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ABSTRACT
Two regional growth faults, the Golden Meadow Fault and the
Lake Hatch Fault, were mapped in Terrebonne and Lafourche
Parishes, Louisiana, utilizing over 3000 line kilometers of seismic data. The subcropping location of these faults identify major
vegetation biozonations, new areas of wetland loss, and the position of transgressive lakes. The proposed mechanism governing these fault-related manifestations of subsidence involves the
venting of fluid (and gas) from geopressured shales vertically up
fault planes. Saline fluids and gases exiting a basin via growth
faults provide accommodation space at depth, resulting in active, fault-induced subsidence in the down-thrown block. By
contrast, areas along the fault trend where no fluids or gases
were migrating would not result in an increase of accommodation space and would be considered inactive regarding faultinduced subsidence. The model that emerges is a growth fault
trace that does not act in concert but more closely resembles a
key-stepping system with sections alternating between active
and inactive. These findings are relevant to the role of growth
faults in subsidence-related coastal land loss and the vertical migration of hydrocarbons.
Key Words: wetland loss, oil migration, Louisiana, growth faults.
INTRODUCTION
Growth faults are a variety of normal listric faults associated with drifting downslope sequences on passive margins
(Bally et al., 1981; Shelton, 1984). Movement along growth
faults is contemporaneous with active deposition (Xiao and
Suppe, 1989; Bally et al., 1981; Shelton, 1984) and preferential thickening, or growth, can be documented on the
down-thrown sides of these faults (Dula, 1991; Galloway,
1986; Ocamb, 1961). It is believed that growth faults propagate upward through thin sedimentary cover as a series of
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RELATED STUDIES
Deep-seated fault-bound compartments episodically rupture due to the buildup of geopressure, releasing large quan-
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segments of regional growth faults, juxtaposition of impermeable facies, or both. The movement along growth faults,
consequently, is not uniform or in concert along the entire
length of a fault. Instead, growth faults must move downslope
in a key-stepping fashion, alternating between periods of activity and nonactivity.
INTRODUCTION TO PROBLEM
A linkage between active sections along growth faults
and concomitant neotectonic settlement (expressed in the
Louisiana lower delta plain as wetland loss) is proposed. If
the relationship is direct, active faults may be expressed on
the coastal plain as arcuate and sharply defined boundaries
between new marsh or open water on the faults downthrown side to higher and drier ground on the faults upthrown side.
Searching the Mississippi Rivers lower delta plain for examples of fault-related subsidence, a few candidates emerge
80 E N V I R O N M E N T A L G E O S C I E N C E S
for further investigation. One prospective area has been
identified approximately 45 miles southeast of New Orleans
in the in the vicinity of Adams and Bastian Bays, Empire
Quadrangle, Louisiana (Figure 3). The dark color in this
presentation represents new areas of wetland loss and terranes that only recently converted from brackish marsh to
saline open waters. More importantly for this discussion,
the northern limit of the dark color was suspected as the
subcropping location of a major growth fault.
Seismic dip section AA (Figure 4) was provided by
Seismic Exchange, Inc. (SEI) as a courtesy of this research.
As per agreement between SEI and researchers, no shot
points or identifying information are allowed in referencing
this section. The location of this subcropping fault trace precisely defines the northern limit of dark-colored new marsh
areas as mapped in Figure 3, section AA. This fault must
be currently active to produce a down-thrown block that is
perennially wet (saline marsh/incipient bay) and the margins of which are closely coincident with the fault trace.
The authors propose a linkage between active growth
faults and wetland loss. Granted, there are numerous controls on wetland loss that are not fault-related, but we believe the controlling mechanism for wetland loss has been
positively identified in this case. Similar studies on the role
of faults in wetland loss have been conducted in The Netherlands, and leveling surveys there reveal the role of active
faults in subsidence and localized flooding (Groenewoud et
al., 1991).
APPLICATION OF
ELECTROMAGNETICS
Electromagnetics (EM) provides an easy-to-use method
that can rapidly measure the conductivity of sedimentary
sections to depths of 60 meters or more without ground cou-
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ARGONNE RECONNAISSANCE
EM STUDY
In November, 1994, Argonne National Laboratory geoscientists conducted a study in south Louisiana to determine
the utility of EM sounding techniques to map salinity regimes compartmentalized by faults. Limited access along
bayous dictated a point mode acquisition for EM.
Electrical measurements in these marsh lands were limited
to open areas adjacent to bayous. Open fields, specifically
cane fields, ball fields, school yards, cemeteries, and large
tracts of personal property, were selected to avoid oil and gas
pipelines, water mains, sewers, culverts, radio towers, water
towers, train tracks, surface fill, and overhead power lines.
The presence of any such anthropomorphic (especially ironrich) elements might adversely affect EM measurements.
Since all measurements were taken atop natural levee sediments, variation in surficial sediment type was minimized.
Electrical stability at field stations was determined by
monitoring EM values. If values fluctuated more than a few
millisiemens per meter (mS/m) at any given station, then either the orientation of the coils was changed and a new
value determined, or the site was abandoned altogether.
Only stabilized, reliable values were recorded.
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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES
Kazmann (1970) found differences in chloride concentration between aquifers north and south of the Baton Rouge
Fault, suggesting that faults in fact do transport basinal saline fluids vertically from deep aquifers into shallow aquifers and, furthermore, compartmentalize hydrologic terranes into blocks. It is important to note that saline chemical
data and its relationship with active growth faulting was
first documented in south Louisiana at the Baton Rouge
Fault. These boundary conditions, the authors suggest, are
not unique to growth fault terranes in south Louisiana.
In a 1992 article, the Baton Rouge Advocate newspaper
called attention to a narrow zone of saltwater intrusion that
is becoming increasingly saline on the north side of the
USGS position of the Baton Rouge Fault trace (Figure 6).
The northern limit of this saltwater intrusion zone along Acadian Thruway was reported to be largely south of Government Street. The Baton Rouge Water Company responded
FIGURE 6. Saline groundwaters mapped in near-surface sediments in the vicinity of the Baton Rouge Fault (after Verberne, 1992).
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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES
FIGURE 8. Mapped distribution of growth faults in the Terrebonne Parish study area (Kuecher, 1994, 1995a; Kuecher and Roberts, 2000). Transects AA and BB refer to
locations of seismic sections provided in this report.
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FIGURE 9. Interpreted seismic line segment AA traversing the Golden Meadow
Fault. Two-way time (TWT) is expressed in seconds.
FIGURE 10. Interpreted seismic section BB across the Lake Hatch Fault. Twoway time (TWT) is expressed in seconds. Note the well-developed anticline of the
down-thrown block.
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location map indicating the seismic traverses included in
this study is provided in Figure 8.
Two regional EW trending growth faults, the Golden
Meadow and the Lake Hatch Faults, as well as a number of
minor faults, were mapped in this exercise. These faults are
seismically quiet because they are not directly tied to basement movements. Occasionally, however, earthquakes with
Richter magnitudes of 3.0 or less are associated with south
Louisiana fault movements (Lopez, 1991).
The Golden Meadow Fault forms a curvilinear trace subcropping the surface. Vertical displacement generally increases with depth, as required of growth fault systems, and
reflection discontinuities identify the fault. Vertical offset is
mappable below the 0.6 second reflector datum but not
mappable above due to near-surface statics problems.
FIGURE 12. SPOT-1 image (1989) of the northern portion of the study area with mapped faults superimposed on the image. This image was acquired in near-infrared wavelength.
Blues and greens represent winter vegetation (December 14 image capture) atop terrain slightly higher than the water table. Yellow and orange colors represent warm sedimentladen open water lakes.
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FIGURE 13. EM traverses along Bayou du Large (BdL) and Bayou Grand Caillou (BGC) across the Lake Hatch (LHFZ) and Golden Meadow (GMFZ) Fault Zones.
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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES
but also sealing from non-sealing characteristics at a reconnaissance level and in real time. Again the authors emphasize the importance of calibrating EM to analytical results
and hope to accomplish additional ties in future studies.
A comparison of the Bayou du Large and the Bayou
Grand Caillou data sets indicates clearly that hydrochemical
regimes are mappable with EM, and these coincide closely
with the mapped position of growth faults. Differences between the location of the chemical inflection point and the
mapped location of faults may actually indicate where adjustments are required in seismic mapping.
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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
FIGURE 16: Argonne National Laboratory total dissolved solids salinity map
(1995) of shallow earth horizon in the study area.
IMPLICATIONS OF VERTICAL
TRANSPORT UP FAULTS
Leach (1993) concluded the bulk of all oil and gas reserves in south Louisiana is concentrated near the top of abnormal pressure and added that mapping of temperature hot
spots, sourced from deeper (i.e., hotter) shales, may be a
useful technique for identifying actively charging reservoirs
along a given fault. Recent studies on the industry consortium well, Pathfinder, in Eugene Island Block 330, offshore
Louisiana, provide conclusive support that geopressured
fluids migrate vertically up the planes of active growth
faults (Losh et al., 1999; Alexander and Handschy, 1998;
Losh, 1998; Lin and Nunn, 1997; Billeaud et al., 1994; and
others). These studies have made powerful arguments in favor of fluid flow out of the basin via faults.
Vertical fluid flow up faults have been a topic of serious
investigation over the past few years, especially in the petroleum exploration community. The strongest implication
of vertical fluid flow concerns the source rock-reservoir
rock relationship. Vertical fluid flow demands the source
rock is structurally lower (and generally down-section
from) the reservoir. Matching geochemical signatures of
source material found above to oils found below, this
study suggests, may be like comparing apples to oranges.
This hypothesis of short-distance migration is in contrast to
long-distance horizontal transport hypotheses.
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
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ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES
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Gerald J. Kuecher
Ingeborg Matthews
Ingeborg Matthews works at Baker Atlas in the capacity of Log Analyst. Her specialties include software support and database management. She is in her final year
of a Computer Science degree at the University of Houston.
instructor for Oil and Gas Consultants, Inc., and teaches two course
offerings. He has published on such diverse topics as deep water sediments, deltaic sediments, tidal sediments, subsidence, faulting, fluid
flow, and on the application of high resolution seismic electromagnetics, and ground-penetrating technologies to sedimentology.
Michael D. Thompson
Michael D. Thompson received his B.S.
(1985) in geology from Southern Illinois
University, and an M.S. (1989) and Ph.D.
(1997) in geology from Northern Illinois
University. He is currently employed at Argonne National Laboratory where his research interests focus on the application of
geophysical techniques to environmental
problems. Particular emphasis is placed on using geophysics in cantonment and industrial areas. He is an active member of the Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society and the American Geophysical Union.
Harry H. Roberts
Harry H. Roberts is Director of Coastal
Studies Institute, and a member of the Department of Oceanography and Coastal
Sciences at Louisiana State University. He
is recognized on an international level for
sedimentological and sidimentary process
research in both terrigenous clastic and carbonate depositional systems. His experience in deltaic and associated marine sediments includes studies of
delta plains to submarine fans. He is the author of over 130 scientific
papers related to research conducted in the U.S. as well as Africa,
Australia, Indonesia, South America, Central American, and many
sites in the Caribbean. Most of these studies have incorporated acquisition and interpretation of high-resolution geophysical data in conjunction with sediments, cores, borings, and bottom grabs. He is an
advisory editor for two international journals, and has had over 30
years research experience. During this period, he has been a consultant for most major oil companies that operate in the U.S. Gulf Coast.
He has also taught continuing education courses both in the U.S. and
in several foreign countries, including Australia, Indonesia, Singapore, and sites in the Caribbean. His current research deals with development of an understanding of the surficial geology of northern
Gulf of Mexico continental slope and continuing work on problems
associated with the deltaic coasts of Louisiana.