CHEMICAL

PROCESS
TECHNOLOGY- II
ASSIGNMENT
SUBMITTED TO: SIR ZEESHAN AKHTAR
DATE OF SUBMISSION: 7th NOVEMBER, 2014

KHIZRA ABDUL WADOOD

SEAT #: B1133010
B.E 3RD YEAR

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI

CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY- II

Table of Contents
SOAP INDUSTRY.2
INTRODUCTION.2
RAW MATERIALS & ADDITIVES2
TREATMENT OF OIL AND FATS.3
SOAP MANUFACTURING PROCESSES.. 4
o

BOILING PROCESS..4

HYDROLYZER PROCESS6

APPLICATIONS AND USES....... ..7

FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY.....9
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR FOOD PROCESSING.9
MILK PROCESSING INDUSTRY.10
BACKGROUND.10
HISTORY..10
TYPES OF MILK...11
RAW MATERIALS...12
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS13
QUALITY CONTROL..16
THE FUTURE.16

Page | 1

ASSIGNMENT

SOAP INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION:
The word soap (Latin sapo, which is cognate with Latin sebum, tallow) appears to have been
originally applied to the product obtained by treating tallow with ashes. In its strictly
chemical sense it refers to combinations of fatty acids with metallic bases, a definition which
includes not only sodium stearate, oleate and palmitate, which form the bulk of the soaps of

commerce, but also the linoleates of lead, manganese, etc., used as driers, and various
pharmaceutical preparations, e.g., mercury oleate (Hydrargyri oleatum), zinc oleate and lead
plaster, together with a number of other metallic salts of fatty acids. Technically speaking,

however, the meaning of the term soap is considerably restricted, being generally limited to
the combinations of fatty acids and alkalis, obtained by treating various animal or vegetable
fatty matters, or the fatty acids derived therefrom, with soda or potash, the former giving hard
soaps, the latter soft soaps.
RAW MATERIALS AND ADDITIVES
The major raw materials for soap manufacture are fat and alkali. Other substances, such as
optical brighteners, water softeners, and abrasives, are often added to obtain specific
characteristics.
ALKALI
Sodium hydroxide is employed as the saponification alkali for most soap now produced. Soap
may also be manufactured with potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) as the alkali. Potassium
soaps are more soluble in water than sodium soaps; in concentrated form, they are called soft
soap. Although soft soaps are declining in importance, potassium soap is still produced in

various liquid concentrations for use in combination with sodium soaps in shaving products
and in the textile industry.
Certain alkaline materials (builders) are almost universally present in laundry soaps,
functioning to increase detergency. The most important are sodium silicate (water
glass), sodium carbonate (soda ash), sodium perborate, and various phosphates.
FATS AND OILS
Fatty raw materials for soap manufacture include animal and vegetable oils and fats or fatty
acids, as well as by-products of the cellulose and paper industry, such as rosin and tall oil.
Page | 2

CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY- II

Four groups of these raw materials can be distinguished according to the properties of the
soap products they yield:
1. Hard fats yielding slow-lathering soaps include tallow, garbage greases,
hydrogenated high-melting-point marine and vegetable oils, and palm oil.

2. Hard fats yielding quick-lathering soaps include coconut oil, palm-kernel oil,
and babassu oil.

3. Oils yielding soaps of soft consistency, such as olive oil, soybean oil, and groundnut
(peanut) oil, are most important here, and linseed and whale oils also belong to the
group, as do some semidrying or drying oils.

4. Rosin and tall oil (a resinous by-product of the manufacture of chemical wood pulp)
form a group in themselves. Rosin is used in laundry soap, less expensive toilet soaps,
and specialty soaps in various industries. Tall oil is mainly used in liquid soap.
THE TREATMENT OF OILS AND FATS

BLEACHING

The majority of good quality oils and fats do not require bleaching. Only palm oil and to a
lesser extent, tallows require bleaching where toilet soap is manufactured from second-grade
raw materials. Bleaching of oils and fats is generally carried out:

o By hot treatment of the oil with an adsorbent earth such as bentonite, followed by
filtration,
o By oxidation, achieved by heating the oil and passing a current of hot air through it
at a high temperature (90 to 120 C)

DEODORIZATION

Deodorization is generally achieved by passing a current of superheated steam through the

oil (160 - 220 C). Given the high cost of deodorization, it is vital to confirm the relevance of
this type of treatment.

REFINING

Refining oils by treating them with alkali to remove the free fatty acids is a technique

commonly used in oil mills. As stated above, "soap stocks" are produced as a by-product. The
technique is rarely used in pure soap manufacture.

Page | 3

ASSIGNMENT

HYDROGENATION

Hydrogenation - by catalysis or any other process - makes palm oil and tallow more resistant
to oxidation and rancidity, and improves their properties. However, the production of
hydrogenated fats and oils with the desired properties requires a degree of technical expertise
and practical experience that is hard to justify in developing countries. This treatment may
be used in the manufacture of margarines in an oleaginous-based industry.
SOAP MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:
Hot caustic alkali solution, such as caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), acts on natural fats
or oils, such as tallow or vegetable oil, to produce sodium fatty acid salt (soap) and glycerin
(or glycerol). This saponification reaction is the basis for all soap making. If industrially,
produced fatty acids are used in place of natural fats or oils, the reaction with caustic soda
yields soap and water instead of soap and glycerin.
BOILING PROCESS
Still widely used by small and medium-sized producers is the classical boiling process. Its
object is to produce neat soap in purified condition, free from glycerin. Neat soap is the
starting material for making bars, flakes, beads, and powders. The boiling process is
conducted in a series of steps called changes; these occur in the kettle.
In the first step, melted fats are placed in the kettle, and caustic soda solution is added
gradually. The whole mass is then boiled with open steam from perforated coils within the
kettle. The saponification reaction now takes place; the mass gradually thickens or emulsifies
as the caustic soda reacts with the fat to produce both soap and glycerin.
To separate the glycerin from the soap, the pasty boiling mass is treated with brine. Contents
of the kettle salt out, or separate, into an upper layer that is a curdy mass of impure soap and
a lower layer that consists of an aqueous salt solution with the glycerin dissolved in it. Thus
the basis of glycerin removal is the solubility of glycerin and the insolubility of soap in salt
solution. The slightly alkaline salt solution, termed spent lye, is extracted from the bottom of
the pan or kettle and subsequently treated for glycerin recovery.
The grainy, curdy mass of soap remaining in the kettle after the spent lye has been removed
contains any unsaponified fat (usually traces that escaped reaction during saponification)
plus dirt and coloring matter present in the original oils. During the next step, called strong

Page | 4

CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY- II

change, strong caustic solution is added to the mass, which is then boiled to remove the last
of the free fat.
The final stage is called pitching and settling, transforms the mass into neat soap and removes
dirt and coloring matter. After the strong change, the soap may be given one or more
saltwater washes to remove free alkali, or it may be pitched directly. Pitching involves boiling
the mass with added water until a concentration is attained that causes the kettle contents to
separate into two layers. The upper layer is neat soap, sometimes called kettle soap, of almost
constant composition for a given fat (about 70 percent soap, 30 percent water); the lower,
called nigre, varies in soap content from 15 percent to 40 percent. Since coloring matter, dirt,
salt, alkali, and metal soaps are soluble in nigre but relatively insoluble in neat soap, and since
most of the impurities are dense and tend to settle, the nigre layer takes these from the neat
soap.

Page | 5

ASSIGNMENT

CONTINUOUS SOAP-MAKINGTHE HYDROLYZER PROCESS

The boiling process is very time consuming; settling takes days. To produce soap in quantity, huge

kettles must be used. For this reason, continuous soap making has largely replaced the old boiling
process. Most continuous processes today employ fatty acids in the saponification reaction in

preference to natural fats and oils. These acids do not contain impurities and, as explained at the
beginning of this section, produce water instead of glycerin when they react with alkali. Hence, it is

not necessary to remove impurities or glycerin from soap produced with fatty acids. Furthermore,

control of the entire process is easier and more precise. Either the fatty acids are proportionally fed
into the saponification system by flowmeter or by metering pump; final adjustment of the mixture is

usually made by use of a pH meter (to test acidity and alkalinity) and conductivity-measuring
instruments.

The continuous hydrolyzer process begins with natural fat that is split into fatty acids and glycerin by

means of water at high temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst, zinc soap. The splitting
reaction is carried on continuously, usually in a vertical column 50 feet (15 metres) or more in height.
Molten fat and water are introduced continuously into opposite ends of the column; fatty acids and
glycerin are simultaneously withdrawn. Next, the fatty acids are distilled under vacuum to effect
purification. They are then neutralized with an alkali solution such as sodium hydroxide (caustic

soda) to yield neat soap. In toilet-soap manufacture, a surplus of free fatty acid, often in combination
with such super fatting agents as olive oil or coconut oil, is left or added at the final stage so that there
is no danger of too much alkali in the final product. The entire hydrolyzer process, from natural fat

to final marketable product, requires a few hours, as compared with the four to 11 days necessary for

the old boiling process. The by-product glycerin is purified and concentrated as the fatty acid is being
produced.

Page | 6

CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY- II

USES OF SOAP
Although the popularity of soap has declined due to superior detergents, one of the major
uses of animal tallow is still for making soap, just as it was in years past. Beyond its cleaning
ability, soap has been used in other applications. For example, certain soaps can be mixed
Page | 7

ASSIGNMENT

with gasoline to produce gelatinous napalm, a substance that combusts more slowly than
pure gasoline when ignited or exploded in warfare. Soaps are also used in "canned heat," a
commercialized mixture of soap and alcohol that can be ignited and used to cook foods or
provide warmth. Overall, soap is a remarkably useful substance, just as it has been for
thousands of years.

Drive nails easier with less risk of splitting the wood, by first rubbing it on the nail
shank.

Smooth caulks beads with a moistened finger.

Remove wallpaper glue by mixing with warm water and sponging it on the walls.

Lubricate the metal rails of sticking desk drawers.

Clean dirty windowsills by running the wet edge of a bar along them.

Turn screws more easily by dabbing it onto the threads.

Keep garden bugs off plant leaves by mixing it with water and spraying the solution
on the leaves' undersides.

Cut a straighter line with a handsaw by coating the blade with it.

Detect gas leaks by mixing it with water and rubbing it on suspect pipe joints; if
bubbles form, you have a problem.

Snap aluminum or vinyl siding into place easier with a zip tool that has been dapped
with the liquid.

Page | 8

CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY- II

FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY

Food processing is the transformation of raw ingredients, by physical or chemical means into
food, or of food into other forms.
Food processing involves activities such as Mincing and macerating, Liquefaction,
Emulsification, Cooking (such as boiling, broiling, frying, or grilling), Pickling and
preservation, Canning or jarring (primary processing such as Dicing or slicing, Freezing or
drying when leading to secondary products are also included). These activities or a
combination thereof, result in the manufacture of ready-to-cook or precooked food products
like confectionery, instant foods, flavored and health drinks, pickles, jams, flakes, juices,
purees, canned foods, powders and mixes, jellies, sauces, oils, etc.
Food processing typically takes clean, harvested or culled crops or butchered animal products
and processes these produce attractive, marketable and often-long shelf-life manufactured
food products. After fresh produce undergoes such food processing, most nations require that
the resultant food items be affixed with a label listing the ingredients and a use-by or expireby date.
Food processing should not be confused with the nominal process fresh produce is subject to,
before transport and marketing, such as trimming, grading, washing and packaging, as well
the process of controlled ripening of fruits. These procedural activities do not transform the
raw produce into another food item or add ingredients, and such packages will not require
labeling with fixed expiry dates.
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR FOOD PROCESSING

Factory automation - robotics palletizing bread

When designing processes for the food industry the following performance parameters
may be taken into account:

Hygiene, e.g. measured by number of micro-organisms per mL of finished product

Energy efficiency measured e.g. by ton of steam per ton of sugar produced

Minimization of waste, measured e.g. by percentage of peeling loss during the peeling of
potatoes

Labour used, measured e.g. by number of working hours per ton of finished product

Minimization of cleaning stops measured e.g. by number of hours between cleaning

stops
Page | 9

ASSIGNMENT

MILK PROCESSING INDUSTRY

BACKGROUND
Milk is a nutritive beverage obtained from various animals and consumed by humans. Most
milk is obtained from dairy cows, although milk from goats, water buffalo, and reindeer is
also used in various parts of the world. In the United States, and in many industrialized
countries, raw cow's milk is processed before it is consumed. During processing the fat
content of the milk is adjusted, various vitamins are added, and potentially harmful bacteria
are killed. In addition to being consumed as a beverage, milk is also used to make butter,
cream, yogurt, cheese, and a variety of other products.
HISTORY
The use of milk as a beverage probably began with the domestication of animals. Goats and
sheep were domesticated in the area now known as Iran and Afghanistan in about 9000 B.C. ,
and by about 7000 B.C. cattle were being herded in what is now Turkey and parts of Africa.
The method for making cheese from milk was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and
the use of milk and milk products spread throughout Europe in the following centuries.
Cattle were first brought to the United States in the 1600s by some of the earliest colonists.
Prior to the American Revolution most of the dairy products were consumed on the farm
where they were produced. By about 1790, population centers such as Boston, New York, and
Philadelphia had grown sufficiently to become an attractive market for larger-scale dairy
operations. To meet the increased demand, farmers began importing breeds of cattle that were
better suited for milk production. The first Holstein-Friesens were imported in 1795, the first
Ayrshires in 1822, and the first Guernseys in 1830.
With the development of the dairy industry in the United States, a variety of machines for
processing milk was also developed. In 1856, Gail Borden patented a method for making
condensed milk by heating it in a partial vacuum. Not only did his method remove much of
the water so the milk could be stored in a smaller volume, but it also protected the milk from
germs in the air. Borden opened a condensed milk plant and cannery in Wassaic, New York,
in 1861. During the Civil War, his condensed milk was used by Union troops and its
popularity spread.

Page | 10

CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY- II

In 1863, Louis Pasteur of France developed a method of heating wine to kill the
microorganisms that cause wine to turn into vinegar. Later, this method of killing harmful
bacteria was adapted to a number of food products and became known as pasteurization. The
first milk processing plant in the United States to install pasteurizing equipment was the
Sheffield Farms Dairy in Bloomfield, New Jersey, which imported a German-made
pasteurizer in 1891. Many dairy operators opposed pasteurization as an unnecessary
expense, and it was not until 1908 that Chicago became the first major city to require
pasteurized milk. New York and Philadelphia followed in 1914, and by 1917, most major
cities had enacted laws requiring that all milk be pasteurized.
One of the first glass milk bottles was patented in 1884 by Dr. Henry Thatcher, after seeing a
milkman making deliveries from an open bucket into which a child's filthy rag doll had
accidentally fallen. By 1889, his Thatcher's Common Sense Milk Jar had become an industry
standard. It was sealed with a waxed paper disc that was pressed into a groove inside the
bottle's neck. The milk bottle, and the regular morning arrival of the milkman, remained a
part of American life until the 1950s, when waxed paper cartons of milk began appearing in
markets.
In 1990, the annual production of milk in the United States was about 148 billion lb. (67.5
billion kg). This is equivalent to about 17.2 billion U.S. gallons (65.1 billion liters). About 37%
of this was consumed as fluid milk and cream, about 32% was converted into various cheeses,
about 17% was made into butter, and about 8% was used to make ice cream and other frozen
desserts. The remainder was sold as dry milk, canned milk, and other milk products.
TYPES OF MILK
There are many different types of milk. Some depend on the amount of milk fat present in the
finished product. Others depend on the type of processing involved. Still others depend on
the type of dairy cow that produced the milk.
The federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA) establishes standards for different types of
milk and milk products. Some states use these standards, while others have their own
standards. Prior to 1998, the federal standards required that fluid milk sold as whole milk
must have no less than 3.25% milk fat, low-fat milk must have 0.5-2.0% milk fat, and skim
milk must have less than 0.5% milk fat. Starting in 1998, the FDA required that milk with 2%
milk fat must be labeled as "reduced-fat" because it did not meet the new definition of lowPage | 11

ASSIGNMENT

fat products as having less than 3 grams of fat per serving. Milk with 1% milk fat could still
be labeled as "low-fat" because it did meet the definition. As a comparison, light cream has no
less than 18% milk fat, and heavy cream has no less than 36% milk fat.
Other types of milk are based on the type of processing involved. Pasteurized milk has been
heated to kill any potentially harmful bacteria. Homogenized milk has had the milk fat
particles reduced in size and uniformly blended to prevent them from rising to the top in the
form of cream. Vitamin fortified milks have various vitamins added. Most milk sold in
markets in the United States is pasteurized, homogenized, and vitamin-fortified.
Grade A milk refers to milk produced under sufficiently sanitary conditions to permit its use
as fluid milk. About 90% of the milk produced in the United States is Grade A milk. Grade B
milk is produced under conditions that make it acceptable only for manufactured products
such as certain cheeses, where it undergoes further processing. Certified milk is produced
under exceedingly high sanitary standards and is sold at a higher price than Grade A milk.
Specialty milks include flavored milk, such as chocolate milk, which has had a flavoring syrup
added. Other specialty milks include Golden Guernsey milk, which is produced by purebred
Guernsey cows, and All-Jersey milk, which is produced by registered Jersey cows. Both
command a premium price because of their higher milk fat content and creamier taste.
Concentrated milk products have varying degrees of water removed from fluid milk. They
include, in descending order of water content, evaporated milk, condensed milk, and dry
milk.
RAW MATERIALS
The average composition of cow's milk is 87.2% water, 3.7% milk fat, 3.5% protein, 4.9%
lactose, and 0.7% ash. This composition varies from cow to cow and breed to breed. For
example, Jersey cows have an average of 85.6% water and 5.15% milk fat. These figures also
vary by the season of the year, the animal feed content, and many other factors.
Vitamin D concentrate may be added to milk in the amount of 400 international units (IU)
per quart. Most low fat and skim milk also has 2,000 IU of Vitamin A added.

Page | 12

CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY- II

THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS

Milk is a perishable commodity. For this reason, it is usually processed locally within

Dairy cows are milked twice a day using mechanical vacuum milking machines. The raw
milk flows through stainless steel or glass pipes to a refrigerated bulk milk tank.

a few hours of being collected. In the United States, there are several hundred thousand dairy
farms and several thousand milk-processing plants. Some plants produce only fluid milk,
while others also produce butter, cheese, and other milk products.
COLLECTING

1 Dairy cows are milked twice a day using mechanical vacuum milking machines.
The raw milk flows through stainless steel or glass pipes to a refrigerated bulk milk
tank where it is cooled to about 40 F (4.4 C).

2 A refrigerated bulk tank truck makes collections from dairy farms in the area within
a few hours. Before pumping the milk from each farm's tank, the driver collects a
sample, checks the flavor and temperature, and records the volume.

3 At the milk processing plant, the milk in the truck is weighed and is pumped into
refrigerated tanks in the plant through flexible stainless steel or plastic hoses.
Page | 13

ASSIGNMENT

SEPARATING

4 The cold raw milk passes through either a clarifier or a separator, which spins the
milk through a series of conical disks inside an enclosure. A clarifier removes debris,
some bacteria, and any sediment that may be present in the raw milk. A separator
performs the same task, but also separates the heavier milk fat from the lighter milk
to produce both cream and skim milk. Some processing plants use a standardizerclarifier, which regulates the amount of milk fat content in the milk by removing only
the excess fat. The excess milk fat is drawn off and processed into cream or butter.

FORTIFYING

5 Vitamins A and D may be added to the milk at this time by a peristaltic pump,

A clarifier removes debris, some bacteria, and any sediment that may be present in the
raw milk. The milk is then fortified and pasteurized. which automatically dispenses
the correct amount of vitamin concentrate into the flow of milk.
PASTEURIZING

6 The milkeither whole milk, skim milk, or standardized milkis piped into a
pasteurizer to kill any bacteria. There are several methods used to pasteurize milk. The
most common is called the high-temperature, short-time (HTST) process in which the
Page | 14

CHEMICAL PROCESS TECHNOLOGY- II

milk is heated as it flows through the pasteurizer continuously. Whole milk, skim
milk, and standardized milk must be heated to 161 F (72 C) for 15 seconds. Other
milk products have different time and temperature requirements. The hot milk passes
through a long pipe whose length and diameter are sized so that it takes the liquid
exactly 15 seconds to pass from one end to the other. A temperature sensor at the end
of the pipe diverts the milk back to the inlet for reprocessing if the temperature has
fallen below the required standard.
HOMOGENIZING

7 Most milk is homogenized to reduce the size of the remaining milk fat particles. This
prevents the milk fat from separating and floating to the surface as cream. It also
ensures that the milk fat will be evenly distributed through the milk. The hot milk
from the pasteurizer is pressurized to 2,500-3,000 psi (17,200-20,700 kPa) by a
multiple-cylinder piston pump and is forced through very small passages in an
adjustable valve. The shearing effect of being forced through the tiny openings breaks
down the fat particles into the proper size.

8 The milk is then quickly cooled to 40 F (4.4 C) to avoid harming its taste.

PACKAGING

9 The milk is pumped into coated paper cartons or plastic bottles and is sealed. In the
United States, most milk destined for retail sale in grocery stores is packaged in onegallon (3.8-liter) plastic bottles. The bottles or cartons are stamped with a "sell by" date
to ensure that the retailers do not allow the milk to stay on their shelves longer than
it can be safely stored.

10 The milk cartons or bottles are placed in protective shipping containers and kept
refrigerated. They are shipped to distribution warehouses in refrigerated trailers and
then on to the individual markets, where they are kept in refrigerated display cases.

CLEANING

11 To ensure sanitary conditions, the inner surfaces of the process equipment and
piping system are cleaned once a day. Almost all the equipment and piping used in
the processing plant and on the farm are made from stainless steel. Highly automated
clean-in-place systems are incorporated into the equipment that allows solvents to be

Page | 15

ASSIGNMENT

run through the system and then flushed clean. This is done at a time between the
normal influxes of milk from the farms.
QUALITY CONTROL
The federal Food and Drug Administration (FDA) publishes the Grade A Milk Ordinance
which sets sanitation standards for milk production in most states and for all interstate milk
shippers. The composition of milk and milk products is specified in Agricultural Handbook

52 published by the United States Department of Agriculture. It lists both federal and state
standards. Testing of milk products includes tests for fat content, total solids, pasteurization
efficiency, presence of antibiotics used to control cow disease, and many others.
THE FUTURE
The trend to low-fat dairy products over the last 20 years is expected to continue in the future.
Sales of butter are expected to decline, while sales of low-fat yogurt and low-or reduced-fat
milk are expected to increase. Overall consumption of liquid milk is expected to increase as
the population increases.

Page | 16