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KUECHER ET AL.

: EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVE GROWTH FAULTING

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Evidence for Active Growth Faulting in the


Terrebonne Delta Plain, South Louisiana:
Implications for Wetland Loss and the
Vertical Migration of Petroleum
G. J. KUECHER,* H. H. ROBERTS, M. D. THOMPSON, and I. MATTHEWS*
*Baker Atlas Geoscience, Houston, TX 77073
Louisiana State University, Coastal Studies Institute, Baton Rouge, LA 70803
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439

ABSTRACT

Two regional growth faults, the Golden Meadow Fault and the
Lake Hatch Fault, were mapped in Terrebonne and Lafourche
Parishes, Louisiana, utilizing over 3000 line kilometers of seismic data. The subcropping location of these faults identify major
vegetation biozonations, new areas of wetland loss, and the position of transgressive lakes. The proposed mechanism governing these fault-related manifestations of subsidence involves the
venting of fluid (and gas) from geopressured shales vertically up
fault planes. Saline fluids and gases exiting a basin via growth
faults provide accommodation space at depth, resulting in active, fault-induced subsidence in the down-thrown block. By
contrast, areas along the fault trend where no fluids or gases
were migrating would not result in an increase of accommodation space and would be considered inactive regarding faultinduced subsidence. The model that emerges is a growth fault
trace that does not act in concert but more closely resembles a
key-stepping system with sections alternating between active
and inactive. These findings are relevant to the role of growth
faults in subsidence-related coastal land loss and the vertical migration of hydrocarbons.
Key Words: wetland loss, oil migration, Louisiana, growth faults.

INTRODUCTION

Growth faults are a variety of normal listric faults associated with drifting downslope sequences on passive margins
(Bally et al., 1981; Shelton, 1984). Movement along growth
faults is contemporaneous with active deposition (Xiao and
Suppe, 1989; Bally et al., 1981; Shelton, 1984) and preferential thickening, or growth, can be documented on the
down-thrown sides of these faults (Dula, 1991; Galloway,
1986; Ocamb, 1961). It is believed that growth faults propagate upward through thin sedimentary cover as a series of

2001, AAPG/DEG, 1075-9565/01/$15.00/0


Environmental Geosciences, Volume 8, Number 2, 2001 7794

minor, en echelon, faults that constitute a single mapped


fault (Crans et al., 1980; Durham, 1971; Roland et al.,
1981). The en echelon pattern explains the large number of
upward-branching horsetails that have been mapped in
high-resolution seismic profiling over shallow sedimentary
sections (Roux, 1979; Shelton, 1984).
Growth faults in south Louisiana originate locally as a
basal dcollement at the top of geopressured diapiric ridges
or ductile folds (Bruce, 1973; Riggs et al., 1991; Xiao and
Suppe, 1989; Bally et al., 1981; Shelton, 1984; Nelson,
1991). The association of growth faults to subsurface controls, specifically geopressure, is direct (Hart et al., 1995;
Hunt et al., 1994; Hunt, 1990; Bruce, 1973), and it is not
surprising that fluids and gases are expelled from such
zones (Sassen et al., 1993; Freed and Peacor, 1989).
A substantial body of data collected in recent years documents the importance of fault zones as conduits of vertical
fluid migration into ancient sediments (Losh et al., 1999;
Mozley and Goodwin, 1995; Anderson et al., 1994; Billeaud et al. 1994; Echols et al. 1994; Zimmerman 1994; McManus and Hanor, 1993; Esch and Hanor, 1995; Galloway,
1986; and others), and the frequency of fluid expulsion up
these faults appears to be episodic (Cartwright et al., 1998;
Wang and Xie, 1998; Lin and Nunn, 1997). Subsurface fluids can also migrate vertically into modern sediments via
faults (Kuecher and Roberts, 2000; Kuecher, 1995a, 1995b;
Mitchell-Tapping, 1995; Verberne, 1992; Morgan, 1951).
The photo shown in Figure 1 serves as a model for this fluid
migration story.
Notice the boils that occur when gases and fluids escape via faults from overpressured sediments trapped
within centimeters of the land surface. This shallow example, the authors suggest, serves as an analog for expulsion of
fluids and gases from deep systems into shallow reservoirs
and even onto the surface. In fact, formation brines, crude
oil, and gas hydrates have been observed issuing from or
frozen in the vicinity of scarps, assumed to be faults, in the
deep Gulf of Mexico (Roberts and Carney, 1997).

78 E N V I R O N M E N T A L G E O S C I E N C E S

FIGURE 1. Minor stress (as with a


footstep) applied to fine-grained sediments in the lower delta plain may
produce arcuate faults that serve as
vertical conduits for waters and gases
trapped below.

RELATED STUDIES
Deep-seated fault-bound compartments episodically rupture due to the buildup of geopressure, releasing large quan-

tities of water, gas, and oil vertically into shallower aquifers


via fault planes (Losh et al., 1999; Alexander and Handschy, 1998; Cartwright et al., 1998; Lin and Nunn, 1997;

FIGURE 2. Model proposed by Losh


et al. (1999) of vertical transport of
fluids and gases into reservoirs along
the trace of a fault.

KUECHER ET AL.: EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVE GROWTH FAULTING


Waples, 1991). The model presented in Figure 2 summarizes recent thought on the dynamics of this system.
This study proposes that regional growth faults respond to
the basinal buildup of fluid and gas volumes in the following
feedback fashion: (a) geopressured fluid and gas from deep
shale masses exceeds the strength of the faults sealing
gouge, (b) fluids enter the fault zone and migrate vertically
until reservoirs adjacent to the fault or the surface or both are
encountered, (c) volume decreases at depth in the geopressured shale mass in response to the volume of expelled fluids
and hydrocarbons, (d) excess pore pressures are attenuated in
the deep shale mass, (e) the down-thrown block subsides, and
(f) the fault gouge reseals. Periods of active fluid venting, it
follows, are followed closely by active subsidence (Hart et
al., 1995). Along any regional growth fault, nonsealing or
leaky characteristics may correlate with presently active segments, juxtaposition of permeable facies, or both. In contrast,
sealing characteristics may represent either presently inactive

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segments of regional growth faults, juxtaposition of impermeable facies, or both. The movement along growth faults,
consequently, is not uniform or in concert along the entire
length of a fault. Instead, growth faults must move downslope
in a key-stepping fashion, alternating between periods of activity and nonactivity.

INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM
A linkage between active sections along growth faults
and concomitant neotectonic settlement (expressed in the
Louisiana lower delta plain as wetland loss) is proposed. If
the relationship is direct, active faults may be expressed on
the coastal plain as arcuate and sharply defined boundaries
between new marsh or open water on the faults downthrown side to higher and drier ground on the faults upthrown side.
Searching the Mississippi Rivers lower delta plain for examples of fault-related subsidence, a few candidates emerge

FIGURE 3. GIS wetland loss map,


Empire Quadrangle, Louisiana, that
includes trace of suspected growth
fault and orientation of AA seismic section.

80 E N V I R O N M E N T A L G E O S C I E N C E S
for further investigation. One prospective area has been
identified approximately 45 miles southeast of New Orleans
in the in the vicinity of Adams and Bastian Bays, Empire
Quadrangle, Louisiana (Figure 3). The dark color in this
presentation represents new areas of wetland loss and terranes that only recently converted from brackish marsh to
saline open waters. More importantly for this discussion,
the northern limit of the dark color was suspected as the
subcropping location of a major growth fault.
Seismic dip section AA (Figure 4) was provided by
Seismic Exchange, Inc. (SEI) as a courtesy of this research.
As per agreement between SEI and researchers, no shot
points or identifying information are allowed in referencing
this section. The location of this subcropping fault trace precisely defines the northern limit of dark-colored new marsh
areas as mapped in Figure 3, section AA. This fault must
be currently active to produce a down-thrown block that is

perennially wet (saline marsh/incipient bay) and the margins of which are closely coincident with the fault trace.
The authors propose a linkage between active growth
faults and wetland loss. Granted, there are numerous controls on wetland loss that are not fault-related, but we believe the controlling mechanism for wetland loss has been
positively identified in this case. Similar studies on the role
of faults in wetland loss have been conducted in The Netherlands, and leveling surveys there reveal the role of active
faults in subsidence and localized flooding (Groenewoud et
al., 1991).

APPLICATION OF
ELECTROMAGNETICS
Electromagnetics (EM) provides an easy-to-use method
that can rapidly measure the conductivity of sedimentary
sections to depths of 60 meters or more without ground cou-

FIGURE 4: Uninterpreted seismic


section AA across Empire surface
anomaly revealing fault.

KUECHER ET AL.: EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVE GROWTH FAULTING


pling. These EM instruments can be operated in either a
point mode or in continuous mode acquisition. Furthermore,
because electrical conductivity is the inverse of resistivity,
salinity mapping described in McGinnis et al. (1995) and
EM form a nearly seamless data set.
Electromagnetics (EM) specifically implies the measurement of subsurface conductivities by low-frequency electromagnetic induction. The principle of electromagnetic field
measurement involves a transmitter coil radiating an electromagnetic field, which induces eddy current loops in the
earth below the instrument (Figure 5).
Each eddy current loop, in turn, generates a secondary
magnetic field that is proportional to the magnitude of the
current flowing within that loop. A part of the secondary
magnetic field from each loop is intercepted by the receiver
coil and is converted to an output voltage, which, within
limits, is linearly related to surface conductivity/groundwater salinity. The measured conductivity is a cumulative
(bulk) response from the surface to the effective depth of
penetration of the instrument (Benson, 1982) that includes
the conductivity of soils and the fluids contained therein.
The effective depth for electromagnetic sampling is related to the instruments coil spacing and coil orientation.
Effective sampling depth for the EM-34-3, used in this
study, is approximately 1.5 times the coil spacing in vertical
dipole mode. Coil spacings of 10, 20, and 40 meters are possible with the EM-34-3 tool, providing effective depths of

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response of 15, 30, and 60 meters, respectively (after McNeill, 1980).

ARGONNE RECONNAISSANCE
EM STUDY
In November, 1994, Argonne National Laboratory geoscientists conducted a study in south Louisiana to determine
the utility of EM sounding techniques to map salinity regimes compartmentalized by faults. Limited access along
bayous dictated a point mode acquisition for EM.
Electrical measurements in these marsh lands were limited
to open areas adjacent to bayous. Open fields, specifically
cane fields, ball fields, school yards, cemeteries, and large
tracts of personal property, were selected to avoid oil and gas
pipelines, water mains, sewers, culverts, radio towers, water
towers, train tracks, surface fill, and overhead power lines.
The presence of any such anthropomorphic (especially ironrich) elements might adversely affect EM measurements.
Since all measurements were taken atop natural levee sediments, variation in surficial sediment type was minimized.
Electrical stability at field stations was determined by
monitoring EM values. If values fluctuated more than a few
millisiemens per meter (mS/m) at any given station, then either the orientation of the coils was changed and a new
value determined, or the site was abandoned altogether.
Only stabilized, reliable values were recorded.

FIGURE 5. The principle of EM induction, vertical dipole field.

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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES

It was hypothesized, in these initial studies, that line


sources of conductive saline pore waters in these fresh to intermediate marsh terranes were derived from deep overpressured shale beds and that growth faults were the conduit by
which fluids migrated vertically from deep into shallow
aquifers. The Argonne studies were attempting to document
active migration of saline fluids by faults into modern sediments. The pilot study of this technique occurred at the Baton Rouge Fault, and this will be the focus of the following
discussion.

THE BATON ROUGE FAULT


Rollo (1969) performed hydrologic studies on shallow
aquifers adjoining the mapped position of the Baton Rouge
Fault and published on salt-water encroachment into these
aquifers.

Kazmann (1970) found differences in chloride concentration between aquifers north and south of the Baton Rouge
Fault, suggesting that faults in fact do transport basinal saline fluids vertically from deep aquifers into shallow aquifers and, furthermore, compartmentalize hydrologic terranes into blocks. It is important to note that saline chemical
data and its relationship with active growth faulting was
first documented in south Louisiana at the Baton Rouge
Fault. These boundary conditions, the authors suggest, are
not unique to growth fault terranes in south Louisiana.
In a 1992 article, the Baton Rouge Advocate newspaper
called attention to a narrow zone of saltwater intrusion that
is becoming increasingly saline on the north side of the
USGS position of the Baton Rouge Fault trace (Figure 6).
The northern limit of this saltwater intrusion zone along Acadian Thruway was reported to be largely south of Government Street. The Baton Rouge Water Company responded

FIGURE 6. Saline groundwaters mapped in near-surface sediments in the vicinity of the Baton Rouge Fault (after Verberne, 1992).

KUECHER ET AL.: EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVE GROWTH FAULTING


with a plan to isolate this zone of saline influx via strategic
well drawdowns.
Argonne National Laboratory proposed and conducted a
pilot study to determine the response of an EM instrument
in traverse across the Baton Rouge Fault and its attendant

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salinity anomaly. This fault has been mapped at the surface


in Baton Rouge by examination of geomorphic expression
(McCulloh, 1991; Roland et al., 1981). Argonnes Baton
Rouge Fault EM profile is shown in Figure 7. A sharply defined, positive conductivity anomaly is revealed in the vi-

FIGURE 7. EM traverse across the


Baton Rouge Fault, Baton Rouge,
LA.

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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES

cinity of Station 2, indicating this type of fault is a leaky,


active fault. It is interesting to note that McCulloh (1991)
maps the trace of the Baton Rouge Fault immediately south
of Station 5. These data suggest a fault zone, bounded by
Stations 4 and 5.
The Baton Rouge Fault case study conclusively proves
the worth of EM investigations in detecting salinity anomalies in south Louisiana. The Baton Rouge Fault was detected because saline groundwaters associated with the fault
produced the predicted EM response. Environmental scientists, the authors believe, can now step away from the Baton
Rouge Fault with confidence and remotely identify actively
leaking, actively subsiding terranes along growth faults and
do so in real time with the EM tool.
Growth faults and their attendant surface manifestations
have long been recognized in the lower coastal plain of
Texas (Collins et al., 1980; Kreitler and McKalips, 1978)

but evidences from similar terranes in Louisiana are not


well documented. The role of faulting in the localized subsidence of Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana will be the focus of
the ensuing discussion.

FAULT STUDY IN TERREBONNE


PARISH, LOUISIANA
Kuecher (1994) mapped the approximate subcropping location of growth faults in eastern Terrebonne and western
Lafourche Parishes, Louisiana, utilizing over 3000 line kilometers of seismic data provided courtesy of Seismic Exchange, Incorporated (Figure 8). Fault nomenclature was
borrowed from existing Pennwell Publishing Company
maps, and as per agreement with Seismic Exchange, Inc.,
neither processing parameters nor shot-point locations are
to be discussed in referencing the forthcoming sections. A

FIGURE 8. Mapped distribution of growth faults in the Terrebonne Parish study area (Kuecher, 1994, 1995a; Kuecher and Roberts, 2000). Transects AA and BB refer to
locations of seismic sections provided in this report.

KUECHER ET AL.: EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVE GROWTH FAULTING

85

FIGURE 9. Interpreted seismic line segment AA traversing the Golden Meadow
Fault. Two-way time (TWT) is expressed in seconds.
FIGURE 10. Interpreted seismic section BB across the Lake Hatch Fault. Twoway time (TWT) is expressed in seconds. Note the well-developed anticline of the
down-thrown block.

FIGURE 11. Louisiana Geological


Survey subsidence measurements
along Bayou Lafourche, in cm/hr for
the period 19651982 (Penland et
al., 1988). The mapped positions of
the Baton Rouge and the Lake Hatch
Faults are shown.

86 E N V I R O N M E N T A L G E O S C I E N C E S
location map indicating the seismic traverses included in
this study is provided in Figure 8.
Two regional EW trending growth faults, the Golden
Meadow and the Lake Hatch Faults, as well as a number of
minor faults, were mapped in this exercise. These faults are
seismically quiet because they are not directly tied to basement movements. Occasionally, however, earthquakes with
Richter magnitudes of 3.0 or less are associated with south
Louisiana fault movements (Lopez, 1991).

THE GOLDEN MEADOW FAULT


The Golden Meadow Fault (see Figures 8 and 9) is an
EW trending, down to the basin, regional growth fault that
appears to join the Lake Hatch Fault on the northeast side of
Lake Decade. This fault proceeds in a southeasterly direction toward Dulac, Louisiana, then turns to the east and exits the study area near Golden Meadow, Louisiana, along
Bayou Lafourche. Minor faults, both mapped and unmapped, are associated with the Golden Meadow Fault.

The Golden Meadow Fault forms a curvilinear trace subcropping the surface. Vertical displacement generally increases with depth, as required of growth fault systems, and
reflection discontinuities identify the fault. Vertical offset is
mappable below the 0.6 second reflector datum but not
mappable above due to near-surface statics problems.

THE LAKE HATCH FAULT


The Lake Hatch Fault (refer to Figures 8 and 10) is a
SWNE trending, slightly oblique to the basin, regional
growth fault that joins the Golden Meadow Fault on the
north side of Lake Decade and appears to be through-going.
This fault is presently mapped with a conspicuous bend toward the north in the area immediately southeast of Houma,
Louisiana. The fault then turns to the eastnortheast and the
end of our mapping is in the vicinity of Valentine, Louisiana, along Bayou Lafourche. Minor faults, both mapped and
unmapped, are associated with the Lake Hatch Fault.
Three reflector horizons are interpreted to provide the
reader with the sense of increasing displacement with depth,

FIGURE 12. SPOT-1 image (1989) of the northern portion of the study area with mapped faults superimposed on the image. This image was acquired in near-infrared wavelength.
Blues and greens represent winter vegetation (December 14 image capture) atop terrain slightly higher than the water table. Yellow and orange colors represent warm sedimentladen open water lakes.

KUECHER ET AL.: EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVE GROWTH FAULTING


a requirement of growth fault systems. The reader should
also note the rollover anticline that has developed on this
faults down-thrown block and the statics problem that
characterizes the near-surface.
Now that these growth faults have been mapped at the
surface, the obvious question is whether these are currently
active, as reported in Texas (Zlotnik, 2000; Norman, 1994;
Etter, 1981; Collins et al., 1980) and in Louisiana near Baton Rouge (McCulloh, 1991). Surface subsidence measurements by the Louisiana Geological Survey (Figure 11)
along Bayou Lafourche indicates greater subsidence values
on the down-thrown sides of these mapped faults than their
respective up-thrown sides (Kuecher, 1995a, 1994; Kuecher
and Roberts, 2000).
If elevation differences do exist across the Golden
Meadow and Lake Hatch Faults, then the authors of this
study suggest these faults may be presently active (Groenewoud et al., 1991). Satellite photos of this area support the
active nature of these mapped faults (Figure 12). In the im-

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age provided, the up-dip limit of new marsh largely delimits


the seismically mapped position of each fault. These new
marsh areas subside and become open water transgressive
lakes. The location of such transgressive lakes are first-order approximations for the location of active faults (White
and Morton, 1995; Lopez, 1991). These observations indicate slight elevation differences do exist at the land surface
across these growth faults and that they are manifest as
lakes and incipient new wetlands. Surface manifestations of
active fault systems may result when slight elevation differences exist at the surface between up-thrown and downthrown fault blocks (White and Morton, 1995), a condition
that can only be met if the fault system is active.
The area included in this French SPOT-1 image is immediately east of Lake Decade and more or less centered on
Lake Boudreaux (refer to Figure 8 for geographic orientation). Both the northern fault trace (Lake Hatch Fault) and
the southern fault trace (Golden Meadow Fault) appear to
exert controls on the distribution of lakes, some incipient

FIGURE 13. EM traverses along Bayou du Large (BdL) and Bayou Grand Caillou (BGC) across the Lake Hatch (LHFZ) and Golden Meadow (GMFZ) Fault Zones.

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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES

and some well developed on the respective down-thrown


blocks. As these lakes develop, wetlands are lost. The relationship between faulting (especially active faulting) and
wetland loss is very compelling.
Electromagnetic profiles were then conducted along two
bayou levee systems, Bayou du Large and Bayou Grand
Caillou, as indicated in Figure 13. EM traverses along
Bayou du Large (BdL) and Bayou Grand Caillou (BGC)
across the Lake Hatch and the Golden Meadow Fault Zones.
The first EM traverse was conducted along Bayou Dularge, or BdL (Figure 14). This profile revealed two strong
conductivity anomalies on the 40 meter coil spacing data.
The northernmost anomaly, represented by Station 4, is correlated with the proposed subcropping location of the Lake
Hatch Splinter Fault Zone (LHSFZ). To the south, another
positive conductivity anomaly is evident at Station 6. This
anomaly correlates with the mapped position of the Lake
Hatch Fault Zone (LHFZ). No conductivity anomaly was
measured at Station 15 nor at Station 32, where the Golden
Meadow Fault Zone (GMFZ) intersects this EM line of
transect. These data suggest a correlation between positive
conductivity anomalies and actively leaking (i.e., active)
faults and nonleaking (i.e., inactive) faults. Preliminary evidence indicates both actively leaking (actively subsiding)
and nonleaking (i.e., not presently subsiding) terranes are
encountered along these two mapped growth faults, and the
EM tool provides a methodology to differentiate them.
A profile was also taken at Bayou Grand Caillou, BGC
(Figure 15). This profile reveals no positive conductivity
anomalies along the length of the transect. Markedly different pore water conductivities are clearly observed on each
side of the GMFZ, however. On the up-thrown block, the
average conductivity value, based on eight field measurements, was 54.0 mS/m. On the down-thrown block (southernmost point excluded), the average conductivity value,
based on four field measurements, was 18.0 mS/m. Apparently, a localized lens of fresh water is hydrodynamically
trapped on the down-thrown block along the Bayou Grand
Caillou transect.
The LHFZ in the Bayou du Large data set appears to be
active as determined by the presence of conductive fluids
migrating up the fault zone, while the LHFZ at Batou Grand
Caillou appears an inactive system. The GMFZ, on the
other hand, is distinctly inactive and sealing in both data
sets, and the distinctly different bulk conductivities on either side indicate disequilibrium. Spatial changes in EM
data are significant, and sealing characteristics of faults can
be surmised by steep conductivity gradients. Growth faults
inhibit lateral fluid movement at very shallow depths, facilitating the phenomena that adjacent fault blocks commonly
retain markedly different salinity regimes (Galloway et al.
1991; Kuecher and Roberts, 2000). The EM device has the
potential to not only differentiate active from inactive status

but also sealing from non-sealing characteristics at a reconnaissance level and in real time. Again the authors emphasize the importance of calibrating EM to analytical results
and hope to accomplish additional ties in future studies.
A comparison of the Bayou du Large and the Bayou
Grand Caillou data sets indicates clearly that hydrochemical
regimes are mappable with EM, and these coincide closely
with the mapped position of growth faults. Differences between the location of the chemical inflection point and the
mapped location of faults may actually indicate where adjustments are required in seismic mapping.

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY


ELECTRICAL STUDIES
Argonne National Laboratory, under contract for the Gas
Research Institute (GRI), performed shallow earth resistivity sounding surveys at random stations in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana. Resistivity values were converted to total
dissolved solids (TDS) salinity as per methodology described in McGinnis et al. (1995), and a TDS salinity map
was generated (Figure 16).
A salinity anomaly was identified from this mapping effort approximately 18 km south of Houma, Louisiana, as
defined by the 5 ppt contour. The northern limit of this
anomaly is steep in gradient and ENE trending. Kuecher
(1994) interpreted this linear anomaly to be fault-related,
but the coarseness of data sampling precluded a determination of whether this phenomena identified the Golden Meadow
or the Lake Hatch Fault Zone. However, clearly this map
describes a line/point source for saline fluids. Bulls-eyeshaped salinity anomalies within Louisianas fresh to brackish water wetlands, in fact, cannot be explained by traditional means of saltwater encroachment (McGinnis et al.
1995; Chabreck and Linscombe, 1978). The maximum salinity value measured in this exercise was 21 ppt (intermediate value between brackish and open marine). A similar resistivity exercise was conducted in Texas by Kreitler and
McKalips (1978).
Values derived from electrical field acquisition represent
the combined (bulk) conductivities of sediment matrix and
interstitial fluids contained therein to the effective data acquisition depth of the instrument. Clay soils exhibit a higher
conductance than do sandy soils by an order of magnitude
(Benson, 1982). Thus one could assume the anomaly McGinnis
et al. (1995) mapped in Figure 8 could be due to clay-rich
soils on the down-thrown side of a fault, while sand-rich
soils predominate on the up-thrown block. But a contrast in
sediment matrix alone does not fully explain the magnitude
of the anomaly. Neither is it appropriate to explain the
anomaly solely on the basis of pore fluid salinities. What is
needed in future studies is the analytical confirmation of
salinities encountered in groundwater, as accomplished in
the case of the Baton Rouge Fault.

KUECHER ET AL.: EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVE GROWTH FAULTING

89

FIGURE 14. EM profile along


Bayou du Large (BdL) illustrating
the conductivity profile across the
Lake Hatch Splinter Fault Zone
(LHSFZ), the Lake Hatch Fault
Zone (LHFZ), and the Golden
Meadow Fault Zones (GMFZ).

90

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES

FIGURE 15. EM profile along


Bayou Grand Caillou across the area
of seismically mapped faults.

KUECHER ET AL.: EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVE GROWTH FAULTING

91

implications concerning fault-related wetland loss and the


vertical migration of petroleum.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

FIGURE 16: Argonne National Laboratory total dissolved solids salinity map
(1995) of shallow earth horizon in the study area.

IMPLICATIONS OF VERTICAL
TRANSPORT UP FAULTS
Leach (1993) concluded the bulk of all oil and gas reserves in south Louisiana is concentrated near the top of abnormal pressure and added that mapping of temperature hot
spots, sourced from deeper (i.e., hotter) shales, may be a
useful technique for identifying actively charging reservoirs
along a given fault. Recent studies on the industry consortium well, Pathfinder, in Eugene Island Block 330, offshore
Louisiana, provide conclusive support that geopressured
fluids migrate vertically up the planes of active growth
faults (Losh et al., 1999; Alexander and Handschy, 1998;
Losh, 1998; Lin and Nunn, 1997; Billeaud et al., 1994; and
others). These studies have made powerful arguments in favor of fluid flow out of the basin via faults.
Vertical fluid flow up faults have been a topic of serious
investigation over the past few years, especially in the petroleum exploration community. The strongest implication
of vertical fluid flow concerns the source rock-reservoir
rock relationship. Vertical fluid flow demands the source
rock is structurally lower (and generally down-section
from) the reservoir. Matching geochemical signatures of
source material found above to oils found below, this
study suggests, may be like comparing apples to oranges.
This hypothesis of short-distance migration is in contrast to
long-distance horizontal transport hypotheses.

SUMMARY

This study was designed to test the utility of point mode


EM technologies to precisely identify subcropping growth
faults in south Louisianas wetlands. Results indicate EM is
an effective method to discriminate active, nonsealing faults
from inactive, sealing faults on the basis of bulk conductivity contrasts between aquifers and sediment across south
Louisiana growth faults.
The relationship between active growth faults, surface
subsidence, and vertically migrating saline fluids appears to
be direct. Fault-related subsidence is documented and a
feedback mechanism is proposed. This study has important

The authors wish to thank John Havens, Jeff Lester, and


Christine Gilmour of Seismic Exchange, Inc. for their willingness to share seismic data with the authors. Also due credits are Lyle McGinnis and Dorland Edgar, formerly of Argonne National Laboratories near Chicago, for their support
of this project. Credits for editing are due Rick McCulloh of
Louisiana State University and Lee Esch of Exxon-Mobil in
Houston. Computer graphics support was provided by Stacy
Williams of Baker Atlas in Houston. And none of this would
have been possible had it not been for my advisor, Harry Roberts, who has encouraged me throughout my professional career. Argonne National Laboratorys involvement with this
project occurred during the senior authors tenure as a postdoctoral fellow, 19941995.

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faulted reservoir system: Fault trap analysis for the Block 330
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387411.
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R. (1994). Gulf of Mexico growth fault drilled, seen as oil, gas
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Bally, A. W., Becrnoulli, D., Davis, G. A., and Montadert, L.
(1981). Listric normal faults: Oceanologica acta. In: 26th International Geological Congress (pp. 87101). Paris.
Benson, R. C. (1982). Geophysical techniques for sensing buried
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Gerald J. Kuecher

Ingeborg Matthews

Gerald J. Kuecher is a Sedimentologist


for Baker Atlas GeoScience in Houston
where he serves as Coordinator of Deepwater Reservoir Characterization, Image
Log Analyst, and Field Studies Consultant.
He has 11 years experience in exploration
and production companies, and two years
experience in the service industry. He is an

Ingeborg Matthews works at Baker Atlas in the capacity of Log Analyst. Her specialties include software support and database management. She is in her final year
of a Computer Science degree at the University of Houston.

instructor for Oil and Gas Consultants, Inc., and teaches two course
offerings. He has published on such diverse topics as deep water sediments, deltaic sediments, tidal sediments, subsidence, faulting, fluid
flow, and on the application of high resolution seismic electromagnetics, and ground-penetrating technologies to sedimentology.

Michael D. Thompson
Michael D. Thompson received his B.S.
(1985) in geology from Southern Illinois
University, and an M.S. (1989) and Ph.D.
(1997) in geology from Northern Illinois
University. He is currently employed at Argonne National Laboratory where his research interests focus on the application of
geophysical techniques to environmental
problems. Particular emphasis is placed on using geophysics in cantonment and industrial areas. He is an active member of the Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society and the American Geophysical Union.

Harry H. Roberts
Harry H. Roberts is Director of Coastal
Studies Institute, and a member of the Department of Oceanography and Coastal
Sciences at Louisiana State University. He
is recognized on an international level for
sedimentological and sidimentary process
research in both terrigenous clastic and carbonate depositional systems. His experience in deltaic and associated marine sediments includes studies of
delta plains to submarine fans. He is the author of over 130 scientific
papers related to research conducted in the U.S. as well as Africa,
Australia, Indonesia, South America, Central American, and many
sites in the Caribbean. Most of these studies have incorporated acquisition and interpretation of high-resolution geophysical data in conjunction with sediments, cores, borings, and bottom grabs. He is an
advisory editor for two international journals, and has had over 30
years research experience. During this period, he has been a consultant for most major oil companies that operate in the U.S. Gulf Coast.
He has also taught continuing education courses both in the U.S. and
in several foreign countries, including Australia, Indonesia, Singapore, and sites in the Caribbean. His current research deals with development of an understanding of the surficial geology of northern
Gulf of Mexico continental slope and continuing work on problems
associated with the deltaic coasts of Louisiana.

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