, will cause a "hot weld" showing a cast structure
and containing inclusions.
In recent years, shielding atmospheres such as city gas, hydrogen and the

inert gases have been used to improve the quality of the weld joint. Al-
though the evidence as yet is not conclusive, there is reason to believe that
this method of flash welding may be advantageous for certain metals.
26
RESISTANCE WELDING
Welding Sequence
The following list indicates the sequence of operations that may be re-
quired. In many applications there are other steps involved. Those items
marked with an asterisk are fundamental and generally used.
*1. Load machine.
*2. Clamp work.
*3. Apply welding voltage.
4. Apply preheating pressure.
5. Preheat.
6. Release pressure.
*7. Start motion of platen to
cause flashing.
8. Flash at higher than normal
voltage.
*9. Flash at normal voltage.
*10. Upset.
11. Upsetting current flow.
*12. Cut off welding current.
*13. Unclamp work.
*14. Return platen and unload.
15. Trim flash.
When flash welding heavy sections, it is often hard to start a flashing
action because of the large amounts of cold metal present at the flashing
surfaces. This condition is sometimes remedied by preheating. Other
remedies are to bevel the surfaces to be welded, to start the flashing action
manually by intermittently shorting the pieces until the temperature is
high enough for flashing to take place as a part of the automatic cycle of
the machine, or to use a higher open-circuit voltage at the start of flashing
than is used later in the cycle. Combinations of these methods may be
used. All of these methods have proved satisfactory in production. The
welding cycle is shown graphically in Fig. 1.5 (p. 8).
UPSET WELDING
Upset welding is a resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
produced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces or

progressively along a joint by the heat obtained from resistance to the
flow of electric current through the area of contact of those surfaces.
Pressure is applied before heating is started and maintained throughout
the heating period.
In upset welding the parts are brought into solid contact and current is
passed through the contact area until a sufficiently high temperature is
27
TO WCL0IN8
TRANSFORMED
generated to allow the forging of a weld. This is shown in Fig. 3.6. The
heat is generated mainly by the contact resistance between the two pieces.
Upset welding differs from flash welding in that no flashing from the
abutting surfaces occurs at any time, the heat being developed solely by
the resistance between the two parts.
In upset welding the best results are usually obtained if the parts to be
welded are equal in cross-sectional area and resistance. If they are equal
in resistance but have unequal areas, the part having the larger area
should project out of the clamping die somewhat farther than the other
part. If they are unequal in resistance, the part with the least resistance
should project farther out of the die than the other.
To facilitate welding, the area of contact between the two parts is some-
times restricted by beveling the abutting ends. The welding surfaces must
be clean and parallel and comparatively smooth, otherwise the high spots
may overheat and melt before the areas that are not in contact begin to
heat.
Welding Sequence
The welding sequence for upset welding is as follows:
1. Load machine.
2. Clamp work.
3. Apply welding pressure.
4. Initiate welding current.
5. Maintain pressure to upset.
G. Discontinue current.
7. Release pressure.
8. Unclamp work.
9. Return platen and unload.
10. Trim upset.

The more important steps are shown graphically in Fig. 1.6 (p. 9).
28
RESISTANCE WELDING
PERCUSSION WELDING
Percussion welding is a resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
produced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces by the
heat obtained from an arc produced by a rapid discharge of stored elec-
trical energy, with pressure percussively applied during or immediately
following the electrical discharge.
There are several variations of this process. One method utilizes a low-
voltage condenser connected to the parts being welded and an electro-
mechanical device for moving them through the required pressure cycle.
It is necessary first to bring the work together; second, to start the dis-
charge of the condenser; third, to draw apart the parts being welded prac-
tically simultaneously with the discharge of the condenser in order to create
an arc between the parts and thus obtain a partial surface melting of the
parts; and last, to bring the parts together again with a heavy impact
blow.
In a second method, the condenser is replaced with an electromagnetic
field, produced by sending direct current through the primary of a trans-
former. When this current is interrupted the collapsing field induces cur-
rent in the secondary winding, which is connected to the parts being welded.
This starts the same mechanical cycle of striking an arc between the parts
by drawing them apart and then forcing them together with an impact
force.
A third method consists in replacing the low-voltage condenser or
electromagnetic field with a high-voltage condenser possessing sufficient
potential to break across an appreciable air gap, making it unnecessary to
first draw apart the parts being welded in order to discharge the energy

at the weld.
Chapter 4
RESISTANCE-WELDING EQUIPMENT
MACHINES
All types of resistance-welding machines have the following three funda-
mental components in common:
1. A mechanical system in which the work is held and the electrode or
platen force is applied.
2. An electrical circuit which consists of a transformer, a means for
regulating current and a secondary circuit to conduct the welding current.
3. A control system which may be a simple weld timing device or a com-
bination of mechanical action sequencing and weld timing devices.
These three components regulate the three principal variables in re-
sistance welding, namely, current, force and time of current flow. In addi-
tion to these, jigs, fixtures and handling devices are used for ease of opera-
tion.
Resistance-welding machines are generally classified both as to mechan-
ical construction or welding characteristics and as to electrical features.
Spot and Projection Welding Machines
There are two basic types of welding machines used for making single
spot welds or projection weldsstationary (or pedestal) machines and
portable (or gun) welding machines. Both types of machines Thay employ
either direct or lever action as shown in the various illustrations which
follow.
Stationary (pedestal) machines are built using direct action (press
type) in which the movable electrode has a vertical motion in a straight line,
or lever action (rocker-arm type) in which the movable electrode has a
vertical motion in an arc. The latter type, Fig. 4.1, is so called because
the lever action of the upper arm produces electrode motion by rocking
about a fulcrum point, hence, rocker arm. The electrode force may be
derived from a foot treadle, an air or hydraulic cylinder or a motor-driven
cam. Most modern machines employ air cylinders.
The press-type machine (for spot or projection welding), shown in Fig.
4.2, is so called because of the straight line (direct action), vertical stroke
of the upper welding head. The electrode force is derived from an air or

29
30
RESISTANCE WELDING
Figure 4.1. Rocker-arm spot-welding machine
A, Double-acting air cylinder; B, Four-way valve. This valve may be foot oper-
ated, or solenoid operated and controlled by foot switch. Air accessories not shown,
but as usually furnished include a lubricator, strainer, pressure-regulating or re-
ducing valve and pressure gage.
hydraulic cylinder or is motor driven through a mechanical system which
converts rotary motion into linear motion. Air-operated press-type ma-
chines have air cylinders of various designs to suit different types of ram
operation and stroke adjustment. Hydraulically operated machines are
usually heavier and of greater capacity, but follow the general design of
the air-operated equipment. The motor-driven machines employ various
arrangements to obtain the necessary stroke of the ram and electrode force.
Portable guns are employed where the size or weight of assemblies is
large, making it more economical to move the machine to the work rather
than move the work to a stationary machine. They also are used for tack-
ing when the assembly parts are properly located in jigs which are too large
to be moved. Portable guns are especially adaptable to assembly line pro-
duction where the work is carried through the various stages of construc-
tion on a moving conveyor.
Portable welding guns are generally classified as: pinch guns, expansion
guns, bar guns, and push-type guns.
Pinch guns are the most versatile and can be used with or without a
fixture. They are mechanically, pneumatically or hydraulically operated

with two jawsthe stationary jaw to which the operating mechanism
31
is generally attached, and the movable jaw. Pinch guns are of the "C"
type as shown in Fig. 4.3, the scissors or rocker-arm type as shown in Fig.
4.4, or special variations thereof. A special suspension adapter may be
used with any type gun which permits freedom of motion about the point of
suspension either vertically, horizontally or in rotation (see Fig. 4.5).
Expansion guns are usually referred to as fixture-type guns, since a
fixture is necessary for their operation. The two general types are:
(1) The short-circuiting gun which conducts the welding current from
one bus bar through the work to the returning bus bar and simultaneously
provides the electrode force as a result of the expansion action of the gun
between the mechanically reinforced bus bars. The work pieces are placed
Figure 4.2. Press-type spot and projection welding machine
Air or hydraulically operated. A, Air or hydraulic cylinder; B, Welding head; C,
Spot-welding horns and electrodes; D, Upper table or platen; E, Lower table or
platen; F, Lower knee; G, Flexible bands; H, Upper and lower terminals or connect-

ing blocks; 7, Transformer secondary; /, Knee support and jack screw.
32
RESISTANCE WELDING
on one bus bar and are held in proper location by the clamping features
of the fixture. The bus bars, secondary circuit and welding transformer
form an integral part of the fixture. This type of gun is direct-acting, using
either an air or hydraulic cylinder specially designed to conduct the high
welding current.
(2) The single-cable gun which is similar to the short-circuiting type,
except that only one supporting bus bar is energized. The other side of
the transformer secondary is connected to the welding gun terminal by a
flexible cable. In this case the air or hydraulic cylinder is of conventional
design since the high welding current is not conducted through the gun
proper.
Bar and Push-Type Guns are specially designed for specific applica-
tions.
Multiple-spot welding machines are capable of making many spot
welds during one operation. In most cases they are custom built of a fabri-
cated frame of the size and shape necessary to accommodate the particular
structure to be spot welded. The welding guns (heads), secondary circuit
and transformer(s), are mounted on the frame to provide proper location
of the required spot welds. Machines have been built to make sev-
eral hundred spot welds. Such large machines incorporate many trans-
formers distributed on a single- or three-phase power supply system
so that several transformers are fired simultaneously. Welding is accom-
plished by direct, indirect or series methods. The sequencing of the ma-
chine operation as well as the scheduling of tool operation and transformer
firing is fully automatic. There are two methods of synchronizing the weld-

Figure 4.3. "C"-type hydraulic pinch gun Figure 4.4. Rocker-arm-type pinch gun
33
Figure 4.5. Pinch gun with special suspension adapter
ing current and electrode force actions whether the machine uses one or
multiple transformers:
1. Pressure-controlled (hydromatic) welding where one of a number of
secondary circuits is closed across the transformer terminals at the same
time by selective pressure application to the electrode of that circuit.
Hence, a transformer with five secondary circuits connected to its terminals
will fire one circuit at a time, and complete its cycle in five operations.
2. Commutator-controlled (ultra-speed) welding where all of a number
of electrodes are closed by a simultaneous application of pressure; then by
means of a commutator in the secondary circuit welding current is pro-
gressively passed through one electrode or circuit at a time.
Seam Welding Machines
Seam welding machines (also used for roll spot welding) are similar in
construction to spot welding machines, except that the electrodes are discs
which are rotated by a driving mechanism. There are four general types:

1. Transverse (circular), in which the plane of the wheel electrode is
34
RESISTANCE WELDING
at 90 degrees to the throat of the machine and the work travels perpendicu-
lar to the throat.
2. Longitudinal, in which the plane of the wheel electrode is parallel to
the throat of the machine and the work travels into or out of the throat.
The length of the seam is limited by the throat depth.
3. Universal, in which the wheel electrodes may be set in either a trans-
verse or longitudinal position. This is done by using a swivel-type upper
head so that the wheel and its bearings may be turned through 90 degrees.
The lower wheel mounting may consist of two interchangeable lower arms,
two arms permanently attached to the frame by means of hinges, or a
swinging column permitting either arm to be swung into position. A uni-
versal machine is shown in Fig. 4.6.
4. Platen, with moving platen or moving electrode.
All these types have the following essential components in common:
(1) a main frame with welding transformer and regulator; (2) a welding
head with means of pressure application and slide or lever head mecha-
nism; (3) electrode wheels with current conducting bearings and secondary
connections to the transformer or one wheel may be replaced with a platen;
Figure 4.6. Universal seam welding machine with electrodes transverse (a) and

longitudinal (b).
35
and (4) means for driving the wheel electrodes or the work and adjusting
their speed.
Machines can be obtained with provisions for adjusting the cylinder
stroke and elevations of the lower arm to compensate for electrode wear
and to maintain the work at a constant distance from the floor.
Seam welding machines employ three types of wheel drive mechanism:
(1) Knurl or friction roll drive, (2) gear or shaft drive, and (3) "traveling
roll" (also traveling fixture) drive.
The knurl or friction-type drive has either the upper or lower or both
wheel electrodes driven by a friction wheel at the periphery of the elec-
trode. The power-driven friction rolls are usually made of hardened steel
with knurling on the engaging surface which cuts into the face of the wheel
or the sides of the wheel adjacent to the face. This type of drive has an
advantage in that the peripheral speed of the electrode is independent of
the electrode diameter, hence the speed remains constant as the electrode
diameter decreases.
In the gear or shaft drive type usually one electrode is driven through its
shaft and the other idles. This drive is desirable in cases where the electrode
face must be kept smooth so that the work surface is free from knurl mark-
ings, and where space is limited by the work designs (small diameter con-
tainers).
When both wheels are driven, precise equal electrode diameters must be
maintained to avoid change in electrode peripheral speed as the electrodes
wear (decreasing diameter). The individual shaft rpm must be varied to
maintain equal peripheral speed of the electrodes.
In the "traveling roll" machines, the work may be clamped to a bar
electrode and pushed under an idler wheel electrode, external power being
applied to push the work, causing the electrode to rotate. In other cases,
the wheel mounting head may be pushed or pulled over the work which
is clamped in a stationary fixture.
Flash and Upset Welding Machines
Flash and upset welding machines are basically alike in structure. They
differ mainly in the devices used for producing motion during welding.
Essentially these machines consist of the following: (1) a main frame includ-

ing transformer and regulator, (2) a set of clamps to hold the work and a
circuit to supply the welding current, and (3) mechanical means to force
the work pieces together.
A typical flash welding machine is shown in Fig. 4.7.
Flash and upset welding machines generally operate in a horizontal
position. A stationary platen is bolted to the frame at one end. This platen
is generally non-adjustable, although it may be unbolted and moved by a
30
RESISTANCE WELDING
Figure 4.7. Flash welding machine
very limited amount. At the other end of the frame, the movable platen
is mounted on suitable ways and connected to the upset mechanism.
Both platens are usually of cast iron or steel and are designed to accom-
modate copper terminals which are connected to the transformer. The
platens are also designed to mount the welding dies. The transformer is
located inside the frame.
An upsetting force should be applied as directly as possible to the work
in order to prevent unnecessary stresses in the movable platen ways. The
upsetting mechanism can be manually-operated, motor-driven, pneumat-
ically or hydraulically-operated.
Percussion-welding Machines
Percussion-welding machines are stored-energy type machines. How-
ever, the principle of operation is entirely different from those used for
spot welding. The machine is essentially an upset-welding machine and
only work of this type can be performed on it. Power is taken from an a-c
power supply, transformed and rectified to about 3000 volts d-c. This is
then used to charge a bank of capacitors. The capacitor terminals are
directly connected to two sets of electrodes that clamp the work to be
welded. The work pieces are separated and insulated from one another
sufficiently to withstand the high voltage to which they are subjected.

Actuated by a spring or other suitable means, one of the work pieces
37
travels toward the other at a high rate of speed. When the proper arcing
distance is approached, as determined by the voltage to which the capaci-
tors are charged, the capacitors discharge themselves through this gap
creating an intense heat on the surfaces being welded. When the two
pieces actually contact one another, the discharge is completed, and the
two pieces forged together.
Another method of percussion welding employs a low-voltage stored-
energy (electrostatic or electromagnetic) discharge. In this case the work
pieces are brought into contact and separated to establish the discharge
arc and then forced together with an impact.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Power Supply
An adequate power supply is essential for the successful use of resistance
welding. The relatively high, short-time demand and low-duty cycle im-
posed by a welding machine requires considerable knowledge of the elec-
trical constants of the power supply circuit.
The American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Committee on Electric
Welding, Subcommittee on Power Supply for Welding Operations, has
compiled data indicating a recommended approach to provide adequate
power supply for resistance-welding installations and prescribed methods
of calculating load characteristics.
The power supply system constitutes all the electrical installations from
the generator to the point of application of the load, in this case the re-
sistance-welding machine. When conducting a high load current through
this circuit, the voltage will drop due to the circuit resistance and reac-
tance (impedance). The instantaneous voltage reduction, or voltage dip,
is a direct function of the resistance and reactance of the system. The dip
will be small at the generator and large at the point of load.
The voltage drop in a circuit or piece of electrical apparatus under load
is expressed as per cent regulation and is calculated:
no load voltage load voltage ^
no load voltage'
hence, high per cent regulation indicates a large voltage drop.
The limitation of the drop in a supply system voltage is determined by

its effect on the operation of the welding machines and controls, other indus-
trial equipment and lighting loads which are supplied by the system.
If only one machine is supplied by the power system, the voltage drop
caused by that machine will not affect the weld consistency, since this
drop will be consistent and proper correction of the current setting will
have been made. Any voltage drop will decrease the available output of the
38
RESISTANCE WELDING
50
2.5
tn
>
LU
<
>
Q.
<
_l
2.0
1.5
1.0
&0.5
1 1 I I I MM
-NON-CYCLIC FLICKER -
(Spot, Butt, Flosh,and
Projection Welders)
I I I M III
- CYCLIC FLICKER
(Pulsation and Seam
Welders)
2 VOLT LIMIT
0.1
20
0.5 I 2 3 4 5 10
FLUCTUATIONS OR FLICKERS PER SECOND
Figure 4.8. Objectionable limits of lamp flicker caused by resistance-welding loads.
machine. If the voltage drop is too great the control circuits may not func-

tion properly.
Voltage drop in power supply to a welding machine caused by other
welding machines or heavy industrial equipment is a matter of concern.
Experience indicates that a voltage regulation of not more than 10 per cent
caused by operating the largest machine will result in a good workable
installation in most cases. However, it should be realized that there will be
exceptions.
Where lighting systems are supplied from the same high-voltage lines
as welding loads, the voltage drop caused by the welding load can produce
light nicker. This flicker is objectionable if the voltage drop at the lamp
exceeds 2 volts for fluctuations of 1J^ and less voltage dips per second. The
allowable lamp voltage drop becomes considerably less as the rate of flicker
increases beyond per second as illustrated in Fig. 4.8.
The voltage drop in the power company system (high-voltage line) can
be estimated after consultation between the user and the power company.
It usually is kept to small values (often less than 1 per cent) to avoid light
flicker on the premises of other power consumers.
39
Another important consideration in the design of a supply system is the
thermal capacity of the feeders or lines to carry the high demand loads of
welding machines. If provision is made to keep the voltage drop within
the necessary limits, there usually will be sufficient attendant thermal or
current-carrying capacity.
There are many methods to improve the power supply system voltage
regulation and to reduce the effect of undesirable voltage drops on weld
quality. Some of the more commonly employed methods are listed below.
It is recommended that the AIEE publication be referred to for a more
complete discussion of the technical aspects of this problem.
1. Correct the design of the plant supply system by shortening feeder
runs, adding more copper area and reducing the spacing of conductors
as much as possible.
2. Interlocking large machines to prevent simultaneous operation.
3. Employ three-phase welding machines for the heavier loads in order
to distribute this load on three phases rather than on a single phase.
Stored-energy machines may also serve this purpose for some applications.
4. Keep the secondary throat area as small as possible and provide for
large, tight and clean connections in the circuit.
5. Supply the single-phase welding machines through a three-phase
motor-generator set.
6. Power factor correction can be obtained by the proper application of
series capacitors and associated controls. Such capacitors can be designed
to give approximately unity power factor and the minimum demand on a
single-phase power supply.
7. Use of electronic current- and voltage-regulating devices with weld-
ing installations that employ the electronic contactor and phase-shift heat
control. These devices automatically correct the welding current when the
supply voltage changes providing the power supply is of adequate capacity.
The operating characteristics of these devices are discussed under Controls
(pages 43-55).
Single-phase, a-c Machines
The electrical system of a single-phase a-c resistance welding machine
consists of a transformer and a secondary circuit, including electrodes.

Transformer. The welding transformer is an iron-core transformer with
step-down voltage transformation. The primary is wound with many
turns. The secondary usually has only one turn or, in the case of portable
machines for higher voltage, two or three turns. The secondary may be
conveniently water cooled.
The transformer usually has a device for changing the turns ratio by
either switching into or out of the primary circuit a given number of turns
40
RESISTANCE WELDING
which produces a corresponding change in the secondary open-circuit
voltage. Transformers are rated for 50 per cent duty cycle.* In other words,
a machine with a 100 kva rating will carry a 100 kva load for 30 seconds
out of each minute without an excessive temperature rise. This rating
method differs from that used for power distribution transformers; they
are rated for 100 per cent duty cycle. Since welding transformers usually
operate at a much lower duty cycle than 50 per cent, their actual kva out-
put is usually many times their kva rating (seam welding machines ex-
cepted).
Secondary Circuit. The secondary circuit (sometimes called the weld-
ing loop) is that part of the welding machine through which the high
welding current is conducted. This circuit is usually composed of the fol-
lowing elements:
1. Connection between the transformer and the lower electrode holder.
2. Lower electrode holder.
3. Lower electrode.
4. Upper electrode.
5. Upper electrode holder.
6. Connection between the transformer and the upper electrode holder.
7. Flexible conductor to permit movement of the movable electrode
holder.
It is well to remember a few general principles regarding the secondary
circuit:
1. With a given secondary voltage the welding current will decrease as
the throat depth or horn spacing is increased.
2. The power factor will decrease as the throat depth or horn spacing
or both is increased.
3. When welding increasingly heavier thicknesses that do not extend
into the throat, the resistance and the power factor will both increase but
the reactance will not change.
4. Since the reactance of the secondary circuit is proportional to the
frequency, the impedance decreases as the frequency of the power system
decreases. Consequently at lower frequencies for a given secondary current,
less secondary voltage is required. Since the primary demand in kva is

proportional to the square of the secondary voltage, considerably less input
kva is required.
Power Factor Correction. Resistance-welding circuits are highly reac-
* Duty cycle is denned as the percentage of time the transformer is actually carry-
ing current:
% Duty cycle =
Current on time
Current on + Current off time
41
tive resulting in a lagging power factor. This may be modified, if it becomes
excessive, by the addition of series capacitors in the line. For further de-
tails on this subject see Power Supply For Resistance Welding Machines,
published by AIEE.
Three-phase Machines
As resistance-welding machines (particularly spot and projection ma-
chines) have developed into increasingly larger and larger units electri-
cally, they have become increasingly difficult to operate from existing power
lines and facilities.
Currently the machines most frequently used for distributing the welding
load substantially equal over all three phases of the power supply are the
frequency converter and metallic rectifier machines. These machines draw
power only while the weld is being made.
Frequency Converter Machine. This machine (Fig. 4.9), has a
special welding transformer with a three-phase primary and single-phase
secondary. The current in the primary windings is controlled by ignitron
tubes. First one phase or winding of the transformer is active, then another,
then the third, then the first again, etc. This delivers to the secondary
winding a single-phase current of low frequency (usually 5 to 20 cycles).
This low frequency secondary current increases the power factor, which in
turn, reduces the demand from the power lines. This type of machine can
be used for seam, spot, multiple-impulse and some flash-welding applica-
tions.
Metallic Rectifier Machine. This machine (Fig. 4.10) has a special
welding transformer with three-phase primary and secondary windings
to reduce the power supply voltage to the lower welding voltage. The
current from the three-phase secondary windings is converted to single-
phase unidirectional current by means of a metallic rectifier. This makes it
possible to produce a three-phase demand, lower per phase, than that of the
conventional single-phase machine. This rectifier machine can be used for
ll U 11
ja_TR5rR.src,
.PRI.
ITRlfR. PRl.

iTBSfR. PRI.
TRANSrORMCRS
11
RCCTIflCRS
Figure 4.9. Electronic frequency con-
verter system
Figure 4.10. Three-phase circuit of
metallic rectifier
42
RESISTANCE WELDING
Figure 4.11. Schematic diagram of electrostatic stored-energy welding machine
seam, spot and multiple-impulse welding applications. The rectifier stacks
are small in size as compared to other types of electrical components,
and are of rugged construction, being capable of standing heavy current
over-loads.
Stored-Energy Machines
Stored-energy machines are of two general typeselectrostatic and elec-
tromagnetic. Both types draw power from a three-phase system, store it
and suddenly discharge it to make the weld. These machines draw power
from the supply over a relatively long time between welds, delivering it to
the electrodes during the short time the weld is made.
The principle of stored energy has been applied extensively to spot weld-
ing and has had some applications for seam and roll spot welding. Electro-
static and electromagnetic types are not usually applicable to flash welding
or very heavy projection welding, due to their limited energy storage capac-
ity.
Electrostatic Stored-Energy Machines. The equipment for electro-
static stored-energy welding, illustrated schematically in Fig. 4.11, con-
sists primarily of a bank of capacitors, circuits for charging these capacitors
to a predetermined voltage and a system for discharging the capacitors
through a suitable welding transformer.
High-voltage capacitors are generally used, the most common varying
from 1500 to 3000 volts.
Electromagnetic Stored-Energy Machines. In an electromagnetic
stored-energy machine, three-phase power supply is rectified to d-c by
means of an ignitron tube rectifier, the output of which usually is 150 to
200 volts. When this direct current is connected to the primary of the trans-
former or reactor in the welding machine, energy is stored until the circuit
is interrupted by means of a suitable contactor. The energy is then re-
leased into the secondary circuit in the form of a high peak current that

falls exponentially to zero (see Fig. 4.12).
43
CONTROLS
Resistance-welding controls may be divided into three general groups:
(1) contactors, (2) timing and sequence devices, and (3) accessory devices.
Contactors
A contactor is a device for repeatedly establishing and interrupting an
electric power circuit. In the case of welding the contactor interrupts the
primary circuit of the welding transformer.
There are three basic types of welding contactors: (1) magnetic (ordi-
nary or synchronously interrupting), (2) electronic (with ignitrons or thyra-
trons), and (3) mechanical (motor or foot-pedal operated).
Each has particular advantages in certain applications. The jobs per-
formed on any machine will vary considerably. It is therefore recom-
mended that a welding contactor of adequate size be selected to carry the
maximum demand that the machine is capable of drawing from the power
line.
Magnetic Contactors. A magnetic contactor consists of current-
carrying contact members actuated by an electromagnet. When electri-
cally energized, the magnet supplies the closing force that brings the con-
tact members together to connect the power circuit to the primary of the
welding transformer. When deenergized, the magnetic pull is removed
and the contacts are opened by spring action and gravity. The following
types are available:
1. Single-pole contactors to break one side of a single-phase power line.
2. Double-pole contactors to break both sides of a single-phase power
line. (Can be connected with poles in series or parallel on one side of the
line.)
3. Synchronously interrupting magnetic contactors which open the power
circuit when the alternating current wave approaches zero. This opening
at zero current means that virtually no arcing results. Elimination of the

Figure 4.12. Schematic diagram of electromagnetic stored-energy welding machine
44
RESISTANCE WELDING
arcing prolongs contact tip life and permits worthwhile increases in ratings
as compared to the other types.
For resistance-welding applications specially designed magnetic con-
tactors are required. Their construction involves nearly frictionless bear-
ings, light moving parts, short contact gaps, strong contact spring pressure,
large cross-section current-carrying parts, special magnet structures and
unusual arc-suppressing means.
Magnetic contactors are classified by six size numbers with nominal
and maximum demand ampere ratings as given in the following table:
Maximum Demand
Nominal Rating During Welding
NEMA Size Number (Amp.) (Rms. Amp.)
OW 50 200
1W 100 400
2W 150 600
3W 300 1200
4W 600 2400
5W 900 3600
The nominal rating represents the load that can be carried continuously
without exceeding the temperature rise on which the rating is based. It has
little meaning except for comparison purposes, since resistance welding
service is intermittent in nature.
Magnetic contactors have the advantage of low initial cost. They have
the disadvantages of requiring relatively frequent maintenance and the
inability to consistently control short weld times or very rapid welding
operations.

Figure 4.13. Shield-grid thyratron tube
45
Electronic Contactors. Electronic contactors are switching devices
which use electronic tubes rather than mechanical devices to start and stop
the flow of primary current to the welding transformer.
For very small welding applications, where the primary current is less
than 40 amp., a thyratron tube may be used. The thyratron tube is a vapor
filled, glass or metal enclosed, air-cooled tube containing an anode, a heated
cathode, a control grid, and possibly a shield grid, as shown in Fig. 4.13.
For most welding applications where currents greater than 40 amps, are
employed, an ignitron tube is used. Smaller ignitron tubes are available
for lower current demands. The ignitron tube is a metal enclosed tube
usually water-cooled having a carbon anode, a pool of mercury as a cathode,
and an igniter as shown in Fig. 4.14.
Both ignitron and thyratron tubes operate in a similar manner, with the
exception that the current handled by the ignitron can be much greater
than that handled by the thyratron. Both tubes can pass current in only
one directionwhen their anodes are positive and their cathodes are nega-

Figure 4.14. Cross-section of typical ignitron tube
46
RESISTANCE WELDING
tive. In addition, both tubes must receive an external electrical impulse
to "trigger" them. The trigger for the thyratron is the control grid. If this
grid is more negative than the cathode, no current can flow. When the
control grid is made positive with respect to the cathode, electrons can
flow from the cathode to the anode. (Conventional current is said to flow
from anode to cathode.) The trigger for the ignitron tube is the igniter.
When a small current is caused to flow through the igniter into the mercury
pool, a spark between the igniter and the mercury pool ionizes some mer-
cury and the tube can then pass electrons from the pool to the carbon
anode. (Conventional current is said to flow from positive to negative.)
Both ignitron and thyratron tubes can thus pass current in one direction
when the following two conditions are right: (1) their anodes are positive
and cathodes negative, and (2) they have been triggered by an external
source. Once current has begun to flow in either tube, it will continue to
flow as long as the anode is positive and the cathode negative, regardless
of the triggering device. In other words, the grid of the thyratron or the
ignitron cannot stop current flow. Current will cease to flow when the anode
current is interrupted externally or when the anode current has become
zero.
In order to handle full-wave alternating current, two tubes (either thyra-
tron or ignitron) are required. These are connected back-to-back as shown
in Fig. 4.15, where ignitron tubes are illustrated. One tube carries the posi-
tive half cycles and the other tube carries the negative half cycles of weld-
ing current.
In Fig. 4.15, the heavy lines indicate the main welding circuit while
the light lines indicate the control circuit. In this illustration, rectifiers
Initiating Water-flow
Switch Fuse switch
1 II Or-K 1

Figure 4.15. Tube contactor power and control circuits
47
convey the small current necessary to trigger the ignitron tubes. Thyra-
tron tubes are employed as rectifiers for this function, particularly in the
more elaborate control devices where synchronous controls and phase
shifting devices are employed. The ignitron tubes generate heat in passing
current and so must be water-cooled for efficient operation. An over-
temperature protection switch is inserted in the control circuit to prevent
accidental operation of the tubes without adequate cooling.
Electronic contactors are especially valuable where very rapid operation
is necessary or where high currents are being handled. The noise and main-
tenance requirements inherent in mechanical contactors are eliminated by
electronic contactors. However, electronic contactors must be operated
within their capacity ratings. Manufacturer's rating charts should be
carefully followed in applications of these tubes. Sometimes it is advisable
to use ignitron tubes rather than thyratron tubes even though the load is
less than 40 amps. In this instance, a resistive or reactive load is placed in
parallel with the primary winding of the welding machine transformer to
insure satisfactory operation of the ignitron tubes.
Mechanical Contactors. These may be either single- or double-pole.
They are merely contacts actuated by motor-driven cams or eccentrics
and are sometimes driven directly by the welding machine itself.
They have largely been superseded by other types because they do not
have the flexibility necessary for modern requirements.
Timing and Sequencing Devices
Weld timing controls are of two general typesnonsyncbronous and
synchronous precisionof which there are several kinds.
Nonsynchronous Timers. A nonsynchronous timer is one which starts
and stops the flow of welding current at any time with respect to the line
voltage wave form. Since the opening and closing of the contactor is not
necessarily synchronized with the line voltage, the result can be a variation
of time as well as a variation in current input to the machine. The time
variation will probably be at least plus or minus % cycle and sometimes
more. On welds of 20 cycles duration or more, these variations result in a
low percentage of total variation and can usually be neglected. If the weld-
ing time is below 5 cycles, the percentage of these variations becomes very

great, producing marked inconsistent results. Following are the nonsyn-
chronous timing mechanisms:
Electronic. The electronic timer is an electrical device in which the tim-
ing is based on the change in voltage across capacitors or inductors (very
seldom used) which are either discharged or charged through values of
resistances which are adjustable. These voltages are normally applied to
grids of electronic tubes to build up the desired sequence by conduction of
the tubes.
48
RESISTANCE WELDING
Pneumatic. A pneumatic timer is a mechanical device, consisting of
electrical contacts actuated by delay mechanisms involving the transfer of a
small volume of filtered air from one chamber to another. A regulated ori-
fice determines the speed of transfer of air, and therefore the length of the
timing period. A needle valve with adjusting knob is used to set the timing
period. The time setting is usually indicated in cycles on a calibrated dial
geared to the needle valve.
Motor. Motors having a constant operating speed can be used for timing
purposes. Cam-operated contacts close and open the circuit to the operat-
ing coil of the welding contactor. A clutch is sometimes used to engage and
disengage the cam shaft, allowing the motor to run continuously. Occa-
sionally the cam shaft is directly connected to the motor that is then
started and stopped at the beginning and end of each timing period.
Synchronous Precision Timers. A synchronous precision timer
provides an accurate timing period and both closes and opens the primary
circuit of the welding transformer at precisely the same point on the voltage
wave in making each weld. Thus the current wave form is consistent and
the time of current flow through the welding transformer is the same for
consecutive operations.
Control of the time at which the power circuit is closed is vital for pre-
cise results. If the highly inductive circuit characteristic of a welding trans-
former is connected to the power circuit at a point corresponding to zero
current (if current were flowing), then no transient will occur and the cur-
rent during the first half-cycle will be practically the same as the steady
state current throughout the weld. On the other hand, when the power
circuit is closed at the time the current would be maximum (if current were
flowing) a transient current results in the primary. Peaks are greater in
magnitude than those corresponding to normal or steady state currents.
The transients in the secondary winding of the transformer are not so
great but they are sufficient to materially affect the energy delivered to the
weld.
The synchronous precision timer is an electronic mechanism (thyratron
and ignitron tubes) designed to achieve the above results.
Sequence and Sequence Weld Timers. When making repetitive spot or

projection welds one complete welding cycle consists of four basic steps
in the following sequence:
1. Squeeze time.
2. Weld time.
3. Hold time.
4. Off time.
If the weld timing is nonsynchronous, the time function may be built
into and be an integral part of the sequence control. Such, units are called
49
sequence-weld timers. When weld timing is accomplished by synchronous
control and the sequence of welding machine operations are timed, the
units are called sequence timers.
Standardized Classification for Welding Timers and Sequence
Controls. Welding timers and sequence controls have been standardized
in several basic types which fit most commercial resistance-welding appli-
cations.
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) classifica-
tion is herewith listed.
TimersStandard Types
NEMA Type 1-AWeld Timer. This is a simple, non-
synchronous timer which controls weld time only. It is used
for single-impulse spot welding on cam-operated machines
or where a maintained pilot contact is provided.
NEMA Type 1-BMultiple-Impulse Timer. This non-
synchronous timer controls only the heat time, the cool time
and either the weld interval or the number of heat times. It
is used for single- or multiple-impulse spot welding.
NEMA Type 3-BSequence-Weld Timer. This is the most
popular nonsynchronous timer for single-impulse spot weld-
ing. It controls squeeze time, weld time, hold time and off
time. It may be used with or without nonbeat control. (Non-
beat control means that the initiating switch cannot control
the operation, once started.)
NEMA Type S-CThis nonsynchronous timer controls
squeeze time, weld time, hold time and off time. It is used for
single-impulse spot welding.
NEMA Type 5-BSequence-Weld Timer. This is the same
as the 3-B control except that it provides for weld interval,
heat time and cool time and may be used for multiple-impulse
spot welding.
NEMA Type 7-BSequence Timer. This is the same as the
3-B control except that an external synchronous weld timer
is required to control weld time.

NEMA Type 9-BSequence Timer. This is the same as
the 5-B control except that an external synchronous weld
timer is required to control weld time.
Standard combinations of nonsynchronous controls and the correspond-
ing NEMA type numbers are given in Table 4.1.
NEMA standard combinations of synchronous resistance welding con-
trols are given in Table 4.2.
50
RESISTANCE WELDING
Table 4.1. Standard CombinationsNonsynchronous Controls600
Volts or Less
Welding Contactor
Sequence Timer Types
Regulators
Nonsynchronous
Control Type
Heat
Control
Elec-
tronic
Magnetic
1-A
3-B
3-C
5-B
Voltage
Current
N1A
N1AH
N1H
NIC
N1V
N2
N2H
N3
N3H
N6
N6H

* Either, not both.
Table 4.2. Standard CombinationsSynchronous Precision Controls
600 Volts or Less
Synchronous
Precision
Control
Type
Elec-
tronic
51
Table 4.3. Standard Timer Ranges in CyclesRange of Standard
Weld Timers, Multiple-Impulse Timers, Sequence Weld Timers
and Sequence Timers in Cycles
Timing Range, Cycles
Functions
Timer Types
Power Supply
60 Cycles
SO Cycles
25 Cycles
Squeeze
3-B, 5-B, 7-B, 9-B
3-120
3-100
2-50
Pre weld
3-120
3-100
2-50
Weld
1-A, 3-B
3-120
3-100
2-50
Heat
1-B, 5-B
3-30
3-25
2-13
Cool
1-B, 5-B, 9-B
3-30
3-25
2-13

Weld Interval
1-B, 5-B, 9-B
9-360
8-300
4-150
Forge Delay
3-360
3-300
2-150
Chill
9-360
8-300
4-150
Temper
3-120
3-100
2-50
Hold
3-B, 5-B, 7-B, 9-B
3-60
3-50
2-25
Off
3-B, 5-B, 7-B, 9-B
3-60
3-50
2-25
Up Slope
1-10
Down Slope
1-30
Weld Heat
1-60
Table 4.3 gives the standard timing ranges available on nonsynchronous
52
RESISTANCE WELDING
is an adjustable cool, or chill, interval between the normal weld and the
postheat time.
A further modification of the program timer is one in which the current
is caused to change gradually from one value to another over a definite
length of time. A control of this type may also include more than one time
interval and more than one cool interval with or without the multiple-
impulse feature.
Accessory Devices
Heat Control. The control of "heat" or welding current is accomplished
by changing the secondary voltage of the welding transformer. This is
done by three methods: (1) taps on the welding transformer, (2) taps on
an autotransformer, or (3) electronic heat control, or a combination of the
above may be used.
The electronic method controls the rms voltage applied to the primary
of the welding transformer which, in turn, controls the secondary, or out-
put voltage. When two ignitron tubes are connected in inverse parallel,
one tube will pass the negative half cycle or a portion thereof and the
other tube will pass the positive half cycle or a portion thereof. Each tube,
once it is fired, will continue to conduct current until the current passes
through zero, or at the end of its half cycle. By the action of the ignitor,
the tubes will re-fire at the start of their respective half cycles as long as
the timing circuit permits.
Referring to Fig. 4.16A the primary voltage and current of the welding
transformer are shown for the full-heat condition. Fig. 4.16B shows the
voltage appearing across the primary of the welding transformer with a
very narrow gap at the current zero, when the current changes from one
tube to another. Similarly, Fig. 4.16C shows the voltage which appears
across the tubes.
Figure 4.17A shows the power supply voltage and current at reduced
heat. It will be noted that current is now discontinuous. Figure 4.17B
shows that the voltage applied to the primary of the welding transformer
is zero when no current is flowing. Figure 4.17C shows that during this
particular interval when current does not flow, or when voltage is not ap-
plied to the welding transformer, the line voltage appears across the tubes.

It should be noted also that the sum of the voltage appearing across the
welding transformer and that appearing across the tubes is equal to the
power supply voltage and sinusoidal if the power supply is sinusoidal.
Figure 4.18 is similar to Figure 4.17, except that the heat has been re-
duced still further.
The range of current control with this method depends upon the voltage
of the power supply and the type of tubes in use. If thyratrons are used
53
FULL HEAT
FIG. 4.16A
LINE VOLTAGE
LINE CURRENT .
OR
, WELDING ,
I CURRENT l
PARTIAL HEAT
FIG. 4.17A
LOW HEAT
FIG. 4.18A
FIG. 4.16B
VOLTAGE ACROSS
PRIMARY OF
WELDING TRANS-
FORMER
FIG. 4.17B
NO APPRECIABLE NOTE
GAP AT FULL HEAT GAP
FIG. 4.16C
VOLTAGE ACROSS
IGNITRON TUBES
WHEN THESE TUBES
ARE CONDUCTING
LOAD CURRENT
FIG. 4.17C
VOLTAGE ACROS
IGNITRON TUBES
WHEN NOT CONDUCT-
ING LOAD CURRENT
ARC DROP OF
LEADING IGNITRON
ARC DROP OF

TRAILING IGNITRON
NOTE WIDER GAP
Figures 4.16, 4.17 and 4.18. Heat control
to conduct the welding transformer primary current, complete control
can be obtained from the normal or 100 per cent current to practically
zero for all standard power supply voltages.
Ignitrons, on the other hand, require a certain minimum voltage and
current to start the ionization process. For this reason, complete control
from 100 per cent to zero is not feasible, and it is necessary to limit the
minimum value to 40 per cent rms current for 220-volt applications, and
20 per cent rms current for 440 or higher voltage applications.
For simplicity, consider the circuit as having two ignitrons and the heat
54
RESISTANCE WELDING
,o
to phase-
Shift
circuit
TO PHASE-
SHIFT
CIRCUIT
it
LOADo
Figure 4.19. Heat control circuit
control thyratrons connected in what is commonly known as anode firing
(see Fig. 4.19). The firing thyratrons are employed to close or open the
circuit to the ignitron's ignitors. The grid voltage is made the resultant of a
resistor-reactor circuit in which the potentiometer is made variable. By
adjusting this heat potentiometer the exact phase relationship of the grid
voltage to supply voltage can be controlled. Thus, the firing point of the
ignitron in each voltage loop can be advanced or retarded. When the
a-c grid voltage is 180 out of phase with the anode voltage no current
flows. That is because the thyratron's grid voltage is always negative dur-
ing the positive half cycle. If the a-c grid voltage is 135 out of phase with
the anode, conduction occurs for a relatively small portion of each positive
half cycle. When the a-c grid voltage is 90 out of phase, conduction will
occur for a larger portion of each positive half cycle. When the phase rela-
tion is adjusted to the natural power factor angle of the load, 100 per cent
current conduction will be obtained. But once the ignitron fires, the thyra-
tron extinguishes. This is because the voltage drop across the ignitron is
generally 15 volts, which is not adequate to meet the thyratron's minimum
25-volt requirement for sustained conduction. But with the ignitron going
out at zero current, full-line voltage reappears across the ignitron and
thyratron, of opposite polarity, and the tubes have been reset, ready for
the next firing operation.
Preheat and Postheat Controls. A preheat control is an additional
element to provide a preheating current and time interval interposed be-
tween the squeeze time and weld time or weld interval. The current and

time values are controlled independently of the welding current and time.
A postheat control is similar to the preheat control except that it is inter-
posed between the weld time and hold time. This control is used as a means
of heat treating or tempering welds in hardenable steels and to permit slow
cooling during the forging cycle often desirable for certain alloys. A chill
(quench) time interval immediately following the weld time or interval
is required when tempering welds in hardenable steels to permit the weld
55
zone to cool. This chill time is undesirable when postheating during the
forging cycle, since it is necessary to apply the forging force before the
weld zone has cooled appreciably.
Slope Control (slope up and slope down). Slope control is for use
with either nonsynchronous or synchronous precision single-phase spot
welding controls which include electronic heat control. Slope up control
permits a gradual increase in welding current to full welding current. Slope
down control permits a gradual decrease in the welding current after com-
pletion of the nugget formation.
The slope control is in effect an electronic resistor whose value varies
with time. When the squeeze time in the standard sequence timer times
out (terminates), the slope control is energized for slope up control. During
the weld time or weld interval, the slope control is energized for slope down
control. Energizing of the slope control starts an electronic timing circuit
which causes an electronic resistor to increase or decrease in value, thereby
gradually advancing or retarding the phase of the heat control in the stand-
ard panel.
Voltage Compensator. This device is available only for use with elec-
tronic contactors incorporating phase shift heat control. This regulating
compensator consists of an electronic circuit which responds to line voltage
changes in such a manner that the phase shift control is advanced or re-
tarded in order to minimize the effect of line voltage fluctuations on the
welding current. For line voltage variations of plus 10 per cent or minus
20 per cent one commercial model will hold the welding current to plus or
minus 2 per cent of the established value. When included in the control
circuit the maximum normal setting of the current (heat) control should
not exceed 80 per cent full maximum output. The unit will compensate in
less than 3 cycles for a sudden drop in supply voltage and is applicable for
welding systems where the power factor is in the range from 20 to 70 per
cent.
Current Regulator. The current regulator is a device very similar to
the voltage compensator described in the preceding paragraph. It can be
used in timers where electronic heat control is employed. The current regu-
lator receives an impulse from current in the primary circuit. When this

impulse varies from that which was preset on the device, the phase shift
is altered within three cycles of time to compensate for the change. The
current regulator will respond to voltage changes in the primary as the
voltage compensator does. In addition, it will also respond to current
variations due to impedance changes in the secondary circuit. With this
device in the control circuit, the maximum phase shift heat control setting
must not exceed 75 per cent full current output of the machine.
56
RESISTANCE WELDING
ELECTRODES
Functions and Requirements of Resistance-Welding Electrodes*
In all resistance-welding applications, the electrodes are in direct con-
tact with the materials to be welded. The electrodes conduct the welding
current to the materials to be welded, apply the electrode force to the area
to be welded, and dissipate a part of the heat of welding.
Resistance-welding electrodes carry extremely high electric currents,
current densities ranging from 5000 to 70,000 amp. per square inch. Since
the quantity of heat developed in metal conductors is directly proportional
to the square of the current, the time of current flow and the resistance of
the path, it is obvious that an electrode should have a relatively high elec-
trical conductivity to minimize heating of the electrode. In fact, the elec-
trical and thermal conductivities must be sufficiently high so that heat
generated at the work and electrode face will be readily dissipated prevent-
ing these surfaces from fusing.
In resistance-welding operations, the welding pressure on the electrode
may range from 10,000 to 60,000 psi. In addition, there may be consider-
able impact when the electrodes are brought together on the work. To
minimize deformation of the electrode face, therefore, the electrode must
be made of a material having high mechanical properties (hardness, yield
strength, etc.), particularly at elevated temperatures.
The electrode must be properly designed. Provision should be made for
enough electrode mass to give adequate strength and sufficient area. Inter-
nal cooling must be included in the design. The best design is a compromise
between optimum electrical and thermal conductivities and mechanical
stability.
Electrode Materials
Commercially pure copper is an excellent electrical conductor. How-
ever, certain copper alloys have higher annealing temperatures, greater
compressive strength and better wear resistance. These desirable mechan-
ical properties are obtained at some sacrifice in electrical and thermal con-
ductivities. This suggests selection of an electrode material that has the
least conductivity that will produce good welds on a given application, so
as to take advantage of the greater wearing properties. It should be noted

that if the conductivity is too low, sticking or alloying of the electrode face
is experienced, particularly in spot and seam welding.
RWMA Electrode Material Standards. The physical and mechanical
properties of standard RWMA electrode materials are listed in Table 4.5.
* Term as used here also includes platens used.
Table 4.5. Minimum Propertie. for Electrode Materials
Group A
Copper-Base Alloys
Rod diameter: round
rod stock:
Up to 1" dia
Over 1" to Z" dia..
Over Z" to 3" dia..
Thickness: square'
rectangu1ar and
hexagona1 bar
stock:
Up to 1"
Over 1"
ThIckness:forgings:
Up to 1"
Over 1" to Z"
Over Z"
Castings:
51
Proportional Limit, Tension (psi)
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Z0'05
15'55
15'05
Z0'05
15'000
Z0'05
15'05
15'05
35'50
30'000
Z5'000
35'05
Z5'50
35'000
Z5'05
Z0'05
'000
'05
'000
50'5
'05
'05
'05
'50
45'50

30 5
Hardness, Rockwell "B"
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
45
90
55
50
55
50
70
65
70
45
5Z
70
65
90
50
58
RESISTANCE WELDING
Recommended use of these alloys is as follows:
Group ACopper-Base Alloys:
Class 1 alloy is recommended as a general-purpose material for spot
welding electrodes, seam welding wheels, seam welding machine shafts,
projection welding electrodes, flash, upset and percussion welding dies,
and fixtures. It is specifically recommended, because of its high electrical
and thermal conductivity, for spot welding aluminum alloys, magnesium
alloys, coated materials (terne plate, tin plate, galvanized iron, cadmium
plate), brass and bronze. This alloy is work-hardenable and is not available
in cast form.
Case 2 alloy is a cold-worked, age-hardened (heat-treatable) material
with higher mechanical properties and somewhat lower electrical and ther-
mal conductivities than Class 1. It is used for those applications requiring
moderately high electrode force but with high thermal conductivity. It is
used for spot, seam and projection welding of clean mild steel, low-alloy
steels, stainless steels, low-conductivity brasses and bronzes, white brasses,
nickel and nickel alloys. It may also be used for seam welding machine
shafts and bearings, flash, upset and percussion welding dies and current
carrying structural members.
In cast form it is used as gun arms, platens and secondary circuit struc-
tural members for welding machines.
Class 3 alloy is a cold-worked, age-hardened (heat-treatable) material
with still higher mechanical properties and lower conductivities than Class
1 or 2. It is used principally for projection welding electrodes, flash, upset
and percussion welding dies, current carrying shafts and bushings for seam
welding. Because of its low conductivity it is not generally recommended
for use as spot welding electrodes but may be used advantageously for
spot welding materials having high electrical resistance, such as stainless
steels and Inconel.
In cast form, it is recommended for highly stressed current carrying
structural members and heavy-duty offset electrode holders.
Class 4 alloy is a cold-worked, age-hardened (heat-treatable) material
having extremely high hardness and tensile strength, although the elec-
trical conductivity is lower than that of the Class 3 alloy. It is generally

recommended as electrode material for special flash and projection welding
applications where pressures are extremely high and wear is severe, but
where heating is not excessive. It is used frequently in the form of inserts
and die facings and for seam welding machine bushings. It is also available
in cast form.
Class 5 alloy is available principally in the form of castings having high
mechanical strength and moderate electrical conductivity. It is recom-
59
mended principally as a high strength backing material for other resistance-
welding electrode materials, flash welding dies, and as high strength cur-
rent carrying structural members of resistance-welding equipment, such
as secondary circuit arms, knees, platens, etc. It may be used advantage-
ously as structural or current carrying members in resistance-welding fix-
tures where high strength, wear resistance and nonmagnetic properties
are required.
Group BCopper-Tungsten Alloys:
The Group B electrode materials are mixtures of copper and tungsten
made by powder metallurgy processes. Since they are not true alloys, as
those in Group A, they do not respond to heat treatment nor can they be
cold-worked. Their mechanical properties and conductivities are a func-
tion of the per cent of copper and tungsten employed, hence are not re-
duced by the heat of welding. Commercially pure tungsten and molyb-
denum used for electrode materials also fall into this Group (Class 13).
These materials are used as facings or inserts because of their superior wear
resistance and because they can be brazed without destroying their de-
sirable properties. When used in this manner, the back-up piece must be a
higher strength material than the pure copper conductor.
These alloys are not generally used for spot or seam welding because of
their low conductivity. However, they are useful where the base material
being welded has high resistance (stainless steel or Inconel) or where a heat
balance is necessary (see pages 18-19). The Group is subdivided into
Classes 10, 11, 12 and 13 which have ascending orders of hardness and
descending orders of conductivity (see Table 4.5).
Types of Electrodes
Spot Welding. A spot welding electrode has four features: (1) face,

(2) the shank, (3) the end or attachment, and (4) provision for cooling.
60
RESISTANCE WELDING
1. Face. The face of the electrode is that portion which contacts the
work. Its design is influenced by the material, thickness and geometry of
the assembly to be welded. In turn the electrode face determines the cur-
rent and pressure densities in the weld zone. Fig. 4.20 shows some typical
electrode faces. The radius and dome contours are most commonly used
for all materials. The flat faced electrode is used where surface marking
must be minimized or heat balance maintained.
The face may be concentric to the axis of the electrode as in Figs. 4.20A-
E, may be offset as in Fig. 4.20 F, or may be at some angle to the axis, as
in Fig. 4.21. The offset faces are used to make a weld in a corner, close to
the radius of a flange, or in other less accessible areas (see Fig. 4.21 and
4.22). Faces of Group B materials may be brazed to the shank of a Group
A material and dressed as shown in Fig. 4.23 for special applications.
2. Shank. The shank of the electrode must have sufficient cross-sectional
area to support the electrode force and carry the welding current. The
shank may be straight, as in Fig. 4.20 or offset as in Fig. 4.24.
APPLICATION OF THE
30" OFFSET ELECTRODE

Figure 4.21. Spot welding electrode face offset at angle to axis
61
3. Attachment. The end of the electrode used for attachment of the elec-
trode to the electrode holder is of two conventional types, tapered or
threaded. There are other means of attachment available for specially
designed holders.
Tapered attachments have been standardized by 11WMA as shown in
Fig. 4.25. Threaded attachments are used for welding heavier materials
since the high welding forces make it difficult to extract the tapered elec-
trode from the holder. Typical electrodes with threaded attachments are
shown in Fig. 4.26.
4. Cooling. Electrodes must be provided with a bore for internal cooling.
The bore should be large enough in diameter to permit insertion of a tube
with freely circulating water. The depth of the bore should extend close
enough to the face of the electrode to permit adequate cooling of the face.
The bore may be of straight wall or fluted. The purpose of the fluting is to
increase the internal surface area.
Projection Welding. Projection welding electrodes invariably have
large, flat contacting surfaces, the area of which is always larger than the
base diameter of the projections.
The standardized spot welding electrodes having flat faces are frequently
used for projection welding as shown in Fig. 4.27.
In making multiple projection welds by means of dies, replaceable,
threaded, and internally cooled copper-tungsten faced tips are recom-
mended. A typical die construction is shown in Fig. 4.28.
Seam Welding. Seam welding electrodes are in the form of wheels
and have the same features as spot welding electrodes, i.e., face, shank,
attachment and cooling.
The contour used is determined by the type of drive mechanism and
the requirements for current and pressure distribution in the weld zone.
Various wheel contours are used, there being four basic types: straight,

Figure 4.22. Spot welding electrode face with straight offset
02
RESISTANCE WELDING
THREADED ELECTRODES
FLAT FLAT
Figure 4.23. Spot welding electrode face brazed to shank
single bevel, double bevel and radius face. The last three of these are shown
in Fig. 4.29.
If the electrode is driven on the periphery by a steel roll, it is knurl- or
friction-driven; if through a train of gears, it is gear- or shaft-driven. Some-
times one electrode is driven while the other one idles. Gear-type mecha-
nisms are used when work clearances do not permit peripheral driving
mechanisms.
Radius-crowned electrodes provide best weld appearance and are the
easiest to set up. Flat-faced, beveled-side electrodes are often used and are
more difficult to set up so that the two flat surfaces are parallel making
uniform contact on the work. A knurled-face electrode marks the work.
ABC
IRREGULAR IRREGULAR GUN
OFFSET OFFSET WELDER TIP

Figure 4.24. Offset spot welding electrodes
63
No. 1 MORSE TAPER No. 2 MORSE TAPER No. 3 MORSE TAPER
Figure 4.25. Spot welding electrode tapers
The diameter and width of the wheel are determined by the thickness
and geometry of the material being welded.
Seam welding electrodes are usually attached to a shaft by means of
bolts or studs in sufficient quantity to withstand the torque imposed by
the roll.
Common practice is to cool the electrodes and the work by flood cooling
both top and bottom. Where cooling water is detrimental to the work,
internal cooling of the shaft and roll may be provided.
FLAT FACE TRUNCATED STRAIGHT
CONE OFF-SET

Figure 4.26. Typical threaded spot welding electrodes
64
RESISTANCE WELDING
Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding Dies. Flash, upset and per-
cussion welding dies are in general not in direct contact with the weld area
as are spot and seam welding electrodes, but may be considered work hold-
ing and current conducting clamps. Since the current density is relatively
low in these dies, harder materials with lower electrical conductivity may
be used. However, it is always necessary to have adequate contacting sur-
face, such that high current densities will not cause die burns.
There are no generally standardized designs of these dies, since the dies
must be made to fit the contour of the parts to be welded. The size of the
dies is dependent largely on the geometry of the parts to be welded and
the necessity of mechanical rigidity to maintain proper alignment of work
by resisting deflections from thrusts, resulting from the upsetting forces.
ii
ii
LnaL,
TOT
Figure 4.27. Projection welding using spot welding electrodes
UPPER DIE BLOCK
LOWER DIE BLOCK

Figure 4.28. Typical die construction for multiple projection welds
65
<~Electrode face width-.-
Double
bevel
Gear-driven or
Idling electrodes
Radius
-Electrod* width
Figure 4.29. Seam welding wheel contours
As much electrode contact area as is practical should be provided. The
contact surfaces may be made as small inserts attached to the larger die,
mechanically or otherwise, to reduce the cost of replacement, and to per-
mit convenient detachment for redressing.
Flash, upset and percussion dies are usually designed to be mechanically
fastened to the welding machine platen.
RWMA Group B facing is frequently used to prolong die life, the facing
insert being brazed to the surfaces subjected to maximum wear.
Electrode Holders
There are several basic types of holders for use with standardized spot
welding electrodes, namely: (1) straight, (2) offset, and (3) universal off-
set.
The straight type holder may be an ejector type or a nonejector type.
The ejector type holder permits the removal of the electrode by striking
an ejector plug on the end of the holder with a rawhide mallet. One type is
shown in Fig. 4.30. Both the offset and the universal offset holders are
used to weld assemblies not accessible to straight holders.
Offset holders are available which hold the electrode either at 90 or at
30 degree angles. Universal offset holders hold the electrode at any angle.
Both types are available in different capacities.
For very small resistance-welding work, such as welding electronic tube
components, small wires, contacts, etc., there are the miniature electrode
holders designed for use with small bench-type spot welders. Fig. 4.31
shows some combinations of electrodes and holders in use. Holders and
electrodes must be compatible. Low inertia holders incorporating light
spring pressures are available for applications where light pressure and

rapid followup are required.
ELECTRODE CARE AND MAINTENANCE
Resistance-welding electrodes are expendible tools, in many respects
like drills, taps, turning tools, and the like. When properly applied, re-
sistance-welding electrodes will last for many applications. However, they
66
RESISTANCE WELDING
do wear and mushroom in normal service under the influence of heat and
pressure. When the amount of mushrooming or wear is appreciable, the
quality of the weld will be affected. The welding electrodes must then be
redressed to their original contour to maintain the quality of weld.

Figure 4.30. Straight spot welding electrode holderejector type

Figure 4.31. Various combinations of electrodes and holders
68
RESISTANCE WELDING
EJECTOR
WATER-
-" COOIED
A HOLDER
SVA OFFSET
TIP
EJECTOR
WATER-COOLED
HOLDER
LIOHT-DUTY
WATER-COOLED
EJECTOR HOLDER
LIGHT-DUTY
WATER-COOLED
UNIVERSAL HOLDER
WITH TRUNCATED
CONE TIP
. HEAVY-DUTY EJECTOR
WATER-COOLED HOLDER
HEAVY-DUTY
UNIVERSAL
WATER-COOLED HOLDER
HEAVY-DUTY
OFFSET WATER-
COOLED HOLDER
HEAVY-DUTY
OFFSET WATER-
COOLED HOLDER
UGHT-DUTY
WATER-COOLED
EJECTOR HOLDER
UGHT-DUTY
WATER-COOLED
UNIVERSAL HOLDER

WITH
COMPLEMENTARY
30' OFFSET TIP
Wo)
UNIVERSAL
> COMPLEMENTARY TIP
N. WATER-COOLED
1? EJECTOR
HOLDER
Figure 4.31. contd.
If electrodes are improperly applied or abused in service, their life be-
tween dressings is considerably shortened and their over-all life may be
affected.
Spot-Welding Electrodes. Spot-welding electrodes have a definite
area in contact with the work. In use, this area will grow by mushrooming
69
and the resultant current density and pressure density will decrease. As a
result, the weld will become smaller. It may also contain cracks or voids.
In addition, the electrodes tend to pick up metal from the material being
welded. A small amount of pick up is not harmful but if a considerable
amount of pick up is encountered, the electrodes will overheat and mush-
room very rapidly.
It is not possible to predict how many spots can be made with a given
set-up before redressing of the electrodes is necessary. A periodic check of
the weld quality as well as the electrode shape will help in determining how
long the electrodes may be used before redressing. A schedule of electrode
redressing should be set up as preventive maintenance, to maintain the
electrodes and the weld quality.
A minor amount of redressing of electrodes in the machine is permissible
using a plastic or metal paddle having a contour machined in both faces to
match the required contours of the electrodes. The paddle is wrapped with
fine abrasive cloth, abrasive out. The electrodes are brought against the
paddle (current off) under light pressure and the paddle is rotated to re-
dress the electrode tips.
Where a major amount of redressing is necessary, it is best to remove the
electrodes from the machine and cut a new contour on a lathe or similar
machine. A stock of newly-dressed electrodes near the welding machine
will permit the operator to replace the electrode without delay. In this
respect, electrodes are like drills. Alternatively, major redressing of the
electrodes may be done in the machine, by manual or power-operated
dressing tools which will cut proper contours on the tips.
Under no circumstances should a coarse file be employed on electrodes
for redressing in the machine because the resulting electrode faces will be
irregular in size and contour. They mark the work and the quality of
weld is questionable.
The following suggestions are intended to help in correctly applying
spot-welding electrodes.
1. Use standard electrodes and holders wherever possible. Almost any
set-up can be made from an adequate supply of standard holders, offset
holders, universal holders, flat tips, domed tips, offset tips, and other read-

ily available standard parts. Poorly designed, home-made electrodes and
holders are expensive to make and unsatisfactory for the job.
2. Use the proper alloys recommended for the work at hand. (See AWS
Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding.)
3. Use adequate water cooling. Do not weld without water cooling.
See that the water (one to five gallons per minute) circulates in the correct
direction in both electrodes. The cooling water must impinge upon the
internal end of the water hole. If water leaks occur, replace the electrode,
70
RESISTANCE WELDING
the holder, or both. Electrodes and holders may be remachined if not too
badly damaged. Do not use white lead, paper or other nonconductors to
stop leaking.
4. Align the electrodes properly. See that all nuts and bolts are tight.
Electrodes should not skid or be out of line when they come together.
5. Use rawhide or rubber mallets for tapping electrodes into position.
Do not use steel hammers, wrenches or other hard materials to tap elec-
trodes or holders. Use ejector-type holders or use proper tools for removing
tips. Do not use Stillson wrenches.
6. See that the machine is adjusted properly. The electrodes must
close with a minimum of impact. The electrodes must close before current
flow and must remain closed until termination of current flow.
7. Watch welds carefully. If the spot contour changes, dress the elec-
trodes. Check for metal pickup on both the work and the electrode. Fre-
quent minor dressing will prevent the need for major dressing.
Projection-Welding Dies. Projection dies usually contact the work
over a much larger area than do spot-welding electrodes. With lower pres-
sure and current densities, wear and mushrooming are not as serious as
with spot welding. However, after repeated use, the dies will wear or take
the impression of the projection. When the dies no longer hold the work
properly, they should be redressed or refitted with inserts of harder copper
alloy to compensate for wear. Locating pins and guide bars should be
insulated to prevent arcing deterioration. Keep the dies clean and free from
dirt and flash so that burning of the parts and rapid deterioration of the
die will not occur.
Seam-Welding Wheels. Seam welding wheels, like spot welding elec-
trodes, have a definite area in contact with the work. As the wheels mush-
room, the area increases, the current and pressure densities decrease, and
the quality of the weld suffers. The service life of a set of wheels between
dressings must be determined for each application as needed to maintain
weld quality and wheel contour. Seam welding wheels should not be dressed
in the welding machine unless it is equipped with wheel dressers. They
should be turned on a lathe using a fine abrasive on a paddle for minor
dressings, or a tool bit to remove large amounts of metal to bring the wheel

face back to the original contour. It is claimed that friction or knurl-
driven seam welding machines tend to overcome mushrooming by burnish-
ing or removing mushroomed metal. This is true to some extent, but if
material is removed, it is important that chips do not fall on the work or
stick to the wheel so that they become embedded in the work or wheel
during welding. Do not allow the wheels to run on or off edges or corners
of work. This will mark the wheels and subsequently will mark the work.
Be sure that generous quantities of water are directed at the weld, top
71
and bottom, and usually front and rear (four streams in all) in order to
keep the wheel and the work as cool as possible. Do not use a file or other
rough surface to roughen the wheels. This will not help in getting traction
but will mark the work and cause weld cracking in some instances.
Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding Dies. Flash, upset and per-
cussion welding dies have large areas in contact with the work. They tend
to wear but do not mushroom. As wear takes place, the area may be de-
creased and local hot spots occur where the work is burned. The dies should
be kept clean and free from flash and dirt. Flash and dirt will tend to be-
come embedded in the die causing hot spots and die burns in subsequent
welds. All bolts, nuts, and other die-holding devices should be tight. The
gripping surfaces should be firm and kept so that the parts cannot move
during the welding operation. Spatter-proof paint, as used for metal-arc
welding, may be employed on exposed surfaces of the dies to make periodic
flash removal easier.
Jigs and Fixtures. The functions of jigs and fixtures in resistance weld-
ing are (1) to locate rapidly and accurately two or more work parts relative
to each other, (2) to hold them in proper location while the parts are being
welded, and (3) to permit ready release of the welded assembly. A jig
is usually separate from the welding machine. Parts are loaded into the
jig and carried to the welding machine or a portable machine is carried to
the jig. A fixture, on the other hand, is either fastened to the machine or
built into it. Parts are loaded directly into the fixture and welded.
Resistance-welding processes are very rapid as compared to other
methods of joining. If maximum utilization of this speed is to be attained,
a jig must be easily handled and jigs and fixtures must be quick acting in
both loading and unloading. Time studies of spot welding operations fre-
quently reveal that 75 per cent or more of the total time is spent in loading
and unloading the work.
Jigs and fixtures for resistance welding are somewhat different from those
for other manufacturing operations because of the presence of large weld-
ing currents. The following factors should be kept in mind when designing
jigs and fixtures.
1. Jigs are rather simple to make and are quite adequate for many short

run spot and seam welding operations. Fixtures are to be preferred for
long-run spot, seam, projection and flash welding operations. It may not
always be possible to make a fixture instead of a jig, but where possible, the
fixture is preferred.
2. Jigs should be light and easily handled if they are to be carried to a
machine. Sometimes, a roller table or counter-balance may be added to a
jig in order to permit one-man operation instead of two-man operation.
3. Quick-acting clamps, toggles, and other similar devices should be
72
RESISTANCE WELDING
employed on both jigs and fixtures. Sometimes ejector pins are required to
facilitate removal of the finished assembly.
4. Jigs and fixtures must be designed so that no welding current shunts
through the locating devices rather than through the work pieces. This
will require insulation of pins and locating strips.
5. Usually nonmagnetic materials, both metallic and nonmetallic, are
preferred because magnetic material in the throat of the machine will in-
crease the impedence and lower the maximum current which the machine
can deliver. If the capacity of the machine is not important, magnetic
materials can be used and a slightly higher heat employed. However,
magnetic materials must never make a complete loop through which pass
the copper current-carrying members of the secondary circuit of the weld-
ing machine. If such a magnetic loop is permitted (as for instance, the bolt-
ing of a table top to the lower arm of a welding machine by means of cir-
cular steel straps) a large current will be induced in the steel loop, heating
will occur, and the capacity of the welding machine will be considerably
reduced. If the loop is not completely magnetic (parts of the loop are made
of nonmagnetic material) heating will be much less although some loss of
machine capacity will still result.
6. Jigs and fixtures should be made as shallow as possible so that the
normal operating stroke of the machine will permit entry and removal of
the jig and welded parts without the need for a long stroke or a retracting
head on the machine.
7. Fixtures should be made so that the operator can load them with
safety. This may require the use of swivel devices or slides so that the load-
ing and unloading of the fixture occur out from under the upper electrode.
8. When parts of fixtures are current-carrying members, they must be
made of suitable copper alloys and usually require water cooling. Wrought
copper will carry about 1800 amp/sq in. Cast copper will carry about 1500
amp/sq in. Water cooling will increase these capacities by about 100 per
cent.
9. Jigs and fixtures must permit motion of the parts in the direction of
movement of the electrodes so that the parts can seat properly during the
welding operation. They must also permit redressing of the electrodes when

necessary and readjustment of the electrodes to compensate for material
removed in redressing.
10. All bearings, pins, slides, etc., should be protected from spatter and
flash. This is particularly true of flash welding fixtures.
In more highly specialized, single-purpose machines, such as the hopper-
fed or dial index projection welding machines, or the multiple-electrode
spot welding presses, it is difficult to delineate where the machine ends and
the fixture takes over.
73
EQUIPMENT CALIBRATION
Purpose
In addition to inspection and testing of standard sample welds made
under production conditions, it is necessary to make periodic checks of the
variables (current, force and time) with reference to the original calibration
to assure consistent machine operation. Changes in calibration detected
by such periodic checks will indicate the need for corrective measures.
The variables can be checked with relatively simple equipment with a
satisfactory degree of accuracy. More elaborate equipment and laboratory
techniques are required for accurate data.
Primary Current
Since resistance-welding machines employ currents (primary and second-
ary) many times greater than the range of ammeters, it is necessary to
reduce this current to a measurable value by a current transformer. The
input to the current transformer is the high current value to be deter-
mined, and its output is the low current value to be measured by the am-
meter. Hence, the meter reading multiplied by the transformer turns ratio
gives the primary current value.
Another method of measuring the high current value is by the use of a
calibrated shunt in series with the load, so that the high current passing
through the shunt produces a voltage which is measured by a voltmeter.
The voltmeter reading in volts divided by the ohmic resistance of the
shunt gives the current in amperes.
It is important to know the type of instrument used when making these
measurements, since all instruments do not respond to wave shape in the
same manner. Most current values as published are given as the rms value
(the heat effect value of the current). Ammeters with the iron-vane and
dynamometer-type movements read the rms current value for a-c waves
of any shape, that is full sine wave or chopped wave with phase shift con-
trol. The rectifier or d-c type instrument reads the average value of cur-
rent when measuring alternating currents and should not be used for wave
shapes other than full sine wave, i.e., the instrument will not read true
rms value when used with the phase shift control. The oscillograph (cathode
ray, magnetic or direct writing types) gives the peak value of the current

and its wave shape. The rms value can be conveniently calculated from
the peak value if the wave shape is sinusoidal. For nonsinusoidal wave
shapes (phase shift) the peak value is usually recorded and must not be
confused with the rms value.
Since it is not practical to pass the high welding current for sufficiently
long enough time to take an ammeter reading, a specially adapted pointer-
74
RESISTANCE WELDING
stop ammeter must be used for the short-time current flow. This instru-
ment provides an adjustable stop which prevents the pointer (needle) from
returning to zero. When measuring the short-time current, the pointer is
gradually moved up scale by the stop adjustment until the needle just pulls
off the stop. A movement of the needle away from the stop not greater than
34o f an mcn is accepted as a satisfactory reading.
Secondary Current
The secondary (welding) current, / is proportionally higher than the
primary current, Ip, by the product of the welding transformer turns ratio,
i.e., 7, = {Ip Iex) TR. The / is the exciting current of the transformer.
It is usually so small that it is safe to neglect this factor and make the
formula I, = IpX TR. The secondary current of a single phase a-c machine
can be determined either by direct measurement or by calculation, knowing
the primary current and transformer turns ratio. To measure this current
directly the same techniques are used as described above for primary cur-
rent measurement. It must be remembered that the secondary current is
20 to 50 times greater than the primary current, hence direct measuring
techniques are not desirable. The commonly accepted method is to calcu-
late the secondary current from the primary current measurement. In the
above formula, TR (turns ratio) = Primary turns/Secondary turns =
Ep/E,. If this ratio is not known for the given tap setting, it can be obtained
from the primary or line voltage (Ep) and the measured secondary open
circuited voltage (/,), these measurements being made simultaneously.
The measurement of secondary (welding) current for the three-phase and
stored-energy type welding machines is more difficult than for single-phase
machines. The secondary current in this case is nonsinusoidal and most
often unidirectional, i.e., always flowing in one direction but not of constant
value. The oscillograph is used to measure these currents, since it gives the
current magnitude as well as its wave shape.
Electrode Force
The welding force is usually recorded in terms of the total force exerted
by the air or oil on the operating cylinder. This will be the product of piston
area times the pressure per unit area and is the theoretical force. It dis-
regards friction and weight of moving parts. These factors, friction and

weight, tend to offset each other since one adds to and the other subtracts
from the calculated force.
It is usually practical to measure the force on the work, or static, to ob-
tain a more accurate measurement of the electrode force by some direct
force-measuring device. One such device depends on the application of
electrode force to a metal diaphragm containing a fluid. The device is
75
placed between the electrodes and the applied force on the diaphragm raises
the fluid pressure which is read by means of an attached pressure gauge
calibrated in actual pounds force of the electrode. Another static electrode
force measuring device with even greater reliability is a steel U-shaped
spring in which an indicator measures the deflection of the U member di-
rectly in pounds of force.
It is sometimes desirable to measure the dynamic electrode force during
actual welding. Inertia and friction will retard the "follow-up" of the elec-
trode force system during welding resulting in a momentary reduction in
the force. These force changes during welding are particularly important in
projection welding and in resistance welding of nonferrous metals.
An electrical strain gauge is used to accurately determine both the static
and dynamic welding forces. The strain gauge operates on the principle
that the resistance of fine wires will increase if the wires are subjected to
tension and will decrease when subjected to compression. These fine wires
are cemented to a section of the electrode holder and connected electrically
to a bridge circuit. The output of the bridge circuit is amplified and recorded
on an oscillograph. The strain gauge can then be calibrated so the electrode
forces are measured directly in pounds.
Time
Of equal importance in the calibration of welding equipment is weld time.
Most welding timers are calibrated directly in cycles referred to a 60-
cycle power supply frequency. Standard NEMA nonsynchronous timers
have a maximum variation of no greater than 1 cycle at the minimum
setting at the mechanical midposition of the adjuster, or at the maximum
position a variation of 20 per cent is permissible. Synchronous timers
have no variation under 15 cycles.
The oscillograph is the most accurate instrument for measuring time
intervals. However, more readily applied instruments for checking weld
time are the cycle counter and cycle recorder. The cycle counter uses an
electric clock movement that makes a complete revolution each second.
Its dial is divided into 60 segments, each representing one cycle. It is con-
nected in the circuit so that the clock motor runs continuously. A magnetic
clutch is connected to the timing device in such a way that the time being

checked will automatically engage and disengage the clutch. Thus the
cycle counter will accurately count out the elapsed cycles with an accuracy
of 1 cycle.
The cycle recorder is an electromagnetic device containing a small pointer
which presses against a paper tape backed up by a carbon roll. The pointer
is caused to vibrate in the plane of the paper by an applied a-c voltage. The
paper tape is motor driven over the carbon roll so that the vibrating pointer
76
RESISTANCE WELDING
traces a wave, nearly sinusoidal. The cycles are readily counted from the
tape. To measure the weld time, it is necessary to connect the cycle recorder
across the supply lines between the contactor and the transformer, so that
the supply voltage is applied to the instrument during the time that the

contactor is closed.
Chapter 5
WELDING SYMBOLS
One picture can often tell as much as a great many words. This is par-
ticularly true in the case of industrial practices for making drawings or
prints to be used in manufacture and fabrication. These drawings, consist-
ing of lines and standard symbols, convey the ideas of the designer to those
actually making the part. And they do it in a much briefer fashion and also
more accurately than many words. The standard welding symbols for the
resistance-welding processes are shown in this chapter. The symbols are
summarized in Fig. 5.1.
STANDARD SYMBOLS*
A. Basic Material and General Provisions
1. Resistance Weld Symbols
Resistance weld symbols shall be as shown in Fig. 5.2.
TYPE OF WELD
FLASH
SPOT
PROJECTION
SEAM
OR
UPSET
JX.
XXX
Figure 5.2. Basic resistance weld symbols
2. Supplementary Symbols
Supplementary symbols to be used in connection with
weld symbols shall be as shown in Fig. 5.3.
CONTOUR
FLUSH
CONVEX
Figure 5.3. Supplementary symbols
* This material has been taken from Standard Welding Symbols (A2.0-47) issued
by the American Welding Society.

77
78
RESISTANCE WELDING
3. Elements of a Welding Symbol
This standard makes a distinction between the terms "weld
symbol" and "welding symbol". The "weld symbol" is the
ideograph used to indicate the desired type of weld. The as-
sembled "welding symbol" consists of the following eight
elements, or such of these elements as are necessary:
Reference line. Supplementary symbols.
Arrow. Finish symbols.
Basic weld symbols. Tail.
Dimensions and other data. Specification, process, or
other references.
4. Standard Location of Elements of a Welding Symbol
The elements of a welding symbol shall have standard
locations with respect to each other as shown in Fig. 5.4.
FINISH SYMBOL
CONTOUR SYMBOL
ROOT OPENING! DEPTH OF FILLING
FOR PLUG ANO SLOT WELOS
SIZE; SIZE OR STRENGTH
FOR RESISTANCE WELDS
REFERENCE LINE
SPECIFICATION, PROCESS
OR OTHER REFERENCE
TAIL (MAY BE OMITTED
WHEN REFERENCE
IS NOT USED)
BASIC WELD SYMBOL
OR DETAIL REFERENCE
GROOVE ANGLE; INCLUOEO
ANGLE OF COUNTERSINK
FOR PLUG WELOS
LENGTH OF WELD
PITCH (CENTER-TO-CENTER
SPACING) OF WELOS

ARROW CONNECTING REF-
ERENCE LINE TO ARROW
SIDE OF JOINT. TO GR0OVE0
MEMBER, OR BOTH
FIELD WELD SYMBOL
WELD ALL AROUND SYMBOL
NUMBER OF SPOT OR
PROJECTION WELDS
Figure 5.4. Standard location of elements of a welding symbol
5. Basic Types of Joints
The basic types of joints are shown in Fig. 5.5 and the
types of welds by which the members are frequently joined
are listed thereon.
WELDING SYMBOLS
79
APPLICABLE WELDS
EDGE JOINT
Figure 5.5. Basic types of joints
6. Basic Types of Welds
The basic types of welds indicated by the basic weld sym-
bols are illustrated in Figs. 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8.
7. Location Significance of Arrow
(a) In the case of flash or upset welding symbols, the ar-
row shall connect the welding symbol reference line to one
side of the joint, and this side shall be considered the arrow
side of the joint. The side opposite the arrow side of the joint

shall be considered the other side of the joint (See Fig. 5.8).
80
RESISTANCE WELDING
A-A
-OR
DESIRED WELD
SECTION OR
END VIEW
ELEVATION
(A)
SPOT WELDING SYMBOL (NO ARROW-OR OTHER-SIDE REFERENCE OR SIGNIFICANCE.)
A-A
mom-
DESIRED WELD
SECTION OR
END VIEW
ELEVATION
SEAM WELDING SYMBOL (NO-ARROW-OR OTHER -SIDE
IB) REFERENCE OR SIGNIFICANCE.)
Figure 5.6. Application of spot and seam welding symbols
(b) In the case of spot, seam and projection welding sym-
bols, the arrow shall connect the welding symbols reference
line to the outer surface of one of the members of the joint
at the center line of the desired weld. The member to which
the arrow points shall be considered the arrow-side member.
The other member of the joint shall be considered the other-

side member. See Fig. 5.6 and 5.7.
WELDING SYMBOLS
81
A-A
(A)
SECTION
DESIRED WELD PREPARATION OR ELEVATION
END VIEW
ARROW-SIDE PROJECTION WELDING SYMBOL
SECTION
PREPARATION OR
END VIEW
ELEVATION
(B) OTHER-SIDE PROJECTION WELDING SYMBOL
Figure 5.7. Application of projection welding symbols
(c) When a joint is depicted by a single line on the drawing
and the arrow of a welding symbol is directed to this line,
the arrow side of the joint shall be considered as the near side
of the joint in accordance with the usual conventions of

drafting. See Fig. 5.8.
82
RESISTANCE WELDING
PROCESS REFERENCE MUST
DESIRED WELD SECTION PLAN VIEW
OR OR
END VIEW ELEVATION
FLASH WELDING SYMBOL (NO ARROW-OR OTHER -SIDE
(A) REFERENCE OR SIGNIFICANCE)
PROCESS REFERENCE MUST
DESIREO WELD SECTION PLAN VIEW
OR OR
END VIEW ELEVATION
UPSET WELDING SYMBOL (NO ARROW-OR OTHER "SIDE
REFERENCE OR SIGNIFICANCE.)
Figure 5.8. Application of flash and upset welding symbols
(d) When a joint is depicted as an area parallel to the
plane of projection in a drawing and the arrow of a welding
symbol is directed to that area, the arrow-side member of
the joint shall be considered as the near member of the joint
in accordance with the usual conventions of drafting. See

Figs. 5.6 and 5.7.
WELDING SYMBOLS
8. Location of Weld with Respect to Joint
(a) Welds on the arrow side of the joint shall be shown by
placing the weld symbol on the side of the reference line
toward the reader, thus:
(See also Fig. 5.7A)
(b) Welds on the other side of the joint shall be shown by
placing the weld symbol on the side of the reference line
away from the reader, thus:
(See also Fig. 5.7B)
(c) Spot, seam, flash and upset weld symbols have no arrow-
side or other-side significance in themselves, although sup-
plementary symbols used in conjunction therewith may have
such significance. See par. A7, pg. 79; B6, pg. 87; C7, pg.
90; E2, pg. 93. Spot, seam, flash and upset weld symbols
shall be centered on the reference line, thus:
(See also Fig. 5.6 and 5.8)
9. Method of Drawing Symbols
Symbols may be drawn mechanically or freehand, as de-
sired.
10. Use of Inch, Degree and Pound Marks
Inch, degree and pound marks may be used on welding
symbols or not, as desired, except that inch marks shall be
used for indicating the diameter of spot and projection welds
and the width of seam welds, when such welds are specified

by linear dimension.
RESISTANCE WELDING
11. Location of Specification, Process or Other References
When a specification, process or other references is used
with a welding symbol, the reference shall be placed in the
tail, thus:
12. Use of Symbols Without References
When desired, symbols may be used without specification,
process or other references in the following instances:
(a) When a note such as the following appears on the draw-
ing: "Unless otherwise designated, all welds are to be made
in accordance with Specification No. ."
(b) When the welding procedure to be used is prescribed
elsewhere.
13. Use of General Notes
When desired, general notes such as the following may be
placed on a drawing to provide detailed information pertain-
ing to the predominating welds, and this information need
not be repeated on the symbols.
"Unless otherwise indicated, all spot welds are 34 m-
diameter."
"Unless otherwise indicated, spacing of spot welds is 3
in., center to center.
14. Extent of Welding Denoted by Symbols
Symbols apply between abrupt changes in the direction
of the welding or to the extent of hatching or dimension lines.
See Figs. 5.9A, 5.10C and 5.11A.
15. Weld Proportions
All welds shall be continuous and of user's standard propor-
tions unless otherwise indicated.
16. Finishing of Welds
Finishing of welds, other than cleaning, shall be indicated
by suitable contour and finish symbols. See Fig. 5.3 and also

par. E2, pg. 93.
WELDING SYMBOLS
17. Location of Weld Symbols
(a) Weld symbols, except spot and seam, shall be shown
only on the welding symbol reference line and not on the
lines of the drawing.
(b) Spot and seam weld symbols may be placed directly
on drawings at the locations of the desired welds, thus:
(See also Fig. 5.6.)
yVVVVYvVYYVYVV
^- X x-
18. Reading of Information on Welding Symbols
Information on welding symbols shall be placed to read
from left to right along the reference line in accordance with
the usual conventions of drafting, thus:
.25
(4)
19. Designation of Special Types of Welds
When the basic weld symbols are inadequate to indicate the
desired weld, the weld shall be shown by a cross section, de-
tail or other data, with a reference thereto on the welding
symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
DET. 5A"
SK. NO, 52
DWG. 234
DWG 233

RESISTANCE WELDING
B. Spot Welds
1. General
(a) Spot weld symbols have no arrow- or other-side sig-
nificance in themselves, although supplementary symbols
used in conjunction therewith may have such significance.
See par. B6 below. Spot weld symbols shall be centered on
the reference line. See Fig. 5.6A.
(b) Dimensions of spot welds may be shown on either side
of the reference line.
2. Size of Spot Welds
Spot welds shall be dimensioned by either size or strength,
as follows:
(a) The size of spot welds shall be designated as the diam-
eter of the nugget weld expressed decimally in hundredths of
an inch, and shall be shown, with inch marks, to the left of
the weld symbol, thus:^
(b) The strength of spot welds shall be designated as the
minimum acceptable shear strength in pounds per spot, and
shall be shown to the left of the weld symbol, thus:
(See also Fig. 5.12B.)
3. Spacing of Spot Welds
(a) The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of spot welds shall
be shown to the right of the weld symbol, thus:
(See also Fig. 5.12C.)

(See also Fig. 5.12A.)
WELDING SYMBOLS
(b) When spot weld symbols are shown directly on the
drawing, spacing shall be shown by dimensions. (See Fig.
5.12 D.)
4. Extent of Spot Welding
When spot welding extends less than the distance between
abrupt changes in the direction of the welding, or less than
the full length of the joint (see par. A14, pg. 84.) the extent
shall be dimensioned, thus:
5. Number of Spot Welds
When a definite number of spot welds is desired in a cer-
tain joint, the number shall be shown in parentheses either
above or below the weld symbol, thus:
r (3)
6. Flush Spot-Welded Joints
When the exposed surface of one member of a spot-welded
joint is to be flush, that surface shall be indicated by adding
the flush-contour symbol to the weld symbol, observing the

usual location significance, thus:
RESISTANCE WELDING
C. Seam Welds
1. General
(a) Seam weld symbols have no arrow- or other-side sig-
nificance in themselves, although supplementary symbols
used in conjunction therewith may have such significance.
(See par. C7 below.) Seam weld symbols shall be centered on
the reference line. (See Fig. 5.6B)
(b) Dimensions of seam welds may be shown on either
side of the reference line.
2. Size of Seam Welds
Seam welds shall be dimensioned by either size or strength
as follows:
(1) The size of seam welds shall be designated as the width
of the nugget weld expressed decimally in hundredths of an
inch, and shall be shown, with inch marks, to the left of the
weld symbol, thus:
(2) The strength of seam welds shall be designated as the
minimum acceptable shear strength in pounds per linear
inch, and shall be shown to the left of the weld symbol, thus:
3. Length of Seam Welds
(a) The length of a seam weld, wThen indicated on the
welding symbol, shall be shown to the right of the weld sym-
bol, thus:

WELDING SYMBOLS
(b) When seam welding extends for the full distance be-
tween abrupt changes in the direction of the welding (see
par. A14, pg. 84), no length dimension need be shown on the
welding symbol.
(c) When seam welding extends less than the distance
between abrupt changes in the direction of the welding, or
less than the full length of the joint (see par. A14, pg. 84),
the extent shall be dimensioned, thus:
-*4 I I- II
4. Dimensioning of Intermittent Seam Welding
(a) The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of intermittent
seam welding shall be shown as the distance between centers
of the weld increments.
(b) The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of intermittent
seam welding shall be shown to the right of the length di-
mension, thus:
5. Termination of Intermittent Seam Welding
(a) When intermittent seam welding is used by itself, the
symbol indicates that increments shall be located at the ends
of the dimensioned length. (See Fig. 5.10A.)
(b) When intermittent seam welding is used between con-
tinuous seam welding, the symbol indicates that spaces equal
to the pitch minus the length of one increment shall be left

at the ends of the dimensioned length.
90
RESISTANCE WELDING
6. Combination of Intermittent and Continuous Seam Welding
Separate symbols shall be used for intermittent and con-
tinuous seam welding when the two are used in combination.
7. Flush Seam-Welded Joints
When the exposed surface of one member of a seam-welded
joint is to be flush, that surface shall be indicated by adding
the flush-contour symbol to the weld symbol, observing the
usual location significance, thus:
D. Projection Welds
1. General
(a) Embossments on the arrow-side member of a joint
for projection welding shall be indicated by placing the weld
symbol on the side of the reference line toward the reader,
thus:
SECTION OR PLAN OR
END VIEW ELEVATION
DESIRED SYMBOLS
(b) Embossments on the other-side member of a joint for
projection welding shall be indicated by placing the weld
symbol on the side of the reference line away from the reader,
thus:
SECTION OR
END VIEW
PLAN OR
ELEVATION
DESIRED

SYMBOLS
WELDING SYMBOLS
91
(c) Proportions of projections shall be shown by a detail
or other suitable means.
(d) Dimensions of projection welds shall be shown on the
same side of the reference line as the weld symbol, thus:
2. Size of Projection Welds
Projection welds shall be dimensioned by either size or
strength, as follows:
(a) The size of projection welds shall be designated as the
diameter of the nugget weld expressed decimally in hun-
dredths of an inch, and shall be shown, with inch marks, to
the left of the weld symbol, thus:
(2) The strength of projection welds shall be designated as
the minimum acceptable shear strength in pounds per weld,
and shall be shown to the left of the weld symbol, thus:
3. Spacing of Projection Welds
The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of projection welds
shall be shown to the right of the weld symbol, thus:

RESISTANCE WELDING
4. Extent of Projection Welding
When projection welding extends less than the distance
between abrupt changes in the direction of the welding, or
less than the full length of the joint (see par. A14, pg. 84),
the extent shall be dimensioned, thus:
(See also Fig. 5.11 A.)
*li I- n
5. Number of Projection Welds
When a definite number of projection welds is desired in a
certain joint, the number shall be shown in parentheses, thus:
6. Flush Projection-Welded Joints
When the exposed surface of one member of a projection
welded joint is to be made flush, that surface shall be indi-
cated by adding the flush-contour symbol to the weld sym-
bol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
E. Flash and Upset Welds
1. General
(a) Flash and upset weld symbols have no arrow-side or
other-side significance in themselves although supplementary

symbols used in conjunction therewith may have such sig-
WELDING SYMBOLS
93
nificance (see par. E2 below). Flash or upset weld symbols
shall be centered in the reference line. (See Fig. 5.8.)
(b) Dimensions of flash and upset welds shall not be shown
on the welding symbol.
2. Surface Contour of Flash and Upset Welds
(a) Flash and upset welds that are to be made flush by
mechanical means shall be shown by adding both the flush-
contour symbol and the user's standard finish symbol* to the
weld symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
(b) Flash and upset welds that are to be mechanically
finished to a convex contour shall be shown by adding both
the convex-contour symbol and the user's standard finish
symbol* to the weld symbol, observing the usual location
significance, thus:
* Finish symbols used here indicate the method of finishing ("C" = chipping;

"G" = grinding; "M" = machining) and not the degree of finish.
94
RESIST AXCE WELD IMG
-*f-
I-Hi
____f
') \
,^
A-A
(A)
DESIRED WELDS SYMBOL
EXTENT OF SPOT WELDING
A-*J
DESIRED WELDS
_1
.25
Tt
.25
-1
(4)
SYMBOL
(B)
SPECIFIED NUMBER OF SPOT WELDS
LOCATED AT RANDOM
^c
) K
1-
-i -
.23
AZ
(cl

DESIRED WELDS SYMBOL
SPOT WELDING SYMBOL SHOWING USE OF COMBINED
DIMENSIONS
Figure 5.9. Application of dimensions to spot welding symbols
WELDING SYMBOLS
95
1-2
-I -I----I
//////
-f-
A-A
SYMBOL
OF WELD^
DESIRED WELD
LENGTH AND PITCH OF INTERMITTENT SEAM WELDS
|(A)
MIN. ACCEPTABLE
SHEAR STRENCTH
2000 LBS/LIN. IN.
2000
^4
wjwMwwwmw.
;.
*v
,*
*1
-V
A-A
1(B)
DESIRED WELD
STRENGTH OF SEAM WELDS
SYMBOL
. *
|(C)
A-A
DESIRED WELO SYMBOL
EXTENT OF SEAM WELDS

Figure 5.10. Application of dimensions to seam welding symbols
96
RESISTANCE WELDING
it
5J
A-A
DESIRED WELDS
SYMBOL
1(A)
EXTENT OF PROJECTION WELDING
A-l
is
J.
.23
A-A
DESIRED WELDS
SYMBOL
1(B)
SPECIFIED NUMBER OF PROJECTION WELDS
LOCATED AT RANDOM
MIN. DIA.
^ Cr
-J \
*) \
)\
-2- *
*'
i-
.25' -
-II
/l^

DESIRED WELDS
SYMBOL
1(C)
PROJECTION WELDING SYMBOL
SHOWING USE OF COMBINED DIMENSIONS
Figure 5.11. Application of dimensions to projection welding symbols
WELDING SYMBOLS
97
.30 MIN. DIA.
(A)
A-i-A
DESIRED WELD SYMBOL
DIAMETER OF SPOT WELDS
tJ
800
800 LBS. MIN.
ACCEPTABLE SHEAR
"STRENGTH PER
^ SPOT
A A
DESIRED WELD
(B)
SYMBOL
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SPOT WELDS
2-
+4
^*-
*A
A-A
DESIRED WELDS
SYMBOL
Hi

(C) PITCH OF SPOT WELDS SHOWN ON SYMBOL
^ W UJ>
2-*
DESIRED WELDS
SYMBOLS
(D) PITCH OF SPOT WELDS WITH SYMBOLS ON DRAWING
Figure 5.12. Application of dimensions to spot welding symbols
98
RESISTANCE WELDING
(A)
-H |*-.2S
A-A <
DESIREO WELDS SYMBOL
DIAMETER OF PROJECTION WELDS
îA
*!
700 LBS MIN
ACCEPTABLE SHEAR
STRENGTH PER WELD
AA
DESIRED WELD
/7ooxr^
SYMBOL
(B)
SHEAR STRENGTH OF PROJECTION WELDS'
^2
-5
(C)
SYMBOL
PITCH OF PROJECTION WELDS

AA
DESIRED WELD
Figure 5.13. Application of dimensions to projection welding symbols
WELDING SYMBOLS
99
c3
1 \Xr
PROCESS
REFERENCE MUST
BE PLACED ON
SYMBOL;
MACHINED FLUSH
FLASH WELDED
UPSET WELDED AFTER FINISHING
DESIRED WELD
SYMBOL
FLASH AND UPSET WELDS FINISHED FLUSH
(A)
PROCESS
REFERENCE MUST
BE PLACED ON
SYMBOL-
FLASH WELDED
CD
UPSET WELDED
GROUND TO SMOOTH
CONTOUR-
AFTER FINISHING
DESIRED WELD
SYMBOL
FLASH AND UPSET WELDS FINISHED TO SMOOTH CONTOUR
(B)

Figure 5.14. Application of contour symbols to flash and upset welding symbols
Chapter 6
WELDABILITY OF METALS AND
PRECAUTIONS REQUIRED
The term "weldability" has been defined as "the capacity of a metal to
be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed into a specific, suitably
designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service."
However, since low-carbon steel is the most common material used in re-
sistance welding, for purposes of this publication, weldability will refer to
the ease with which a given metal can be resistance welded, using low-carbon
steel as a standard.
Physical Properties Influencing Weldability
The following physical properties of a material have a bearing on its
weldability:
Electrical Resistivity. The electrical resistivity refers to the resistance
of the material to the passage of electric current. Such resistance does not
include the resistance of any surface layer of oxide. The electrical resis-
tivity is probably the most important property from a resistance welding
standpoint since the heat generated by the passage of electric current is
directly proportional to the resistance of the material. More current is re-
quired to generate heat for welding in a metal of low resistivity than one of
high resistivity. Heavy currents require large transformers and power lines,
which mean more expensive equipment. Therefore, metals of highelectrical
resistivityarej^nsideredto be more weldable than those of low resistivity.
TKermal Coliductivity. The thermal conductivity" of a metal is im-
portant in resistance welding because the heat required to produce a weld is
lost through conduction into the metal. This loss must be overcome by
greater heat input, usually through increased current. Therefore, metals of
high heat conductivity are less_weldable than those of low conductivity.
It is interesting to note that thermal conductivity and electrical conduc-
tivity (reciprocal of resistivity) of the various metals closely parallel one
another. Aluminum, for instance, is a good conductor of both heat and cur-
rent while stainless steel is a poor conductor of both.
Thermal Expansion. The coefficient of thermal expansion is a measure
of the amount of expansion that takes place with temperature changes.

100
WELDABILITY OF METALS
101
When thisjexBansixm-4s4arge. warping and buckling of welded assemblies
can be expsctecL-
Hardness and Strength. That the hardness and strength of metals are
important to resistance welding is obvious. Soft motals will be marked easily
by the electrodes unless low electrode forces are used. Hard, strong_mgta,ls
j-wpjre greater force, Metals, like stainless steel, which retain theirstrengtli
at elevated temperatures require the use of heavier machines capable of
supplying the force for forging the weld.
Oxide Forming Characteristics. All metals oxidize in air, some more
readily than others. The oxide formed on the surface has a very high elec-
trical resistance. If Jjiis oxide film is very thick, the resîsjaJlcje_may_be_so_
high th.alLcjirjeniî^^ through the pieces and no weld
wiH_be_caade^Jf the oxide film is extremely thin, on the other hand, the
added resistance may have very little effect. For oxide film thicknesses in
between these two extremes, a current may flow but extreme localized
heating may be generated at the location of the oxide film, and in the case
of spot welding, will cause hot spots at the junction of the electrodes and
the work. High resistance of oxide films is responsible for surface flashing,
pickup of material on the electrode, and poor surface condition generally.
Furthermore, if the thickness of oxide film is not uniform, the weld strength
will not be uniform. In order that this oxide resistance factor can be con-
trolled, it is important that the oxide forming characteristics of the metal
being resistance welded be thoroughly understood and that suitable pre-
cautions be observed. In welding aluminum alloys, for instance, the cleaning
schedule prior to welding is quite as important as the welding schedule it-
self.
Aluminum alloys form oxides very readily and welding must be done
within a short time after cleaning or the parts must be recleaned. Stainless
steels, on the other hand, form oxides films so slowly that pre-cleaning is
not usually necessary. The final cleaning operation at the mill prior to
packaging and shipping will last for some time and usually be sufficient
for welding. Other metals have oxide forming characteristics between these
two extremes; so the cleaning requirements will also be between these two
extremes. In the last analysis the decision as to whether or not an additional

cleaning operation is necessary is dependent on the amount of oxide present
and how it will affect the weld in the finished structure. Surface resistance
measurements may be used to control cleanliness.
Of course, all mill scale, heavy oxide from prior heat treatment and ex-
traneous material like paint, drawing compounds, grease, etc., must be re-
moved prior to resistance welding.
Plastic Range. If the metal melts and flows over a narrow range of
temperatures, then the welding variables must be more closely controlled
102
RESISTANCE WELDING
than will be the case with a material having a large plastic range. This
property may have considerable bearing on the welding procedure or equip-
ment being used. Aluminum alloys have narrow plastic ranges, require
precise control of cu^rentj^reûre andJ:ollow-up"d7iring~welding, whereas
low-c&rboii steels,f having a wide plastic range, require less precise control.
Heat Effect. The very nature of resistance welding is to heat a small
portion of metal rapidly to the forging or melting temperature during a
short time of current flow, then to quench the heated portion rapidly by
contact with a cooled electrode and surrounding metal. All metals that de-
pend on cold work for higher mechanical properties will be annealed in the
area subjected to this heat treatment. In addition, this drastic heat treat-
ment may have a considerable hardening effect on some metals. High-
carbon steel, for instance, will harden so rapidly that it will crack before it
can be removed from between spot welding electrodes. Additional welding
contr^-that^v^^-postw^c^te^nuperin^^peration will be necessary for
thesemelajs; hejiceJhey_arejiot as weldable as low-carbon steeT
Low-Carbon Steels
Low-carbon or mild steels are generally referred to as those steels con-
taining less than 0.20 per cent carbon and negligible amounts of impurities
or alloying elements. This carbon limitation should be lowered for steel
below 0.030 in. thick.
The over-all weldability of these steels is good. The electrical resistivity is
medium. There is little hardening incident to the heat effect of welding and
the other properties enumerated above are all on the beneficial side so that
welds of good strength can be obtained over a wide range of current, pres-
sure and time settings.
Occasionally elements in the steel, introduced intentionally or acciden-
tally, cause trouble. High manganese or carbon may promote cracking due
to excess hardness. High sulfur, introduced for machinability, will.cause a
brittleness that is very difficult to avoid. By and large these stray elements
are not found in most sheet stock.
Medium- and High-Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Medium-carbon steels may contain from 0.20 to 0.40 carbon; high-carbon
steels may contain up to 1.0 per cent carbon. Low-alloy steels contain up

to 5.5 per cent of such alloying elements as cobalt, nickel, molybdenum,
chromium, vanadium, tungsten, aluminum and copper. These alloying
additions produce certain desirable mechanical properties in the metal.
These carbon and low-alloy steels respond to heat treatment. Thus, they
become hard and brittle when subjected to a thermal cycle of heating and
103
quenching such as is the case in resistance welding. In other respects these
steels are the same as the mild steels.
These carbon and low-alloy steels can be resistance welded but not with
conventional procedures. It is necessary to consider their hardenability
and to prevent excessive hardness and low ductility in the finished weld by
drawing or tempering the weld with pulses of reduced current subsequent to
the welding pulse. Special controls have been developed to do this on stand-
ard machines (program control). In general, the weldability of these steels
is less than that of mild steel due to the hardenability.
Stainless Steels
The stainless steels contain relatively large amounts of chromium or
chromium and nickel as alloying elements. From the point of view of
weldability, stainless steels may be divided into three general groups,
namely: (a) those hardenable by heat treatment, called martensitic stain-
less steels, (b) those not hardenable by heat treatment, called ferritic
stainless steels (or stainless irons), and (c) those not hardenable by heat
treatment, called austenitic stainless steels. Whether the steel is hardenable
or not depends on the amounts of carbon, chromium and nickel.
Chromium-Iron Alloys. These steels may be hardenable (martensitic
types) or not hardenable (ferritic types). When resistance welding the
hardenable types, the precautions mentioned in discussing high-carbon
and low-alloy steels regarding hardenability must be followed. Hence, these
steels have poor weldability characteristics. The non-hard enable types also
have poor weldability characteristics, since they produce a coarse-grain
structure and have a low ductility when cooled rapidly from high tempera-
tures. These steels are generally not welded when a ductile weld is required.
For the martensitic types postweld heat treatment improves the weld duc-
tility. However, postweld heat treatment of the ferritic types is not bene-
ficial.
Chromium-Nickel-Iron Alloys (Austenitic). There are several of
these steels, each having suitable properties for particular uses. The most
common is 18-8, 18 per cent chromium and 8 per cent nickel, with approxi-
mately 0.10 per cent carbon. This is a non-heat-treatable steel. It can, how-
ever, be hardened by cold reduction. It is susceptible to carbide precipita-

tion if heated for any appreciable time in a temperature range of 800 to
1600 F. If serious carbide precipitation occurs, this steel is subject to inter-
granular corrosion and is somewhat less ductile. It can be resistance welded
without producing harmful carbide precipitation, providing the time of
current flow is suitably short. Less current is required than for low-carbon
steel, since its electrical resistance is approximately seven times greater.
104
RESISTANCE WELDING
Higher electrode forces are used because of its higher hardness and strength
at elevated temperatures and to minimize the effect of faying surface con-
tact resistance. Austenitic stainless steels have a much higher coefficient of
thermal expansion than mild steel and as a result are subject to more severe
warpage. Because of this high degree of expansion, it has been found ad-
vantageous to use short times of current flow in resistance welding.
The stabilized 18-8 stainless steels contain columbium or titanium to
prevent harmful intergranular carbide precipitation. Low-carbon, un-
stabilized grades (0.03 C max.) are available for this same purpose. Their
weldability characteristics are much the same as those of the straight 18-8
type except that the time of current flow is not so critical.
The stainless steels containing chromium and nickel in greater amounts
than the 18-8 types are particularly important in the elevated temperature
corrosion-resistant fields of service. Two common types are referred to as
the 25-12 and 25-20 types containing 25 per cent chromium and 12 and
20 per cent nickel, respectively. Their resistance weldability is similar to
that of the stabilized 18-8 types.
Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys
In general, the high-nickel alloys are readily joined by resistance welding.
The general requirements for welding are high unit pressures, accurate tim-
ing, and the need for cleanliness. These alloys do not harden when quenched
from an elevated temperature, nor do they exhibit carbide precipitation
difficulties, but they are subject to embrittlement by sulfur, lead, and other
low-melting-point metals when heated in the presence of these materials.
It is important that oils, grease, lubricants, marking materials, and other
foreign material which might contain sulfur or lead be removed from the
materials prior to welding, or cracking may occur. An oxide removal opera-
tion prior to welding will only be necessary if a considerable amount of
oxide is present as a result of long storage or previous thermal operations.
Nickel and low-carbon nickel, having mechanical and physical proper-
ties very similar to low-carbon steel, are welded rather easily. Some me-
chanical sticking of electrodes during spot welding will be experienced
unless a shallow cone (170 included angle), restricted dome electrode is
employed. Projection, seam and flash welding may be done on these alloys.

Recommended practices for spot welding nickel are available.
Monel, an alloy of approximately two-thirds nickel and one-third copper
has greater electrical resistivity than mild steel and is considerably harder
and stronger, particularly at elevated temperatures. Therefore, a somewhat
lower current but higher force is required. Thermal expansion is very close
to steel but thermal conductivity is only 40 per cent that of steel. About the
same amount of warpage will result as from steel. Recommended practices
105
for spot and seam welding are available. Projection welding and flash weld-
ing are accomplished without difficulty.
"K" Monel, containing aluminum, which is capable of being age-hardened
by a subsequent 1100 F thermal treatment, has higher thermal and elec-
trical resistivities and is stronger than Monel. Therefore, somewhat less
current but more electrode force is required for "K" Monel than for Monel.
"K" Monel, in the age-hardened condition will crack if subject to appre-
ciable tensile stress when at 1100 F. Therefore, spot, seam and projection
welding should be done on material in the annealed temper. Flash welding,
being mostly compressive, has been employed successfully on age-hardened
material. Some softening of the heat affected area occurs but a joint ef-
ficiency of 90 per cent has been attained.
Inconel, an alloy containing approximately 78 per cent nickel, 15 per
cent chromium, and 7 per cent iron, has even higher thermal and electrical
resistivities and is quite strong at elevated temperatures. Lower currents
and still higher electrode forces than for Monel are required for all re-
sistance-welding processes. Recommended practices for spot welding are
available. Projection, seam and flash welding are quite readily accomplished
with procedures approximately like those for stainless steels.
Inconel "X" and Inconel "W" are age-hardening variations of Inconel,
which are useful because of their high strength at elevated temperatures.
They have very high electrical resistances. Current requirements are
moderate but electrode force requirements are very high. Recommended
practices for spot and seam welding of Inconel "X" and Inconel "W" are
available. Projection and flash welding can be accomplished readily with
machines having adequate force capacity. Like "K" Monel, these alloys
should be spot, projection and seam welded in the annealed condition only.
Flash welding has been done on full age-hardened material and a joint ef-
ficiency of 90 per cent obtained.
Other nickel and cobalt-base alloys which were developed and used in
applications where their superior strength at elevated temperatures is
useful, such as in jet engines, are resistance welded much like Inconel "X"
and Inconel "W". The wrought forms of these alloys are quite weldable
when the proper procedures are followed. Cast forms of these alloys are

not as readily weldable.
Copper and Copper Alloys
Copper and copper alloys have a wide range of weldability which varies
almost directly with their electrical resistance and inversely as their thermal
conductivity. When the resistance is low, they are difficult to weld; when
resistance is high, they are rather easy to weld. Machines having adequate
current capacity and moderate forces are necessary. Because of the short
106
RESISTANCE WELDING
plastic range of these alloys, it is very desirable to have low inertia heads
in order to apply the force quickly. Electronic control of current and time is
also very desirable.
Copper, being a very good conductor of both electricity and heat, is one
of the least suitable of metals for resistance welding. Spot, seam or projec-
tion welding of copper is very difficult. A trace of tin, as from tin plating
or tin flashing, is helpful in spot, seam or projection welding relatively thin
sections. Electrodes faced with a high-resistance material like tungsten or
molybdenum are also helpful. Flash welding of copper is readily accom-
plished using high energy input and short times.
Copper-Zinc Alloys (Brasses) are somewhat easier to weld and become
easier as the zinc content increases. The red brasses are difficult to weld
while the high brasses can be welded over a considerable range of welding
conditions even though the required energy input is on the high side. Rela-
tively short welding times are recommended to prevent expulsion of the
entire weld and sticking of the electrode to the work.
A manganese addition to red brass improves the welding quality. Leaded
brasses are more difficult to weld than those not containing lead. The
results may be very erratic with an appreciable lead content.
Copper-Tin Alloys (Phosphor Bronze) and Copper-Silicon Alloys
(Silicon Bronze) are relatively easy to weld because of their higher elec-
trical resistance. These alloys, particularly phosphor bronze, have a tend-
ency to be hot short. This results in cracking if a tensile stress is applied
while material is in the brittle range.
Copper-Aluminum Alloys (Aluminum Bronze) are somewhat more
difficult to resistance weld. The electrodes tend to stick if long welding
times are used. Ductility of the welds is lowered by age-hardening.
Recommended practices for copper and copper alloys are not as available
as for other alloys. The following table will give machine settings which
have been used successfully for 0.036 in. material.
Force
Current
Alloy
Time, Cycles
(Amp)

(Lb)
Muntz metal
400
21,000
High Brass
400
24,000
Cartridge brass
400
25,000
Low brass
400
24,000
Red brass
400
25,000
Manganese red brass
400
22,000
Aluminum bronze
400
24,000
Silicon brass
510
22,000
107
Aluminum, Magnesium, and their Alloys
These metals are characterized by low electrical resistivity and relatively
low strength at elevated temperatures. Large resistance welding currents
are required; relatively light electrode force is needed but this force should
be applied rapidly with the least possible inertia in the moving parts of the
machine. Machines capable of supplying heavy currents and light pres-
sures have been developed mainly for these alloys. These alloys oxidize
readily in air forming oxides of high electrical resistivity; therefore, careful
cleaning is essential as a fundamental part of the resistance-welding pro-
cedure.
These alloys, generally speaking, are readily welded with the proper
equipment and procedure. Recommended practices are available on spot
and seam welding and cleaning. Projection and flash welding procedures
are available from metal suppliers.
Plated and Coated Metals
Plated and coated metals are readily welded if the plating or coating is a
current conductor. Surface flashing, electrode pick-up, low electrode life
and serious markings are among the problems encountered. Where the
plating or coating is applied for appearance, welding should be done before
plating or coating. Where plating or coating is applied to increase corro-
sion resistance, welding can be done on coated stock but production will
be slower. Also, the corrosion resistance of the coating may be impaired in
the area of the weld.
Some of the more common commercial coatings and their resistance
weldability are as follows:
Terne and Tin Plate. Can be welded with no difficulty using somewhat
heavier currents than for the same thickness of low-carbon steel.
Galvanized and Zinc-Plated Steel. Can be welded in much the same
manner as steel. Somewhat heavier pressures should be used to reduce
vaporization of the zinc. Dipped coatings are liable to be less uniform than
electroplating, hence they will produce less reliable weld quality.
Aluminized Steel. Can be welded. Surface cleaning is important and a
sharp radius or pointed electrode is commonly used.
Chromium and Nickel-Plated Steel. These are not as readily re-

sistance welded as the plated materials listed above. If welding is to be done,
settings used for low-carbon steel are recommended. The quality of the
weld will depend on the bond between the plating and base metal.
Cadmium-Plated Steel. Can be welded if high electrode force, high
current, and short time settings are used. The electrode must be cleaned
frequently. Cadmium fumes are extremely toxic. Adequate ventilation is
a must for welding on cadmium-plated stock.
108
RESISTANCE WELDING
Dissimilar Metals
Some combinations of metals are difficult to weld because the alloy formed
in the joint will have undesirable properties. However, by using suitable
equipment and with particular procedures, even the more difficult combina-
tions can be handled satisfactorily.
When spot or seam welding dissimilar metals, it is frequently advisable to
use electrodes of different resistivities to balance the different resistivities
of the materials in question. An electrode of high resistivity should be used
in contact with the base metal of low resistivity, and vice versa. Thus, with
a given current, more heat will be generated on the side of the low resistance
material than would otherwise be the case. Frequently, combinations that
are difficult to spot weld can be projection welded more easily, when the
projection is placed on the material of high conductivity.
In flash welding dissimilar metals, the metals of low resistivity should
generally have a greater extension than the metal of high resistivity, to
allow more heat to be generated. However, in the case of aluminum and
copper this may not be true because of the greater burn off rate of alumi-
num. They can be successfully flash welded together with good ductile
joints despite the fact that high copper-aluminum alloys are extremely
brittle. In this case, a special dual-pressure system is used to squeeze all
the brittle alloy out of the weld.
Welding Schedules
The AWS Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding includes welding
schedules for spot welding low-carbon, low-alloy and stainless steels, nickel,
Monel, Inconel and magnesium alloys; seam welding low-carbon and stain-
less steels; projection welding low-carbon and stainless steels; and flash
welding low and medium forging strength steels. Welding schedules for
spot welding aluminum alloys will be found in the AWS Recommended

Practices for Spot Welding Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys.
Chapter 7
WELD QUALITY
Surface Preparation of Parts
For all types of resistance welding, the condition of the surfaces of the
parts to be welded is of prime importance if quality results are expected.
The contact resistance of the faying surfaces (except for flash welding) has
a great deal to do with the amount of welding heat generated; hence, the
electrical resistance of these surfaces must be uniform for good welding.
Since the contacting surfaces conduct a very high electric current, these
surfaces must be free of any nonconducting materials or materials of high
electrical resistance such as paint, scale, oxides and heavy oil and grease
containing dielectric materials. If it is necessary to prime the faying sur-
faces prior to welding, as is sometimes done, the welding operation must be
performed immediately after applying the primer or special primers, which
are capable of carrying current when dry, must be used. For best results
when welding under these conditions, the primer should be as thin as pos-
sible so that the electrode force will displace the primer, giving metal-to-
metal contact.
Paint should never be applied to outside surfaces before welding, as the
paint will contaminate the electrode causing poor electrode life and bad
surface appearance. Hot rolled scale or annealing scale should be removed
by mechanical or chemical methods. Light slushing oil, applied to carbon
steel after pickling to prevent rusting, is not harmful if it has not picked up
dust or grit in handling. Drawing compounds containing mineral fillers
should be removed before welding, since mineral fillers are dielectrics.
The methods used for preparing surfaces for resistance welding differ for
the various metals and their alloys. A brief description of these surface
conditions and methods of cleaning follows:
Aluminum. The chemical affinity of aluminum for oxygen causes the
aluminum to become coated with a thin, invisible film of oxide whenever it
is exposed to air. The oxide film that forms on a freshly cleaned aluminum
surface does not cause high enough resistance to be troublesome from a
resistance-welding standpoint. The permissible holding period, or elapsed
time between cleaning and welding, may vary from a few hours to 48
hours or more, depending on the cleaning process used, cleanliness of the
shop, the particular alloy and other factors.

109
110
RESISTANCE WELDING
An aluminum surface may be mechanically cleaned for resistance weld-
ing with a fine grade of abrasive cloth, fine steel wool or a fine, motor-driven
scratch brush. Aluminum cladding may also be cleaned by mechanical
means, but care must be taken not to remove the cladding. Numerous
commercial chemical cleaners are available for aluminum. Chemical clean-
ing is usually preferred in cases of large volume production for reasons of
economy as well as uniformity and control. These are described in the AWS
Recommended Practices for Spot Welding Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys.
Magnesium Alloys. Cleaning is particularly important, since alloys of
magnesium readily alloy with copper at elevated temperatures; hence, the
contact resistance between electrode and work must be kept as low as pos-
sible. These alloys are supplied with either an oil or a chrome-pickle coating
to protect the metal from oxidation during shipment and storage. For re-
sistance welding, either protective coating must be removed to facilitate
the oxide removal operation if sound and consistent welds are to be ob-
tained.
Copper Alloys. Cleaning of copper alloys is important, as with all
metals. The oxides of beryllium and aluminum are particularly difficult to
remove by chemical means. Mechanical means are preferred. In some in-
stances a flash coating of tin is employed to obtain a uniformly higher sur-
face resistance than would be obtained with pure copper.
Nickel Alloys. The maintenance of high standards of material cleanli-
ness is of major importance in the resistance welding of nickel, Monel and
Inconel. The presence of grease, dirt, oil and paint increases the prob-
ability of embrittlement of these materials during welding and will result in
defective welds. Oxide removal is necessary if heavy oxides are present from
prior thermal treatments. Machining, grinding, blasting or pickling may
be employed. Wire brushing is not satisfactory.
Steels. Plain-carbon and low-alloy steels have relatively low resistance
to corrosion in ordinary atmosphere; hence, these metals are usually pro-
tected by a slushing oil during shipment, storage and processing. This oil
film has no harmful effects on the weld providing the oily surfaces have not
been contaminated with shop dirt or other high-resistant or dielectric ma-
terials.

Steels are supplied with various surface finishes. Some of the more com-
mon are (1) hot-rolled, unpickled, (2) hot-rolled, pickled and oiled and (3)
cold-rolled with or without anneal. The unpickled, hot-rolled steel must be
pickled or mechanically cleaned. The hot-rolled pickled steel is weldable in
the as-received condition except for possible wiping to remove loose dirt.
The cold-rolled steel presents the best welding surface and if properly pro-
tected by oil requires no cleaning prior to welding, other than wiping to
remove any loose dirt. The high-alloy and stainless steels are noncorrosive
WELD QUALITY
111
and require no involved cleaning before welding. In the as-received condi-
tion these steels have a clean, smooth surface ideal for resistance welding.
Coated and Plated Steels. The coatings and platings applied to carbon
steel, for the purpose of corrosion resistance or decoration, lend themselves
satisfactorily to resistance welding, with few exceptions. In general, good
results may be obtained without special cleaning processes. Aluminized
steel welding gives much less difficulty with expulsion and pickup if the sur-
faces are wire brushed. Parkerized and Bonderized steels have a phosphate
coating for corrosion resistance. These coatings affect the electrical re-
sistivity of the surfaces to a degree that prevents passage of current through
the sheets at low pressures. Higher pressures will produce welds, but slight
variations in coating thickness have been found sufficient to prevent weld-
ing.
Weld Characteristics of Spot, Seam and Projection Welds
Appearance. The surface appearance of a resistance weld is no criterion
of its strength or size. However, surface appearance is an indication of the
conditions under which the weld was made. Hence, it is not always possible
to judge the quality of a weld by its external appearance, and this should not
be used as the sole criterion for qualifying production welds. For example,
a group of spot welds in a joint may have identical surface appearance like
those shown in Fig. 7.1, yet, due to the shunting of current through adja-
cent welds, all welds except the first, may be greatly understrength. Fig.
7.2 shows an example of this. The diameter of the fused zone of the second
weld is appreciably smaller due to this shunting of current. However, since
all the welding current passes through the outside surface of both welds,
they have identical surface appearance. This effect is more severe for closely
Figure 7.1. Surface appearance of spot welds

Figure 7.2. Cross-section of welds in Fig. 7.1
112
RESISTANCE WELDING
spaced welds, welds in metal of low-electrical resistivity and welds in thicker
metals (0.040 in. thick and up).
Normally, the surface appearance of a spot, seam or projection weld
should be relatively smooth; round (oval in the case of contoured work);
free from surface fusion, electrode deposit, pits, cracks, deep electrode in-
dentation or any other condition that indicates improper maintenance of
electrodes or operation of equipment. The following table lists some of the
more common undesirable surface conditions, their causes, and effects on
weld quality:
Type
1. Deep electrode inden-
tation. See Fig. 7.3.
2. Surface fusion (usu-
ally accompanied by
deep electrode inden-
tation) See Fig. 7.4
Cause
Improperly dressed elec-
trode face; lack of con-
trol of electrode force;
excessively high rate of
heat generation due to
high welding contact re-
sistance (low electrode
force).
Scaly or dirty metal; low
electrode force; misalign-
ment of work; high weld-
ing current; electrodes
improperly dressed; im-
proper sequencing of
pressure and current.
3. Irregular shaped weld. Misalignment of work; bad
See Fig. 7.5

4. Electrode deposit on
work part (usually ac-
companied by surface
fusion)
electrode wear or im-
proper electrode dress-
ing; badly fitting parts;
electrode bearing on the
radius of the flange; skid-
ding; improper surface
cleaning of electrodes.
Scaly or dirty material;
low electrode force or
high welding current;
improper maintenance
of electrode contacting
face; improper electrode
material; improper se-
quencing of electrode
force and weld current.
Effect
Loss of weld strength due
to reduction of metal
thickness at the periphery
of the weld area; bad ap-
pearance.
Undersize welds due to
heavy expulsion of molten
metal; large cavity in
weld zone extending
through to surface; in-
creased cost of removing
burrs from outer surface
of work; poor electrode
WELD QUALITY
113
Type
5. Cracks, deep cavities
or pin holes. See Fig.
7.6
Cause
Removing the electrode
force before welds are
cooled from liquidus to
a temperature well below
that of a visible red heat;
excessive heat genera-
tion resulting in heavy
expulsion of molten
metal; badly fitting
parts requiring most of
the electrode force to
bring the faying surfaces
into contact.
Effect
Reduction of fatigue
strength if weld is in ten-
sion or if crack or imper-
fection extends into the
periphery of weld area;
increase in corrosion due
to accumulation of cor-
rosive substanpes in cav-
ity or crack.
Figure 7.3. Excessive indentation

Figure 7.4. Surface fusion
114 RESISTANCE WELDING
Figure 7.5. Irregularly shaped spot weld
Figure 7.6. Spot weld with cracks and pin holes
Figure 7.7. Proper and insufficient weld size
Top: Normal weld nugget in 0.075" steel. Bottom: Undersized weld nugget in same
plate.
Size. The diameter of the fused zone must meet the standards required
by the contract or design drawing. In the absence of such requirements,
either the values listed in the AWS Recommended Practices for Resistance
Welding or the following general rules should be used:

(a) Spot welds that are reliably reproduced under average production
WELD QUALITY
115
Figure 7.8. Longitudinal and cross-sections of proper size seam weld
conditions normally have a fused nugget, the diameter of which is at least
0.8 \/f, or a pull-out button diameter at least vT as shown in Fig. 7.7
where T is the thickness of the thinnest part in the joint. In cases of four or
more similar pieces, the diameter of the fused nugget should be at least
\/T. In cases of three or more dissimilar thicknesses special consideration
must be given to the size of fused area. (See "Macroetch test" under Test
Methods, page 139.)
(b) The individual welds in a seam weld (pressure tight) should overlap
approximately 25 per cent. The width of the fused zone should be at least
0.8 y/T, Fig. 7.8, where T is the thickness of the thinnest part.
(c) Projection welds should have a diameter of fused zone equal to or
larger than the diameter of the original projection.
There is a maximum limit to the size of a spot, projection or seam weld.
This limitation results more from the economics and practical limitations of
producing a weld than the laws of heat generation and dissipation which
limit the minimum size of the weld. It becomes impractical, for instance, to
make a weld one-half inch in diameter in metal 0.060 in. thick, since the
size of the overlap or flange width becomes excessively large for good design
or economy of material. Also, the transformer and control capacities must
be increased beyond reasonable limits. The exact maximum weld diameter
cannot be specified here, but each user should establish this limit in ac-

cordance with the prevailing welding condition.
116
RESISTANCE WELDING
Indentation. It is often desirable to produce so-called invisible welds.
This may be approximated if all factors are closely controlled, and the heat
balance is correct. Some techniques for obtaining such welds are shown in
Fig. 7.9. In order to get best results, it is also necessary to understand the
problem of heat shrinkage. When the work is heated it tends to expand in
all directions, but as a result of the pressure exerted by the electrodes, there
is no expansion possible in the vertical direction. This results in a slight
ridge being formed around the electrode end, as shown at "A" in Fig. 7.10.
In cooling, contraction takes place along the lines of least resistance, or al-
most entirely in the vertical plane, which results in a concave surface as
shown exaggerated in Fig. 7.10. This is not to be confused with marks
formed in the work by the electrode itself because of improper machine
settings and control. The actual depth of the depression is very small,
usually not over a few thousandths of an inch, but with some types of
finishing, such as high-gloss enamels, it is very noticeable. It is impossible
to eliminate these weld marks, but they may be materially reduced by
proper control of the welding variables, that is, by keeping the welding
current on as short a time as possible.
Various methods are used to minimize these markings. The most common
method is to use an electrode of greater area on the side of the work where
it is desired to have the minimum of marking. This is shown in Fig. 7.11.
However, greater indentation would be obtained on the other side. If this
electrode is made of a copper alloy having a high proportional limit, the
larger electrode surface in contact with the work minimizes weld marking
due to the lower forging pressure (psi) and the greater cooling effect that
keeps the surface of the work chilled. Marking may be minimized by using
projection welding rather than spot welding. Sometimes a concave elec-
trode is employed which produces a slight projection when welded. This
may be removed rather easily.
The common causes of excessive indentation are high welding current,
low electrode force, undersize electrode contacting area, improper align-
ment of electrodes, dirty or scaly metal surfaces, too long a weld time, poor
fit of parts and insufficient edge distance. It is usually accompanied by ex-
pulsion of molten metal.

Strength and Ductility. It is important to note that weld strength in a
given thickness is proportional to the diameter of the fused zone. Hence,
it is not sound practice to specify weld strengths that are less than those
of welds having the minimum diameter of fused zone area (see discussion
of "Weld Size") or greater than the values given in the AWS Recommended
Practices for Resistance Welding multiplied by 1J^.
The ductility of a resistance weld is determined by the composition of
the base metal and the effect on that composition of exceedingly rapid
WELDjQUALITY
117
MATERIAL OF
HIGH
RESISTANCE
LOW-
CONDUCTIVIT
ALLOY
Figure. 7.9. Techniques for obtaining heat balance in spot welding dissimilar
metals
Figure 7.10. Effect of heat shrinkage on spot welds
Eipuldon ol weld
Too thorp electrode
Figure 7.11. Causes of electrode markings on material surface
cooling from high temperatures. Fig. 7.12 shows the fracture of a highly
ductile weld nugget and Fig. 7.13 shows the same for a brittle weld nugget.
Unfortunately, the standard methods of measuring ductility are not
adaptable to resistance welds other than flash and upset welds. The nearest
thing to ductility measurement is the hardness test, since the hardness of a

metal is usually an indication of its ductility. For a given alloy, ductility
118
RESISTANCE WELDING
Figure 7.12. Tension-shear fracture of a ductile spot weld
Figure 7.13. Tension-shear fracture of a brittle spot weld
decreases with increasing hardness but different alloys of the same hard-
ness do not necessarily possess the same ductility.
Another method of indicating the ductility of a spot or projection weld
is to determine the ratio of its direct tension strength to the tension-shear
strength. A weld with good ductility has a high ratio; a weld with poor duc-

tility has a low ratio.
WELD QUALITY
119
There are various methods which can be used in production welding to
minimize the hardening effect of resistance welding. Some of these are:
(1) Longer time of current flow.
(2) Preheating the weld area by using a preheat current below the weld
current.
(3) Tempering the weld zone and heat-affected zone by using a postheat
current at some interval after the weld current in order to raise the weld
temperature to within the tempering temperature range.
(4) Furnace annealing or tempering the welded assembly.
These methods are not always practical. For instance, the first will
produce greater distortion of the assembly and reduce production rates;
the second and third methods require special controls and closer control of
the welding variables; the fourth method involves an additional operation
and will reduce any desired cold work given to the base metal. If the as-
sembly is quenched from the annealing temperature it will produce harmful
distortion of the assembly.
Penetration. Penetration is the depth to which the fusion extends into
the outside piece and is expressed as a percentage of its thickness. Theoret-
ically, the penetration of a spot, seam or projection weld need only be a few
mils in order to produce a sound weld with the minimum amount of heat.
However, under normal production conditions, the heat generated at the
faying surfaces of the work must be of much greater magnitude in order to
obtain welds of uniform area or strength. Therefore, the minimum depth of
penetration is generally accepted as 20 per cent of the thickness of the
Figure 7.14. Penetration in a spot weld
Top: Normal penetration.
Middle: Almost 100% penetration.

Bottom: Insufficient penetration.
Figure 7.15. Spot welds in dissimilar thicknesses
Figure 7.16. Fatigue crack in a spot weld
Figure 7.17. Cavities in spot welds
Top: Small shrinkage cavity.
Bottom: Large cavity due to metal expulsion.

120
WELD QUALITY
121
outside piece. If the percentage is less than 20 per cent, the weld is said to
be cold, that is, the heat generated in the weld zone is so small that normal
variations in current, time, electrode force, etc., will cause undesirable
changes in weld strength. In extreme cases there may be no weld at all.
Figure 7.14 shows excessive penetration, normal penetration and insuf-
ficient penetration.
The depth of penetration into each outside piece should be approximately
equal for equal or nearly equal thicknesses. For greatly dissimilar thick-
nesses (thickness ratios of three or more to one) the actual depth of pene-
tration into the heavier piece need only be equal to the penetration in the
thinner piece. (Fig. 7.15).
Internal Defects. Internal defects include cracks, porosity or spongy
metal, large cavities and, in the case of some coated metals, metallic inclu-
sions. Generally speaking, these defects have no detrimental effect on the
static or fatigue strength of a weld when they are located entirely in the
central portion of the weld nugget, whether or not they extend through to
the outside surface. This is because the load stresses on a weld are prac-
tically zero in the central portion of the weld nugget. It is extremely im-
portant that no defects occur at the periphery of a weld where the load
stresses are highly concentrated. Figure 7.16 shows a fatigue failure.
Spot, seam and projection welds in metal thicknesses of medium and heavy
gauges (approximately 0.040 in. and heavier), have shrinkage cavities in
the center of the weld nugget. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.17, top. These
cavities are less pronounced in some metals than in others, due to the dif-
ference in forging action of the electrodes on the hot metal and the forging
characteristics of the metal. Such shrinkage cavities are generally not
detrimental in the usual application. However, the cavity that results from
heavy expulsion of molten metal, as shown in Fig. 7.17, bottom, may take
up a very large part of the fused area and must be considered a defect. A
certain number of expulsion cavities are to be expected in most production
welding; hence, the job specification should accept a limited percentage of
them on the grounds that they normally do not impair the joint strength.
However, heavy expulsion of molten metal is a result of improper welding
conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to limit the number of these welds

which can be accepted.
Internal defects in spot, seam and projection welds are generally caused
by low electrode force, high current, or any of the other conditions that
produce excessive weld heat. They are also the result of removing the elec-
trode force too soon after the current flow, thereby preventing the proper
forging of the weld on cooling (particularly true of high-speed seam welding
and roll spot welding).
Chapter 8
PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS AND
QUALIFICATION
Purpose of Procedure Specifications
Every welding operation involves numerous factors or variables that
affect the resulting weld. For this reason a welding procedure specification
is used to define, in writing, a welding procedure and to prescribe values
for the variables involved in order to assure consistent results.
Using welding procedure specifications has a number of advantages, the
most important of which are discussed below:
Quality Control. Welds made in accordance with proper welding pro-
cedure specifications by competent welding operators will all meet mini-
mum requirements. Therefore, when the results of a given welding pro-
cedure are tested and found satisfactory for a given application, all other
welds made in accordance with the same specification should be of ac-
ceptable quality.
Standardization of Practices. The adoption of welding procedure
specifications is a form of standardization. In addition, it results in estab-
lished procedures for all machines used in welding any specific assembly.
The uniformity of the resulting product is obviously a distinct advantage.
Establishment of welding procedure specifications also provides a perma-
nent record for use for future work. This will save the time and effort re-
quired in developing procedures for each new job.
Ease of Inspection. The uniformity obtained by use of a standard
welding procedure also serves to simplify and standardize inspection, since
the inspector has a prescribed welding procedure to which he can refer in
determining whether the welding is being done in an acceptable manner.
This is especially true with respect to material preparation and any inspec-
tion made during welding.
Economy. The use of welding procedure specifications promotes econ-
ony. Through control of quality and uniformity of results, rejections are
held to a minimum. In addition the very act of standardization calls at-
tention to the necessity of employing the most economical procedure.

122
PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALIFICATION 123
Factors to be Included
The following factors are ordinarily covered in a resistance-welding
procedure specification:
The Welding Process Employed. A welding procedure specification
should specify which of the resistance-welding processes is to be used (i.e.
spot, seam, flash welding, etc.), as the processes are distinctly different with
respect to many factors.
Composition and Processed Condition of Base Metal. The base
metal to be welded should be specified, either by reference to specifications
or by prescribing a chemical composition range. A given chemical composi-
tion range may cover metals under more than one specification if they can
be welded by following the same procedure. The processed condition
(temper) should also be stated. The procedure should include any require-
ments for cleaning. This information is of great importance since a welding
procedure that gives excellent results with one metal may not be satisfac-
tory for another or for even the same metal in a different condition of heat
treatment or cleanliness.
Joint Design. A welding procedure specification should specify all de-
tails of joint design including contacting overlap, weld spacing, type and
size of projection and other similar factors.
Type and Size of Electrode. A welding procedure specification should
specify the type of electrode to be used as to material and contour as well
as size. If plates, dies, blocks or other such devices are used, those properties
that would affect the quality of welding should be specified.
Machine Settings. The electrode force, squeeze time, weld time, hold
time, off time, welding speed, upsetting time, and all other such factors con-
trolled by machine settings should be specifically prescribed in the welding
procedure.
Weld Size and Strength. The size of weld and weld strength are gener-
ally criteria for acceptance and should be specified.
Surface Appearance. The surface appearance of a finished weld as
to indentation, discoloration, amount of upset, etc., should be specified.
If these factors are not considered as too important, they may be covered
by some general requirement rather than by detailed requirements.
Inspection Details. The properties to be checkedappearance, strength,

tightness, etc.should be specified as well as the method of testingshear
test, pillow test, peel test, workmanship sample, etc.
Application of Procedure Specifications
Every resistance-welding application requires a specific welding pro-
cedure specification. The specific procedure specification needed in any
124
RESISTANCE WELDING
given instance will depend upon the requirements of the welded product.
It may be as simple as the mere recording of the basic factors or as complex
as to include die designs, special requirements, etc. The degree of complex-
ity will be a function of the product being made and the extent of quality
control and inspection after welding.
Procedure Qualification
Having determined how to weld a given joint it is necessary to determine
whether the joint can be welded consistently and satisfactorily meet the
service requirements to which it will be exposed. The welding procedure
specification has now been established. It represents "how to weld" the
-- a -
spot ntojfcr/OA/
SIDE
SIDE
ThlOMMO*
Weld Current
Appro*. AntlyoU
S.C. Current
Tip end/or Pbaee Setting
Throat Opening
Surrnoo Cond.
Throat Spacing
tJlti_t. siroixiK
Yiold StronrUi
Synchronous or
non-synchronous timing
Elongation %
Heat Tina
Sod. in Area *
BvdHU

Squeeze Tim
Cool Tim
-Ik'Uriil'
Hold Tina
Slwpo
No. of Pulsations
Electrode FoYoo
Squeeze Force
Forging Foroe
-14-
Tension Shear Test
DloJMtor
Tension Test
Yield Point
Overlap or Fiange
Torsional
Olfcimfce
SMUC
Hod. of Rupt.
Indentation
Degree Twist
at Ult.
PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALIFICATION
125
joint. It now remains to qualify that welding procedure. This step repre-
sents the determination of whether the welds made using the procedure set
down in the specification will be satisfactory for their intended purpose.
Because of the varied nature of resistance-welded products, qualification
of resistance-welding procedures is also varied. Thus, where it is important
to do so, and generally where the welded part is small in size, the procedure
may be qualified by making a number of finished pieces and testing them to
destruction under service conditions, either simulated or real. In other in-
stances, welds will be made on test specimens which will be tested in ten-
sion or shear or inspected for other properties. At any rate, the fundamental
purpose of procedure qualification is the same: to determine whether or not
the procedure will yield consistently satisfactory results.
There are three main steps to be taken in qualifying a welding procedure.
These steps are as follows:
Preparation of Sample Welded Specimens. Sample welded speci-
RfS/STAA/C HVZ/?/AW DATA SAGCT
SIDE
SICE
IB
Thloknoaa
Weld Current
Appro*. Anal/alt
S.C. Current
Tap and/or Phaae Setting
Throat Opening
Surfaoo Cood.
Throat Spacing
Dltlaata stranjth
Synohronoue or
non-synohronoue timing

Ylald Stranrtti^
Elongation %
Heat Ii
Rod. In Aroa Jt
Cool Tine
Hardnasa
Eleotrode Faroe
Material
Ten*ion Shear Teat
Shapa
Teneion Tei
it
iitio rvavn*
ttltlaaia
-ft-
-ft-
Toralonal
Hod. or Rupt.
vetr mat
at alt.
Roll Spood Inohaa par Kin.
IndenUUAfl
Spots par Inoh
Other Teetei
V)
Width of Raid
Utah
-Orarlap or rillor
Langik of Mala
126
RESISTANCE WELDING
mens are prepared and welded in accordance with the welding procedure
specifications to be qualified. The number, size and type of samples are
governed by the nature of the tests to be performed for qualification. Where
qualification is in accordance with a standard code, these requirements are
usually specified.
Testing of Specimens. The nature of the tests to be performed will
vary according to the service requirements of the completed parts. Test
specimens may actually be subjected to real or simulated service condi-
tions. More frequently, however, tests will be made to determine specific
properties of the weld, such as tensile strength, shear strength, surface ap-
pearance and soundness.
Evaluation of Test Results. After testing the welded specimens, the
KSS/STAA/CE HTID/NG DATA SHEET
"SIDE"
Sise Of Weld
Thloknes*
Appro*. Anaiyaia'
Surface Ctmd
Ultlmto Strength
TOTS Strength*
Ylld Strengi
Elongation %
Area of Wald
Welding Can No*
Upset
Upset Current Time
Upset Force tMa*)
Clamping Foroe (lbs*}
Tension*She'ar Te>t
Tsrrrrrr-atrrr-
Rod. in Area jC
Hardness

Material'
Tension Taat
Yield Point
Shape
Torsional
Dltlaiata-
Mod, or Rupt.
Tiaa of Automatio Flash*'off"
Tina of Manual Flash-off
Band
TEE
BSirSS Twist
"A" lUWial ST.
Beyond Jawa
Wugget Slie
Other -Taal!* .*
"B" Material fcxt.
Beyond Jaw*
Manual Ha ah-off
Automatic Flaah-off"
'Prlnary Voltage O.C.
Secondary Voltage Q.C.
High Voltage
Low Voltag*"
pViaary Amperaa^
(H.l.ing)
(tlpsat)
Rnarks:
Figure 8.3. Form for resistance welding data sheet for flash welding
PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALIFICATION 127
results must be reviewed to determine whether they meet the specified re-
quirements. If all of the requirements are met, the welding procedure is
considered qualified.
Changes in a Qualified Procedure
If, after having established and qualified a welding procedure, it becomes
necessary to make a change, it may be necessary to conduct additional
qualifying tests to determine whether the changed welding procedure will
yield satisfactory results. Such qualification tests should not be required
when only minor changes have been made in the original procedure, but
should be required when the changes might alter the properties of the result-
ing weld. Where a governing code or specification exists, reference should
be made to it to determine when requalification is required and when it is
not.
Forms for Resistance Welding Data Sheets
The forms shown in Figs.- 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3 are useful in maintaining data
on resistance-welding procedures both for control purposes and for future
reference. It is hoped that the adoption of a standard form will assist in the
comparison and correlation of data for additional recommended practices
and revision to those already issued. Supplementary sheets attached to the
form sheet should be used for such amplified discussion of any of the de-

tails as may be necessary.
Chapter 9
INSPECTION AND TESTING
A satisfactory resistance weld, like any satisfactory weld, is the result
(1) of initially using correct welding settings and techniques and (2) of
maintaining those correct settings and techniques for the duration of a
particular production run.
In resistance welding, factors such as current, time, electrode force, ma-
terial, etc., must be controlled. Periodic testing of work pieces or test sam-
ples are used for quality control. The number of work pieces inspected may
vary, as may the inspection method. All test pieces may be tested non-
destructively or a certain number tested destructively and statistical
methods used to determine the adequacy of the whole lot. In any case,
an inspector must be able to recognize conditions in machine, welding
operator or material under which variations in results may come about.
He must also make certain that the work pieces he inspects are representa-
tive samples, that production pieces are made under the same conditions
as test samples.
The inspector has many ways and means at his disposal. He can visually
inspect; he can use inspection aids like x-ray or magnetic or fluorescent
powders; he can destructively test the piece. He must know these and other
methods and be able to evaluate.
For many types of weldments the basis for acceptance is visual inspec-
tion. This is true even for some weldments whose joints are later to be tested
throughout by x-ray or other methods. Visual inspection is the most ex-
tensively used of any method. There are many reasons for this. It is easy to
apply; it's quick; it's relatively inexpensive; it gives important information
with regard to the general conformity of the weldment to specification re-
quirements.
Visual inspection starts with the material prior to fabrication. Scabs,
seams, scale or other harmful surface conditions are easily detected. Serious
plate laminations are observed on cut edges. Plate dimensions are deter-
mined by measurement.
After the parts are assembled in position for welding, any incorrect
alignment of faying surfaces or butting edges and other features of joint
preparation that might affect the quality of the welded joint should be
noted. For example, the applicable drawing may indicate a three-fourths

128
129
inch overlap whereas a one-half inch overlap has actually been made. Also,
the butting edges of a flash weld setup may be misaligned more than the
accepted 5 per cent of the metal thicknesses. Oxygen cutting irregularities
and other factors should also be checked since they too affect the quality
of the finished joint.
During production a check should be made to see that consistent overlap
is maintained and that conditions do not deviate from desired settings. It
should be particularly noted that metal expulsion is not excessive during
welding. Care should be taken to make certain that the electrodes do not
change in size, as this very directly controls the weld size. Also, it is impor-
tant to observe the amount of steel in the throat of the welding machine
unless a current control is used. The electrode force must be checked pe-
riodically to see that no variations develop due to losses in the line, leaky
gaskets or other factors.
A high quality consistent weld cannot be judged entirely by appearance,
but a good weld should present a uniform and consistent appearance. The
electrode imprint should not fade out as this indicates flattening electrodes
or cold welds.
STANDARD METHODS FOR TESTING RESISTANCE WELDS*
These standards do not include the testing of base material. Only that
material will be used which conforms to the required material specification.
It is the purpose of these standards to present recommended tests which
are in common use for determining the quality of resistance welds. Spot,
roll spot, seam and projection welds are covered for all ferrous and non-
ferrous alloys excepting those of aluminum and magnesium. Drawings or
specifications utilizing these standards should specify the type or types of
tests and the acceptable limits, as this will depend upon the design of
fabricated parts.
Single Spot Welds.\The tests given herein have been written on the
basis of single spot welds, but are applicable to the other methods of resist-
ance welding as shown.
Roll Spot Welds, fRoll spot welds are to be treated the same as single
spot welds, the sample to be prepared as a multiple and cut into the speci-
mens recommended for spot welds.

Seam Welding.^Seam welding is an extension of the spot-welding prin-
ciple to a condition where the spots overlap providing a continuous weld.
* This material has been taken from the Recommended Practices for Resistance
Welding (CI. 1-50) issued by the American Welding Society.
f Where it is desired to test roll spot welds, seam welds or projection welds which
are spaced closer together than will permit using the standard single spot specimen,
a specimen of the same width as the standard should be prepared with the welds
arranged transversely on the specimen.
130
RESISTANCE WELDING
Projection Welds, fTests as established for spot welds also apply to pro-
jection welds, the projections being made in the sample strip at the point
shown for the spot location.
Types of Test
The following types of test are recommended for determining the char-
acteristics of resistance welds. In all cases the size of weld (or projection
in the case of projection welds) depends upon the thickness of material.
Spot Welds
Test No. 1Tension-Shear Test
Test No. 2Tension Test
(a) Cross-Tension Test
(6) U-Tension Test
Test No. 3Impact Test
(a) Shear-Impact Test
(6) Drop-Impact Test
Test No. 4Fatigue Test
Test No. 5Macroetch Test
Test No. 7Radiographic Test
Test No. 8Twist Test
Test No. 9Hardness Test
Test No. 10Peel Test
Roll Spot Welds
(6) U-Tension Test

Seam Welds
t See footnote page 129.
131
Test No. 6Pillow Test
Projection Welds
(b) U-Tension Test
Test No. 9-Hardness Test
Preparation for Testing
Consistent test results can be obtained only with careful attention to
surface condition. The material should be essentially free of grease, scale
or other foreign substances likely to cause a high surface resistance.
The sheared specimen should be essentialy flat and free of burrs. Sheared
burrs on heavy stock may be sufficient to cause shunting of the current
through the edges of the pieces and therefore the burrs should either be re-
moved or the parts placed together with the burrs toward the outside
faces of the specimens.
Specimens showing obvious misalignment or lack of centering should be
discarded.
Test Methods
Tension-Shear Test (Test No. 1): This test consists of pulling in
tension, to destruction, on a standard testing machine, a test specimen ob-
tained by lapping two strips of metal and joining them by a single weld.
The dimensions of the test specimens are shown in Fig. 9.1.
The ultimate strength of the specimen and the manner of failure, whether

by shear of the weld metal, or by tear of the parent metal, and whether a
ductile or brittle fracture is obtained, should be recorded.
Measurement of the diameter of a weld corresponding to the weld in the
tension-shear specimen is desirable. When no other test is contemplated
an approximate value of the diameter can be obtained by measurement
132
RESISTANCE WELDING
w-
EDGES AS
SHEARED^
-w
DIRECTION OF
ROLLING (PREFERRED)
SPOT-WELD CENTERED -
j AS SHOWN
T THICKNESS OF THINNER SHEET,
INCHES AND U.S.S. GAGE
SPECIMEN WIDTH,
INCHES
RECOMMENDED
LENGTH, INCHES
UP TO 0.029 INCL.
5/6
0.030 TO 0.056 INCL.
0.059 TO 0.115 INCL.
>y2
0.116 TO 0.190 INCL.
0.191 AND OVER

Figure 9.1. Tension-shear test specimen
on the fracture transverse to the direction of pull. More precise measure-
ments can be made with Tests Nos. 2, 3, 5 and 8.
The record of the specimen should also include a complete description of
the properties of the metal such as thickness, tensile strength, ductility
and chemical composition.
The effect of eccentricity in the use of the above specimens may be dis-
regarded. For specimens 0.116 in. in thickness and over it is recommended
that the grips of the testing machine be offset to avoid bending at the grips.
Tension Test (Test No. 2). Two types of tension test are used as de-
scribed below.
(1) Cross-Tension Test.This test is designed to stress the weld in a
direction normal to the surface of the material. Special holding jigs are
constructed to apply the normal tension to the welded cross specimen which
is shown in Figs. 9.2 (a), (6) and (c).
The jig for holding the 2- x 6-in. cross specimen (Fig. 9.2 (a)) is shown in
Fig. 9.3. Various methods of holding the jig in the testing machine may
be used such as pin connections, wedge grips or threaded-end testing fix-
tures. A self-aligning feature is desirable. Precautions should be taken to
prevent the specimen from slipping in the holding fixture.
The jig for holding the 3- x 8-in. cross specimen (Fig. 9.2 (6)) is shown in
t5
HOLE
-4)
t0-
eg
11
T= THICKNESS UP TO
AND INCLUDING 0.191
(a)
SPOT-WELD CENTERED
AS SHOWN
T -HU-
SPOT-WELD CENTERED
AS SHOWN
T= THICKNESS OVER 0.191" <*~3"H
Sketch (c) illustrates rein-
forcement of specimen for
Drop-Impact Test.
BRACING PLATE -
SAME THICKNESS AS
BOTTOM PLATE
Figure 9.2. Cross-tension test specimen

133
134
RESISTANCE WELDING
Fig. 9.4. Figure 9.4 (a) shows one of the specimens in the lower portion of
the testing jig.
Tension at right angles to the plates of this specimen is produced by
applying compression to the jig holding the specimens. The U-shaped
yokes with the holddown screws are used to partially restrain the specimen
from bending by introducing semifixed ends to the beam represented by
each separate plate. Fig. 9.4 (b) shows the specimen completely assembled
in the jig with the compression head of the testing machine in contact with
the jig and ready for applying load to the specimen.
(2) U-Tension Test.A tension test may also be made on U-shaped
specimens as shown in Fig. 9.5. The U-sections are welded as shown and
pulled to destruction in a standard testing machine. Supporting or spacer
blocks must be provided as shown for confining the sample so that loading
takes place at the weld.
The U-tension test is limited to those thicknesses and materials that
can be readily formed.

Figure 9.3. Jig for cross-tension test for material 0.191 in. or less in thickness
135
(a) (b)
Figure 9.4. Jig for cross-tension test for material over 0.191 in. in thickness
The ultimate strength of the weld, the diameter of the weld and the
method of fracture should be recorded.
The purpose of the tension test is to provide a better measure of notch
sensitivity than is obtained with the tension-shear test. The ratio of
the tensile strength to the tension-shear strength is frequently referred to
as the ductility of the weld.
Impact Test (Test No. 3). Two types of impact tests are in use. The
shear-impact test is recommended as the most rapid for material up to and
including 0.125 in. thick. For thicknesses above 0.125 in. the drop-impact
test must be used. Material under 0.300 in. in thickness must be backed
up with a reinforcing plate (see Fig. 9.2 (c)).
(1) Shear-Impact Test.The impact test differentiates between different
degrees of weld toughness. A satisfactory shear-impact test for spot welds
may be obtained by using the 2- x 6-in. tension-shear specimen, Fig. 9.1,
and a modified 110 to 220-ft.-lb. pendulum type impact testing machine.
To satisfactorily test welds in sheets up to and including 0.125 in. in thick-
ness it is necessary to have bobs of different weights. Two interchangeable
bobs made from magnesium alloy and steel are commercially available.
These provide 30 to 60 and 110 to 220 ft.-lb. testing capacities, respec-
tively. Two-inch sheet metal testing attachments are commercially avail-
able.

In this type of test the specimen is held by serrated wedge grips in the
136
RESISTANCE WELDING
EDGES AS
SHEARED
9/,6" drill-^
SPOT-WELD CENTERED AS SHOWN
P/32 HOLE
|/6"rad.
BREAK CORNERS
-l'/4-
-3'/4-
JL
Figure 9.5. TJ-tension test specimen and jig
special pendulum bob and cross-head attachments. When the machine is
operated both the cross head and bob, which are connected by the welded
specimen, fall until the cross head is caught by adjustable anvils at the
bottom of the pendulum swing. The pendulum bob is free to continue its
swing, and will do so, provided sufficient energy is available to fracture the
specimen. The residual swing of the pendulum indicates the impact load,
in foot-pounds, necessary to break the weld. Care must be taken to properly
tighten the wedge grips so that no errors are introduced by slippage of the
specimen during test. If grip slippage is a serious problem, pin connections
may be used to supplement the grips.
When making shear-impact tests some of the energy is absorbed in plastic
deformation of the sheets. In order to control the extent of this deforma-
tion the distance between grips should be 5 in. 0, +J^6 m-
Since large changes in spot weld impact strength occur with relatively
small changes in sheet thickness and weld size, the coverage obtained by

any one bob assembly is limited.
137
(2) Drop-Impact Test.-Since the range of the ordinary pendulum-type
impact testing machine will not permit shear-impact tests to be made on
spot-welded sheets of thickness much greater than 0.125 in., a different
procedure must be used to apply shock loads to welds in the heavier gage
materials. The most critical direction in which a shock load may be ap-
plied to spot welds in heavy plate is in a direction normal to the plate
surfaces. This may be accomplished using the same size and type of speci-
mens recommended for the cross-tension test as shown in Fig. 9.2. In
order to apply an impact load to a specimen of this type, a modified Free-
mont-type impact testing machine, which is commercially available, may
be used. Weights of 50 or 100 lb. may be dropped from a height of 11 ft.
to obtain maximum available energy values of 550 or 1100 ft.-lb. This
range covers the usual impact strength values of heat-treated spot welds
made in plain carbon and alloy steel combinations in plate thicknesses up
to J^j in. In order to obtain adequate velocity of impact it is recommended
that the weights be dropped from heights 3 ft. and greater (approximately
14 ft./sec). In order to reduce the bending of the specimen as much as
possible, it is clamped by means of hold-down straps.
The residual energy after fracture is measured by means of a pair of
calibrated springs. The maximum deflection of the springs may be indi-
cated by an aluminum push rod moving between a pair of bronze friction
plates. The amount of friction may be controlled by means of spring-
loaded machine screws. An arm on the aluminum push rod provides a
convenient place for a dial gage to be used to measure the maximum de-
flection of the springs (Fig. 9.6). A calibration curve for residual energy
may be obtained by dropping the weight from various heights correspond-
ing to various potential energies of the moving system. The falling weight
is guided by means of lubricated ways. The lower portion of the weight is
forked to permit the weight to be applied to both sides of the lower plate
of the specimen. The width of the opening between the two prongs of the
fork is made 3^j in. to permit a small clearance between the inside surfaces
of the fork and the clamped upper plate.
The results obtained with the drop-impact test are subject to two types
of error. Both of these are concerned with the behavior of thinner plates

and the softer types of steel. One source of error is due to the fact that it
is not possible to restrain the lower plate against bending. In this case, if
the lower plate is thin and soft, too much bending will be produced and
either the specimen will not break or a large portion of the impact energy
will be absorbed in bending of the plate. Although the ability of a weld to
force the plate to bend may be a good indication, the resultant impact
energy absorbed by bending will not be a good measure of the strength of
the weld. On the other hand, severe plastic deformation of the plate ma-
138
RESISTANCE WELDING
Figure 9.6. Drop-impact test machine
terial in the vicinity of the weld is a much better index of weld quality.
Therefore, plate bending at some distance from the weld should be avoided.
The second source of error in impact testing is bending of the upper plate
and slippage of the specimen in the clamps. Both of these cause absorption
of additional energy, and thus a true measure of weld toughness is not ob-
tained.
In order to avoid the possibilities for error mentioned above, two methods
may be used to minimize bending and grip slippage in the upper plate.
One is to provide serrated jaws for clamping to prevent slippage. The
other is to place another plate directly over the upper plate and to attach
these plates at their ends by additional spot welds, as illustrated in Fig. 9.2
(c). In this case the extra plate is placed in compression during the test,
an action which prevents excessive plate bending due to grip slippage. In
the testing of a thin plate welded to a thicker one, the heavier plate is
arranged to be struck by the falling weight and the precautions mentioned
above with reference to the upper plate will insure a satisfactory impact
test. If both plates are thin and soft, it may be necessary to reinforce the
lower plate in a manner similar to that used to stiffen the upper plate.
Fatigue Test (Tension-Shear) (Test No. 4): The Tension-Shear

Fatigue Test makes use of the tension-shear specimen (Fig. 9.1). Mount-
INSPECTION AND TESTING 139
Figure 9.7. Fatigue testing machine
ing holes must be drilled using utmost care to align the holes with the weld.
The specimen is loaded in tension with a static load. A dynamic load is
then applied and the dynamic load oscillated until failure of the specimen
takes place (Fig. 9.7).
Macroetch Test (Test No. 5): The purpose of this test is to deter-
mine the weld diameter and penetration as a shop control measure (see
Test No. 9 below).
For testing seam welds, a longitudinal section may be used to determine
the overlap of adjacent spots.
To prepare the specimen lay a straight edge across the weld and scribe a
line on a diameter of the weld as judged by eye. Saw to one side of the
line, filing or grinding the specimen to the line. Etch* until satisfactory
definition is obtained between the weld zone and the unaffected base metal.
* For suitable etching solutions see A.S.T.M. Specifications E-3, Methods of
Preparation of Metallographic Specimens, latest revision, or A.S.M. Metals Hand-

book.
140
RESISTANCE WELDING
The weld diameter may be measured by means of a pair of dividers and a
steel scale. The penetration may be estimated. For more precise measure-
ments these values may be determined with a microscope.
This test is intended as a quick check and its accuracy depends upon the
care taken in preparation of the sample. Where more accurate information
is required the samples require mounting and careful preparation to obtain
the true diameter.
Pillow Test (Test No. 6): Seam welding is an extension of the spot-
welding principle to a condition where the spots overlap providing a con-
tinuous weld. This type of weld is usually employed where tightness is re-
quired. A test approaching operating conditions furnishes the best measure
of weld quality. For this purpose two flat plates of the same thickness as
used in production, are prepared and welded around the outside edge sealing
the space between the plates. A pipe connection is then welded to the hole
as shown in Fig. 9.8 and the assembly attached to a hydraulic system. Pres-
sure is then applied.
It may be necessary to restrict deformation of the pillow by inserting a
plate above and below it while testing, particularly in soft material, as the
pillow so distorts as to cause excessive loading in some spots with hardly
any loading in other spots.
The measure of a good weld is no leakage at a prescribed pressure or when
failure occurs in the base metal.
Radiographic Test (Test No. 7): Radiographic tests are valuable for
determining the (presence and) extent of cracks, porosity and nugget
DRILL HOLE IN ONE PLATE AND ARC-
WELD OR SILVER BRAZE STD.PIPE
NIPPLE CENTRALLY OVER HOLE

Figure 9.8. Pillow test for seam welds
141
extrusion at the faying plane and can be made on any convenient spot weld
or series of spot welds.
Few data are available on radiographic test procedures; further in-
formation will be published as available.
Twist Test (Test No. 8): A standard tension-shear specimen (Fig. 9.1)
may be used as a twist test specimen to determine the weld diameter.
Equipment may be employed to determine maximum load and angle of
twist at maximum load.
Few data are available on twist test procedures; further information will
be published as available.
Hardness Test (Test No. 9): A macroetch specimen (see Test No. 5),
is prepared, exercising care to avoid overheating of the weld area in cutting
so as not to affect the surface hardness. A second cut parallel to the first
should be made to obtain a sample of suitable height to mount in the hard-
ness tester. The weld section is finished with 3/0 paper and etched. Care

Figure 9.9. Peel test
142
RESISTANCE WELDING
should be taken to select a hardness test method so that the impression does
not distort the edge of the specimen. (For further details refer to data on
methods of hardness measurements in A.S.M. Metals Handbook.)
Peel Test (Test No. 10): The peel test is a simple shop test that can
be made with a minimum of equipment but if correlated with Tension-
Shear and Tension tests makes an ideal control test. It is applicable to all
thicknesses of material up to and including 3^ inch.
The test consists of peeling apart, to destruction, a test specimen ob-
tained by lapping two strips of metal and joining them by a single weld as
shown in Fig. 9.9. If it is desired to determine shunting effect several spots
can be made using the desired spacing and then the sample cut transversely
before peeling is started, using the last weld made as the test sample. Three
welds are recommended for this adaptation as shown in Fig. 9.10.
The size of the fused zone can be measured to the nearest hi. by
EDGES AS
SHEARED^
DIRECTION OF ROLLINS
(PREFERRED)N
SPOT-WELD CENTERED'
AS SHOWN ',
l i"
"2
-fr
EDGES AS
SHEARED'*
p._j DIRECTION OF ROLLING
-u~n (PREFERRED)
"X ~* \

SPOT-WELDS CENTERED
AS SHOWN
USE THIRD WELD FOR TESTN
USE TO 0.029
SEE MINIMUM
0.030 TO 0.058
WELD SPACING IN
0.059 TO 0.125
I'/a
RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
Figure 9.10. Peel test specimens
143
means of this test. An indication of the penetration is also obtained in
that if sufficient penetration is not present, the metal from one piece will
not be torn out in its entirety. Irregularity of shape of torn metal also
indicates insufficient penetration.
This test will apply to spot welds or single projection welded studs or
parts.
Evaluation of Weld Consistency
When a series of test results are to be evaluated in terms of consistency,
it is recommended that the A.S.T.M. methods be adopted. These methods
are described in detail in the A.S.T.M. "Manual on Presentation of Data,"
and are based on statistical theory. An extensive discussion on the statis-
tical control of weld quality will be found in the Welding Handbook, Third
Edition. The use of the statistical method provides the following advantages:
1. A quantitative measure of the degree of consistency of a complete
welding process can be obtained.
2. A comparison can be made of consistencies resulting from different
techniques, machines, materials and maintenance procedures.
3. It permits the determination of proper values of average strength to
be used in the shop if specified minimum strengths are to be maintained
without exception.
4. It permits the establishment of proper control limits within which
production samples must fall if the results are subject only to normal
variations. When a production sample falls outside of the control limits,
an abnormal change in one of the elements of quality control has occurred
and should be corrected.
5. It permits the quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness of im-
provements in quality control.
6. It permits the comparison of quality in different shops working on
similar types of production.
7. It makes possible the comparison of test results from different labora-
tories or shops. It is thus a measure of the validity of conclusions arrived
at from experimental investigations.
8. It furnishes design engineers with a quantitative measure of weld
consistency obtainable in the shop.

When the statistical method is applied to a series of test results, the most
useful measure of consistency is the coefficient of variation, defined below:
The coefficient of variation is the standard deviation of a number of ob-
served values, expressed as a percentage of the average value.
The standard deviation is the root-mean-square deviation of the observed
values from their average.
Obtaining the average value of a series of observations is a simple case of
144
RESISTANCE WELDING
addition and division. The standard deviation is a little more difficult to
calculate. The first step consists of obtaining the sum of the squares of the
observed values. This sum is divided by the number of observed values.
From the quotient the square of the average observed value is subtracted.
The standard deviation is obtained by taking the square root of the re-
mainder. Simplified methods for computing the standard deviation are fully
described in the A.S.T.M. Manual.
Presentation of Data.Whenever the results of a series of tests are re-
corded or presented for publication, the following information should be
provided:
1. Number of observed values.
2. The average of the observed values.
3. The standard deviation of the observed values, or the coefficient of
variation.
4. The range, which is the difference between the largest observed value
and the smallest observed value.
5. The type of test and the units in which the results are expressed.
Sampling.One of the most important factors involved in the evalua-
tion of consistency is the obtaining of reliable samples. Great care must be
exercised to insure that these are truly representative of production. This
factor can be controlled by careful selection and training of the individual
who is to collect the samples.
Control of Weld Quality by Statistical Methods
When weld quality is to be controlled by statistical methods, the control
chart methods of the American Standards Association may be used. These
methods are fully described in the War Standards Zl. 1-1941, Guide for
Quality Control, Zl.2-1941, Control Chart Method of Analyzing Data and
Zl.3-1942, Control Chart Method of Controlling Quality During Produc-
tion, published by the American Standards Association.
These standards employ practically the same methods and terminology
that are used in evaluating weld consistency. They provide means for
establishing minimum and maximum limits for judging the quality of pro-
duction on the basis of periodic samples of a limited number of specimens.
Variations of test results within the control limits may be ascribed to prob-

able errors. Test results falling outside of the control limits are an indica-
tion of an abnormal variation in one of the elements controlling the results.
The cause of the abnormal variations should immediately be investigated
and corrected.
Before the degree of consistency that is to be maintained can be deter-
mined, it is necessary to collect and analyze data which are representative
of past and current production. A decision must also be reached regarding
145
the frequency of sampling and the number of specimens in a sample. Hav-
ing determined the proper average value and the standard deviation based
on past and current production, and having also determined the number of
specimens per sample, the control limits may be calculated by means of
factors which are tabulated in the A.S.A. publications referred to above.
Control Charts.The control limits established above, may be indicated
graphically on charts upon which the average results of the periodic
sampling are plotted. This control chart method gives a continuous visual
indication of the test results. Whenever the test results fall outside of the
control limits, an investigation should be made to ascertain the cause, and
the difficulty corrected. The range of variation of individual specimens in
a sample may also be plotted on the same chart.
Resistance Welding Statistical Quality Control
The application of statistical control to production quality has three
prime objectives: (1) to reduce the number of rejections and machine shut-
downs due to poor performance; (2) to assist in establishing the optimum
specification limits of satisfactory quality; and (3) to provide a reasonably
reliable measure of actual production quality. When these objectives are
finally achieved, the net production will have been improved because of
greater quantity, lower costs and better quality.
The basic principles of statistical control have been thoroughly worked
out and are widely used in industry. Briefly these principles are:
1. To select samples of actual production and test them for performance
to specifications.
2. To estimate the probable quality, or conformance, of all production
by analysis of samples.
3. To predict the future quality by considering the trend of past and
present quality.
The methods of sampling, of extracting data from the samples and
arriving at a decision as to whether to permit further use of the machine
setup that produced the sample constitute the regulatory system.
In connection with the selection of the statistical control system, it is
probably obvious that the smaller the number of variables that must be
kept under control, and the fewer the charts and records that must be

maintained, the faster and more economical will be the functioning of the
system. This leads immediately to the conclusion that the various ma-
chines in the shop which are used to weld the same or similar materials
should themselves be as nearly equal in adjustment and performance as
possible.
Thus, although a complicated system could be adopted that would
operate over a number of machines with different and varying charac-
146
RESISTANCE WELDING
teristics, a much more economical system could be used if all the ma-
chines were first stabilized and then all the nearly similar machines were
standardized before applying the statistical control.
Procedure in Installing a Statistical Control System. Having
first standardized the spot-welding machines, the installation of the statis-
tical control system should be as follows:
1. Obvious faults in the process or equipment should be corrected.
2. The quality of the spot-welding production should be surveyed
by obtaining a representative sample, of about 100 spot welds, of the out-
put of each machine. This should first be done with a single thickness
and material representing the average output of the shop. All machines
should be included, and all conditions such as surface condition, machine
setup and operating procedure should be in accordance with the tentative
shop standards.
3. The data collected in the shop survey should then be analyzed.
The average strength should be calculated and used as a measure of
strength, and the standard deviation or coefficient of variation calculated as
a measure of consistency. The range (difference between maximum and
minimum strengths) is not an accurate measure of consistency, although
for ten or fewer spot welds the standard deviation is probably no better;
however, the initial sampling tests should contain at least 50, preferably
100 or more, welds each.
4. Using the results of the general survey, the next step should be to
establish maximum and minimum allowable values of average strength
and range for future small samples (five to ten welds) from the same ma-
chines. Such allowable values should be derived from a careful analysis
of the larger body of 50 or 100 samples taken during the survey, and
should be so selected that there is a high degree of probability that if a
small sample satisfies the imposed conditions, the entire body of welds
will be of about the same strength and consistency, as was the case with
the body originally surveyed. Tests whose results fall within the limits
are then taken as indication that the machines have not changed and
that they are therefore still doing acceptable welding.
5. Control charts similar to that shown in Fig. 9.11 should then be

established, and would afford direct control of the use of the machines.
Any machine whose average spot weld shear strength of range falls out-
side of the limits on the control chart could reasonably be assumed to
be operating differently than when first tested. A discrepancy in average
strength might perhaps call for the recalibration of some instrument or
an adjustment of the line voltage or other variables. If the range becomes
excessive, it could be assumed that something is not as it should be; per-
haps the surface condition has changed,' or electrical troubles are respon-
147
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
1800
1700
UP
PER L
IMIT =
2310
XAVG = 2166 1
\lo
WER/
LIMIT
2022
123456789
SAMPLE NO.
(a) CONTROL CHART FOR AVERAGES
10
600
500
HI
% 400
<
rr
10 300
O 200
100
UPF
>ER L
MIT =
541
AVG
Nf 256
LOV
VER L
MIT =

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1 23456789 10 II
SAMPLE NO.
(b) CONTROL CHART FOR RANGE
Figure 9.11. Control charts
sible. Practice will quickly develop the ability to interpret the control
chart in terms of maintenance procedure.
6. Data obtained from hourly or other regular sampling should be
plotted immediately and would make possible a long-time and accurate
148
RESISTANCE WELDING
evaluation of output quality. The number of spots in these samples would,
of course, be much smaller than in the initial 100-weld test, but they
would be taken so frequently as to make possible the drawing of a con-
tinuous quality record. The trends of average strength and range from
sample to sample on any machine would be employed as an indication
of whether trouble is likely to occur, thus making it possible to correct
faults before they get so bad as to interfere with production. This is one
of the basic objectives of a control system.
7. As the results of the system improve the quality of production, the
number of spots taken in each periodic test could be reduced, and the sys-
tem cost gradually decreased to a minimum.
Procedure for Determining Control Factors. Reference will be
made to Fig. 9.12, which is a graphical representation of a typical process
which is normally distributed about its mean, X. The definitions of the
terms used in Fig. 9.12 follow:
Tail Area, Pt. This area to the left of the specification minimum (ex-
pressed in percent of the total area under the distribution) is called the
"lot tolerance percentage nonconforming." The area represents the per-
cent of spot welds whose shear strength can be tolerated to fall below
the specification minimum in the long run. Values of Pt equal to 1, 0.5
and 0.1 per cent are suggested as reasonable. In other words, the consumer
or designer will agree to accept the process and design if the quality for the
greater percent of the time does not become worse than the agreed upon
percent nonconforming.
LOT TOLERANCE AVERASE S?0
Figure 9.12. Graphic representation of typical welding process and location of

process minimum
150
RESISTANCE WELDING
sample size increases. But by decreasing a the process minimum approaches
the specification minimum as a limit, Pc, Pi and n remaining constant.
So far as production is concerned, low process minimums are desirable.
The most efficient way of accomplishing this is to reduce the variability
or standard deviation.
In summarizing, the following points should be clear.
The process minimum can be reduced when:
1. PC1 Pt, Xp and n are fixed by reducing a (process minimum ap-
proaches specification minimum as a limit).
2. Pc, Pt, Xp and a are fixed by increasing sample size (process minimum
approaches lot tolerance average as a limit).
The tail area P can be reduced when:
1. Pc,n and X are fixed by decreasing a.
2. Pc, n and <r are fixed by increasing Xp.
The following data serve to illustrate the collection of daily random
test samples and the method of plotting on a control chart. These data
represent tension-shear test data on stainless steel, 0.055-in. thick annealed
sheet type 302. (Table 9.1.)
Calculations
Group No.
Group Av.
Range
2,156
110
42
2,202
200
89
2,154
200
2,210
300
136
2,232
390
138
2,410
200
67
2,302
200
81
1,772
400
86
2,074
300
109
10
2,148
200
76

74
Total =
21,660
2560
896
Grand Av. X = 21,660 10 = 2166
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152
RESISTANCE WELDING
the individual group averages, and consequently the calculated standard
deviations, are expected to be different, it is convenient to use the coefficient
of variation. This is simply the standard deviation divided by the group
average and usually expressed as a percentage.
These curves (Fig. 9.11) show that samples 6 and 8 were out of control,
but that conditions were corrected on succeeding samples. The range
appears quite broad, but this is due to the use of a relatively small sample
for establishing limits, and also that two of the 10 groups are so far out of
control.
The following references have been freely used in making the above-
suggested procedure for statistical control of spot welding:
Clark, N. C, "Quality Control in Aircraft Spot Welding," The Welding Journal,
23 (1), 48-59 (1944).
Robinson, H., "Determination by Statistical Analysis of Process Minimums for
Spot Welding," Ibid., 24 (5), 455^61 (1945).
American Society for Testing Materials, Suppl. B, Manual on Presentation of Data.
War Standards Zl.l, 1941, "Guide for Quality Control." War Standards Z1.2, 1942,
"Control Chart Method of Analyzing Data." Z1.3,1942, "Control Chart Method
of Controlling Quality During Production." Published by the American Stand-
ards Association.
Welding Handbook, Third Edition, Chapter 44, "Statistical Control of Weld Qual-

ity."
AWS STANDARDS AND BOOKS
A. Fundamentals of Welding
A2.0-47 Standard Welding Symbols $1.00
A2.1-47 Symbols Wall Chart 50
A3.0-49 Standard Welding Terms and Their Definitions 1.00
A3.1-49 Master Chart of Welding Processes and Process Charts.. .50
A3.0 and A3.1 together 1.25
A4.0-42 Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of Welds (with
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*A5.1-55T Specifications for Mild Steel Arc-Welding Electrodes
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*A5.2-46T Specifications for Iron and Steel Gas-Welding Rods (Ten-
tative) 40
*A5.3-43T Specifications for Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Metal-
Arc Welding Electrodes (Tentative) .40
*A5.4-55T Specifications for Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and
Chromium-Nickel Steel Welding Electrodes (Tenta-
tive) 40
*A5.5-54T Specifications for High Tensile and Low-Alloy Steel Arc-
Welding Electrodes-Covered (Tentative) 40
A5.6-53T Specifications for Copper and Copper-Alloy Welding
Electrodes (Tentative) 40
*A5.7-52T Specifications for Copper and Copper-Alloy Welding Rods
(Tentative) 40
*A5.8-52T Specifications for Brazing Filler Metal (Tentative) 40
*A5.9-53T Specifications for Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and
Chromium-Nickel Steel Welding Rods and Bare Elec-
trodes (Tentative) 40
*A5.10-54T Specifications for Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Weld-
ing Rods and Bare Electrodes (Tentative) .40
*A5.11-54T Specifications for Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloy Covered
Welding Electrodes (Tentative) 40
*A5.12-55T Specifications for Tungsten Arc-Welding Electrodes (Ten-
tative) .40
A6.0-52 Safe Practices for Welding and Cutting Containers That
Have Held Combustibles .50

A6.1-55 Recommended Safe Practices for Inert-Gas Metal-Arc
Welding 50
Z49.1-50 Safety in Electric and Gas Welding and Cutting Opera-
tions, American Standard .50
B. Training, Inspection and Control
Bl.l-45 Inspection Handbook for Manual Metal-Arc Welding.... $2.00
B2.1-45 Code of Minimum Requirements for Instruction of Weld-
ing Operators: Part AArc Welding of Steel .75
B2.2-44T Code of Minimum Requirements for Instruction of Weld-
153
154
RESISTANCE WELDING
ing Operators: Part B-lOxy-Acetylene Welding of
Steel-Aircraft
.75
B3.0-41T
Standard Qualification Procedure
.50
C. Processes
Cl.l-50
Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding
$1.00
C1.2-53T
Recommended Practices for Spot Welding Aluminum and
1.00
C2.1-50T
Recommended Practices for Metallizing:
Part IAMetallizing Shafts or Similar Objects
Part IIMetallizingSafety Recommendations
.75
C2.2-52T
Part IBApplication of Aluminum and Zinc for Protec-
tion of Iron and Steel
.50
C2.3-54T
Part ICApplication of Metallized Coatings to Pro-
tect Against Heat Corrosion
.50
C2.4-55T
.50
Brazing Manual, 193 pages, cloth bound.
Members
3.80
4.75

D. Industrial Applications
D1.0-46
Standard Code for Arc and Gas Welding in Building Con-
$1.00
D2.0-56
Standard Specifications for Welded Highway and Railway
Bridges
1.50
D3.3-53
Rules for Welding Piping in Marine ConstructionCarbon
Steels
.50
D3.4-52T
Rules for Welding Piping in Marine ConstructionFerritic
Alloy Steels
.50
D4.0-44T
WfeTtiability Standards for Alternate Aircraft Steels
.25
D5.1-55
Rules for Field Welding of Steel Storage Tanks
1.00
D5.2-55
AWWA-AWS Standard Specifications for Elevated Steel
.70
*D7.0-49
AWWA-AWS Standard Specifications for Field Welding of
.25
D8.1-46T
Recommended Practices for Automotive Flash Butt Weld-
ing
.50
D8.2-48T
AWS STANDARDS AND BOOKS 155
ment Cycles for Low Chromium-Molybdenum Steel
Piping Materials (Tentative) .50
D10.4-55T Welding of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steel Piping and
Tubing-A Committee Report (Tentative) 1.00
Books
*Welding Handbook, Third Edition, 1651 pages, cloth bound.
Members $9.00
NonmembersU. S. A. and Canada 12.00
NonmembersElsewhere 13.00
*Welding MetallurgySecond Edition revised by G. E. Linnert. 505 pages,
cloth bound. 1949 3.00
Practical Design of Welded Steel Structures by H. M. Priest. 153 pages, cloth
bound. 1943 1.00
Binder
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except starred items.
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Order Form for latest information.
INDEX
Accessory devices, 52
Aluminized steel, 107, 111
Aluminum and aluminum alloys, 107, 106
surface preparation, 109
Aluminum bronze, 106, 110
Ammeters, 73
Appearance of welds, 111
Appearance, projection welding, 23
Atmospheres, flash welding, 25
Attachment of electrode, 61
Austenitic stainless steels, 103, 110
Bar guns, 32
Basic joints, 78
Basic welds, 79
Bonderized steel, 111
Brass, 106, 110
Cadmium-plated steel, 107, 111
Care of electrodes, 65
Cartridge brass, 106, 110
Charts, control, 145
Chromium-iron alloys, 103, 110
Chromium-nickel-iron alloys, 103,110
Chromium-plated steel, 107, 111
Circular welding machines, 33
Classification
magnetic contactors, 44
sequence controls, 49
welding timers, 48
Coated metals, 107, 111
Coefficient of variation, 143
Commutator-controlled welding, 33

Compensator, voltage, 55
Conduction, 17
Conductivity, thermal, 100
Consistency of weld, 143
Consumers risk, 149
Contactors, 43
electronic, 45
magnetic, 43
mechanical, 47
Continuous motion seam welding, 22
Control charts, 145
Control of weld quality, 144
Controls, 43
definitions of, 4
heat, 52
nonsynchronous, 50
preheat and postheat, 54
slope, 55
slope down, 55
slope up, 55
synchronous precision, 50
Cooling of electrode, 61
Copper and copper-alloys, 105, 110
Copper-base electrodes, 58
Copper-tungsten electrodes, 59
Counter, cycle, 75
Cracks, 113
Cross-tension test, 130, 132
Current flow, 17
flash welding, 25
resistance to, 17
Current regulator, 55
Current transformer, 73
INDEX
Distribution of means, 149
Drive mechanisms
friction roll, 35
gear, 35
knurl, 35
shaft, 35
traveling fixture, 35
traveling roll, 35
Drop-impact test, 137
Ductility of welds, 116, 135
Duty cycle, 40
Ejector holders, 65
Electrical resistivity, 100
Electrical system, 37
Electrodes, 56
attachment of, 61
care and maintenance of, 65
cooling of, 61
copper-base alloy, 58
copper-tungsten, 59
face of, 60
follow-up of, 75
force measurement of, 74
friction-driven, 62
gear-driven, 62
holders for, 65
knurl-driven, 62
life for projection welding, 23
materials for, 56
mechanical properties of, 57
mushrooming of, 66, 68
physical properties of, 57
redressing of, 65, 69
projection welding, 61

RWMA material standards, 56
seam welding, 61
shaft-driven, 62
shank of, 60
spot welding, 59
types of, 59
Electromagnetic stored-energy ma-
chines, 42
Electronic
contactors, 45
heat control, 52
timers, 47
Electrostatic stored-energy machines, 42
Equipment, 29
calibration, 73
definitions of, 3
Expansion guns, 31
Expansion, thermal, 100
Face of electrode, 60
Fatigue test, 130, 138
Ferritic stainless steels, 103, 110
Fixtures, 71
Fixture-type guns, 31
Flash welding
comparison with upset welding, 27
current flow, 25
die maintenance, 71
dies, 64
flashing rate, 25
flashing time, 25
heat balance, 19
heavy sections, 27
hot weld, 25
158
INDEX
Gunscont'd.
short-circuiting, 31
single-cable, 32
Hardness, 101
Hardness test, 130, 141
Heat balance, 18
flash welding, 19
spot welding, 18
Heat control, 52
Heat effect, 102
Heat generated in welding, 16
Heat losses, 17
Heating fundamentals, 16
Heavy sections, flash welding of, 27
High brass, 106, 110
High-carbon steels, 102, 110
High-temperature alloys, 105, 110
Hold time, spot welding, 20
Holders
ejector, 65
electrode, 65
miniature, 65
nonejector, 65
Hot weld, 25
Hydromatic welding, 33
Ignitron tubes, 41, 42, 45, 52
Impact test, 130, 135
Inconel, 105, 110
Inconel "W", 105, 110
Inconel "X", 105, 110
Indentation of welds, 116
Indirect seam welds, 21

Indirect spot welds, 20, 22
Inspection, 128
Intermittent motion seam welding, 22
Internal defects, 121
Jigs, 71
Joints, basic, 78
*'K" Monel, 105, 110
Knurl drive, 35
Knurl-driven electrodes, 61
Lever action welding machines, 29
Light flicker, 38
Longitudinal welding machines, 34
Low-alloy steels, 102,110
Low brass, 106,110
Low-carbon steels, 102, 110
Lot tolerance average, 149
Machines (See welding machines)
Macroetch, 130, 139
Magnesium, 107, 110
Magnetic contactors, 43
classification of, 44
ordinary, 43
synchronously interrupting, 43
Maintenance of electrodes, 65
Manganese red brass, 106, 110
Martensitic stainless steels, 103, 110
Master chart of welding processes, 13, 14
Materials, electrode, 56
Measurement
INDEX
Nickel-plated steel, 107, 111
Nonejector holders, 65
Nonsynchronous controls, 50
Nonsynchronous timers, 47
Nugget, 114
()
Off time, spot welding, 20
Offset holders, 65
Oscillograph, 73, 74, 75
Overlapping spot welds, 21
Oxide characteristics, 101
Parallel spot welds, 20, 22
Parkerized steel, 111
Pedestal welding machines, 29
Peel test, 130, 142
Penetration of welds, 119
Per cent regulation, 37
Percussion welding
die maintenance, 71
dies, 64
machines, 36
processes, 28
welding sequence, 28
Phosphor bronze, 106, 110
Physical properties, 100
Physical properties of electrodes, 57
Pillow tests, 131, 140
Pin holes, 113
Pinch guns, 30
Plastic range, 101
Plated metals, 107, 111
Platen welding machines, 34
Pneumatic timers, 48

Portable welding machines, 29, 30
Postheat controls, 54
Power factor correction, 40
Power supply, 37
Preheat controls, 54
Preparation
for testing, 131
of surface, 109
Press-type welding machines, 29
Pressure-controlled welding, 33
Primary current measurement, 73
Principles of resistance welding, 16
Procedure specifications, 122
application of, 123
factors to be included in, 123
Process charts, 15
Process minimum, 149
Processes, 20
definitions of, 1
flash welding, 24
percussion welding, 28
seam welding, 21
spot welding, 20
upset welding, 26
Program welding timers, 51
Projection welding
appearance, 23, 111
comparison with spot welding, 23
cracks, 113
design, 23
die maintenance, 70
ductility, 116
electrode life, 23
160
INDEX
Resistance weldingcont'd.
aluminum and aluminum alloys, 107,
109
aluminum bronze, 106, 110
cadmium-plated steel, 107, 111
cartridge brass, 106, 110
chromium-iron alloys, 103, 110
chromium-nickel-iron alloys, 103, 110
chromium-plated steel, 107, 111
controls, 43
copper and copper-alloys, 105, 110
data sheets, 127
definitions, 1
dissimilar metals, 108
ductility, 135
electrical system, 37
electrodes, 56
equipment, 29
equipment calibration, 73
fixtures, 71
galvanized steel, 107, 111
heat generated in, 16
heating fundamentals, 16
high brass, 106, 110
high-carbon steels, 102, 110
high-temperature alloys, 105, 110
Inconel, 105, 110
Inconel "W", 105, 110
Inconel "X", 105, 110
inspection, 128
jigs, 71
"K" Monel, 105, 110
low-alloy steels, 102, 110
low brass, 106, 110

low-carbon steels, 102, 110
machines, 29
magnesium, 107, 110
manganese red brass, 106, 110
medium-carbon steels, 102, 110
Monel, 104, 110
muntz metal, 106, 110
nickel and nickel-base alloys, 104, 110
nickel-plated steel, 107, 111
phosphor bronze, 106, 110
power supply, 37
principles of, 16
procedure qualification, 122, 124
procedure specifications, 122
processes, 20
quality of, 109
red brass, 106, 110
schedules, 108
silicon brass, 106, 110
silicon bronze, 106, 110
stainless steels, 103, 110
statistical quality control, 145
symbols, 77
terne plate, 107, 111
testing, 128
tin plate, 107, 111
variables, 29
zinc-plated steel, 107, 111
Rocker-arm welding machines, 29
Roll spot welding machines, 33
RWMA electrode material standards, 56
Schedules, welding, 108
Seam welding, 21
INDEX
161
spot welds, 20
upset welds, 27
Sequence timers, 49
Sequence-weld timers, 49
Sequencing devices, 47
Series spot welds, 20
Shaft drive, 35
Shaft-driven electrodes, 62
Shank of electrode, 60
Shear-impact test, 130, 135
Shielding atmospheres, flash welding, 25
Short-circuiting gun, 31
Silicon brass, 106, 110
Silicon bronze, 106, 110
Single-cable guns, 32
Single-phase ac welding machines, 39
Single seam welds, 21
Single spot welds, 20, 21
Size of weld, 114
Skip welding, 22
Slope control, 55
Slope down control, 55
Slope up control, 55
Spot welding, 20
appearance, 111
comparison with projection welding, 23
cracks, 113
dissimilar thicknesses, 19
ductility, 116
electrode maintenance, 68
electrodes, 59
heat balance in, 19
hold time, 20
indentation, 116

internal defects, 121
machines, 29
nugget, 114
off time, 20
penetration, 119
pin holes, 113
resistance to current flow in, 17
size, 114
squeeze time, 20
strength, 116
surface fusion, 112
symbols, 77, 86, 94, 97
temperature distribution in, 17
tests, 130
weld time, 20
welding cycle, 5, 6
Spot welds, 20
direct, 20, 21
indirect, 20, 22
multiple, 20, 22
overlapping, 21
parallel, 20, 22
series, 20, 22
single, 20, 21
Squeeze time, 20
Stainless steels, 103, 110
Standard deviation, 143
Standard timers, 49
Stationary welding machines, 29
Statistical quality control, 145
Steels (See low-carbon steel, medium-
carbon steel, etc.)
Steels, surface preparation of, 110
162
INDEX
Tension test, 130, 132
Terne plate, 107, 111
Testing, 128
methods of, 129
preparation for, 131
Tests
cross-tension, 130, 132
drop-impact, 130, 137
fatigue, 130, 138
hardness, 130, 141
impact, 130, 135
macroetch, 130, 139
peel, 130, 142
pillow, 131, 140
radiographic, 130, 140
shear-impact, 130, 135
tension, 130, 132
tension-shear, 130, 131
twist, 130, 141
U-tension, 130, 134
Thermal conductivity, 100
Thermal expansion, 100
Three-phase welding machines, 41
Thyratron tubes, 45, 52
Time measurement, 75
Timers
electronic, 47
motor, 48
multiple-impulse, 49
nonsynchronous, 47
pneumatic, 48
program welding, 51
ranges of, 51
sequence, 49

sequence-weld, 49
standard, 49
synchronous precision, 48, 51
weld, 49
Timing devices, 47
Tin plate, 107, 111
Transformers, 39
Transverse welding machines, 33
Travel, flash welding, 25
Traveling fixture drive, 35
Traveling roll drive, 35
Tubes
ignitron, 41, 42, 45, 52
thyratron, 45, 52
Twist test, 130, 141
Types of electrodes, 59
Ultra-speed welding, 33
Universal offset holders, 65
Universal welding machines, 34
Upset welding
comparison with flash welding, 27
die maintenance, 71
dies, 64
machines, 35
processes, 26
symbols, 77, 92, 99
welding cycle, 9
Upsetting force, flash welding, 25
U-tension test, 130, 134
Variables in resistance welding, 29
Voltage compensator, 55
INDEX
projection welding, 5, 6
seam welding, 7
spot welding, 5, 6
upset welding, 9
Welding details, definitions of, 11
Welding equipment, definitions of, 3
Welding machines, 29
circular, 33
control system, 29
direct action, 29
electrical circuit, 29
electromagnetic, 42
electrostatic, 42
flash, 35
frequency converter, 41
gun, 29, 30
lever action, 29
longitudinal, 34
mechanical system, 29
metallic rectifier, 41
multiple-spot, 32
pedestal, 29
per cent regulation, 37
percussion, 36
platen, 34
portable, 29, 30
press-type, 29
projection, 29
rocker-arm, 29
roll spot, 33
seam, 33
single-phase ac, 39
spot, 29
stationary, 29
stored-energy, 42

three-phase, 41
transverse, 33
universal, 34
upset, 35
Welding processes
definitions of, 1
master chart of, 13
Welding sequence, 27
percussion welding, 28
seam welding, 22
spot welding, 20
upset welding, 27
Welding symbols, 77
Welds
basic, 79
methods of testing, 129
Wheels, seam welding, 61
Zinc-plated steel, 107, 111

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RESISTANCE

Theory and Use

Resistance Welding Committee.

AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY,

HALL, LTD., LONDON

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American Welding Society

33 West 39th Street

New York 18, N. Y.

All rights reserved

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 56-9808

REINHOLD PUBLISHING CORPORATION

Publishers of Chemical Engineering Catalog, Chemical Materials Cata-

log, "Automatic Control," "Materials & Methods," "Progressive Ar-

chitecture"; Advertising Management of the American Chemical Society

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PRINTED IN THE USA BY WAVERLY PRESS

PERSONNEL OF AWS RESISTANCE WELDING

J. J. MacKinneyf, Chairman The Budd Co.

E. A. Bussard*, Vice Chairman The Coleman Co., Inc.

S. A. Greenbergf, Secretary American Welding Society

R. C. Becker International Harvester Co.

Commander Wright Air Development Center

F. L. Brandt Thomson Electric Welder Co.

Bureau of Ships Navy Department

W. F. Burchfield The International Nickel Co., Inc.

C. H. Burgston Deere & Co.

J. F. Cantalin General Motors Corp.

J. J. Chyle A. O. Smith Corp.

C. R. Dixon Aluminum Company of America

W. D. Doty United States Steel Corp.

0. C. Frederick (A. C. Young, Alternate). General Electric Co.

R. T. Gillette Consulting Engineer

N. B. Gilliland** Electroloy Co.

F. G. Harkins Solar Aircraft Co.

W. D. Harrison Douglas Aircraft Co.

1. W. Johnson General Electric Co.

J. W. Kehoe Westinghouse Electric Corp.

P. Klain The Dow Chemical Co.

T. R. Lichtenwalter Republic Steel Corp.

J. Maltz Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department

K. W. Matthes Precision Welder and Flexopress Corp.

F. Matthews Boeing Airplane Co.

F. W. McBee, Jr. (M. L. Begeman,

Alternate) University of Texas

C. W. Middlestead C. W. Middlestead Co.

E. B. Morris Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp.

E. F. Nippes Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

I. A. Oehler American Welding & Manufacturing Co.

R. A. Parsons Pullman-Standard Car Manufacturing Co.

A. R. Pfluger (L. A. Cook, Alternate)... Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp.

N. E. Promisel Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department

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J. J. Riley Taylor Winfield Corp.

A. J. Rosenberg General Electric Co.

H. E. Schultz General Electric Co.

W. Scottf Westinghouse Electric Corp.

A. E. Taylor Armco Steel Corp.

F. J. Wallace Pratt & Whitney Aircraft

R. M. Wilson, Jr.f*** The International Nickel Co., Inc.

W. J. Wilson Kaiser Metal Products, Inc.

R. E. Wolf Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co.

F. R. Woodward Taylor Winfield Corp.

* Resigned November 1955.

** Deceased May 1955.

*** Resigned June 1955.

t Members of Subcommittee on Resistance WeldingTheory and Use, W. Scott,