Cognition in Aviation

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What is up and down ?

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The senses

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The Human Eye in Aviation

The most important sense In aviation is the
sight.

The experience of visual illusions is

therefore of great importance
s. 10-1

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Travel in air can distort the sense organs

and give rise to wrong perception of
reality
(=> wrong mental model)
You will bee victim of

ILLUSIONS
Spatial disorientation (the pilot is
disoriented, he cannot determine aircraft position
typically affection perception of attitude, pitch and
roll (= loss of situational awareness)

s. 10-1

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Some examples
More than 200 illusions exist,
most of discovered in the
1800 century
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Caf wall illusion

s. 10-2

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Ponzo illusion

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Mller-Leyer illusion

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Geometrical Illusion

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Geometrical Illusion

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Geometrical Illusion

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Illusion in depth

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Illusion in depth

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Illusion in concave and convex

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s. 10-4

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Gade

The Gestalt theory of

perception
Our perception and mental model is
not only a result of sensory stimulation
but also the individuals standards of
the world.

s. 10-5

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The Gestalt laws of perceptual

organization
4 Proximity
4 Continuity
4 Similarity
4 Symmetry
4 Simplicity
4 Closure

4 Thoughts (what the brain thinks is hidden)

Bee ware of your whishes and desires
s. 10-5

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The brain will fill in missing parts

according to previous experience
and expectation
(wishes or desires)

P y ol g st.
Psychologist
s. 10-5

Physiologist
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Negative picture
An example of adaptation of
sensory cells in the retina

s. 10-5

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Spatial orientation

VISION

VESTIBULAR

ORIENTATION
AND
BODY
RESPONSES

SEAT-OF-THE-PANTS

SENSES OF
BALANCE
s. 10-6

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Spatial orientation

VISION

VESTIBULAR

ORIENTATION
AND
BODY
RESPONSES

SEAT-OF-THE-PANTS

SENSES OF
BALANCE
s. 10-6

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Human Visibility
4 Visibility: how well human eye can see
4 Contrast is key factor (better than luminance)
4 Implications for aviation:
Ability to recognize hazards is degraded
Ability to steer unaffected

Bad
combination

4 Black Hole approaches at night:

Area under aircraft dark, featureless
Pilots overestimate altitude, fly too low
AWARENESS!
s. 10-6

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Effects of Lighting on Performance

Too much light may produce GLARE:
4Direct Glare: light sources in field of
view
4Reflected Glare: reflected by surface in
field of view
4Discomfort Glare: produces
discomfort, but does not necessarily
interfere with performance
4Disability Glare: reduces performance
4Blinding Glare: no object can be seen
s. 10-6

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Visual Illusions
4Because of misinterpretation of
sensory data
4Unavoidable during ambiguous,
obscured or absent visual cues
(=night)
4AUTOKINESIS
Static light appears to move when
stared at in the dark; reduced by
visual scanning
s. 10-6

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Visual Illusions
4WATERFALL EFFECT
Rotor downwash gives false cue of climb

4HEIGHT ILLUSION
Flying over low contrast, illusion of high alt

4FLICKER VERTIGO
Flicker between 4-20 cycles/sec

4SIZE-DISTANCE ILLUSION
Viewing light as changing in brightness

s. 10-6

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Visual Illusions
4RELATIVE MOTION
Mistake another aircrafts movement for
own

4FALSE HORIZON
Cloud formations may be confused with
horizon or ground

4GROUND-LITE MISINTERPRETATION
Confusion of ground lights with stars
s. 10-6

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Spatial orientation

VISION

VESTIBULAR

ORIENTATION
AND
BODY
RESPONSES

SEAT-OF-THE-PANTS

SENSES OF
BALANCE
s. 10-6

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The vestibular sense

s. 10-6

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Orientation in space of the Semicircular Canals and Otoliths

s. 10-6

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Semi-circular Canals in relation to

aircraft movements

s. 10-6

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Sensitivity of vestibular apparatus

Note: the leans

Semi-circular canals:
x-axe: 2o/sec2
y-axe: 7o/sec2 for climb
4o/sec2 for dive
z-axe: 2o/sec2

Otolith organ:
x-axe 0,1 m/sec2
z-axe 0,1 m/sec2
s. 10-6

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Spatial orientation

VISION

VESTIBULAR

ORIENTATION
AND
BODY
RESPONSES

SEAT-OF-THE-PANTS

SENSES OF
BALANCE
s. 10-6

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The seat-of-the-pants sense

4In flight, however,
G-forces combine
with the pull of
gravity to make the
seat-of-the-pants
sense completely
unreliable as an
attitude indicator.

s. 10-6

FORCE OF GRAVITY

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GRAVITY
PLUS
CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE

Vestibular illusions during flight:

Terminology
4Somatogyral illusion (an erroneous sensation of
rotation)

4Oculogyral illusion (an erroneous visual

experience of rotation in opposite direction)

4Somatogravic illusion (an erroneous perception

of horizontal or vertical movement)

4Oculogravic illusion (an erroneous visual

experience of the horizontal or vertical movement)
Vestibular illusions appear only under conditions where
outside visual cues
s. 10-6 the pilot is deprived of sufficient
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Oculogravic and oculogyral

illusions
Oculo = eye
Gravic = gravidity
Gyral = gyro
s. 10-19

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Any event appearing during flight,

where the pilot experience a false
percept of his own

SPATIAL DISORIENTATION
Peripheral type:

Central type:

Correct interpretation of

Erroneous interpretation of

insufficient sensory data

correct sensory data

s. 10-6

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False perception of
Aircraft orientation
Type I disorientation
(unawareness of error)

Correct perception of
Aircraft orientation
Type II disorientation
(awareness of conflicting input)
Conflict not resolved

Control based on
False perception

Disorientation stress

Performance

Inappropriate
control

Aircraft accident

Loss of control

Error recognized
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Resolved

Correct control

Critical and non critical phases of flight

with respect to medical incapitation

s. 10-6

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Illusions when taxying

4Relative movement
- Feeling of relative movement of an object near to the
aircraft
- Blowing snow (tailwind speed impression and
headwind speed impression)

4Cockpit height above the ground

- Higher cockpit speed impression

s. 10-6

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Illusions on take-off
4Somatogravic illusion

s. 10-6

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Somatogravic illusion during take-off

Impression by pilot

s. 10-6

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Illusions on take-off
4Somatogravic illusion
4Outside references

s. 10-6

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Vectional false horizon

s. 10-7

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The lean on the sun

SUN

s. 10-7

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Ground light

s. 10-7

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Over water
Lights of fishing
boats

s. 10-7

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Other vectional false horizons

4Gently sloping terrain

4Sloping of ground up/down after take-off

s. 10-8

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Illusions in the cruise

4Autokinese

s. 10-8

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Autokinesis

s. 10-8

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Illusions in the cruise

4Autokinese
4Vertical Separation (ex. approaching aircraft)

s. 10-8

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Objects in distance appear in the

upper visual field

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Illusions in the cruise

4Autokinese
4Vertical Separation (ex. approaching aircraft)
4Holding (somatogyral illusion / Coriolis)

s. 10-8

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Somatogyral illusion ex. during

holding pattern

s. 10-8

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Coriolis illusion
4Can occur when the head is tilted during a
long-established turning.
4The experience is an illusion of roll, often
accompanied by dissiness

DEMO

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Approach and landing

The phase in flight related to most
accidents (50%) and 73% of human
error
4Initial judgement of glideslope
4Maintenance of the glideslope
4Ground Proximity judgement

s. 10-8

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Judgement of :
-distance
-height
-speed

VISUAL CUES

External visual cues

You can not use binocular cues in
perception of relative depth, in
state you must relay on

s. 10-8

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Size and shape

s. 10-8

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Changing perspective

s. 10-8

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Movement of object in the

parafoveal and peripheral visual field

s. 10-8

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Initial judgement of
appropriate glideslope

s. 10-9

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Visual angel (3o)

The aircraft generally have a fairly stable pitch attitude

during approach
The horizon and visual touch-down point have stable
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framework of the canopy
s.locations
10-9

Sloping ground
4If the terrain slopes down to the runway, the
pilot will perceive himself to be too low on
approach
4If the terrain slopes up to the runway, the
pilot will perceive himself to be too high on
approach

s. 10-9

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An up-sloping runway can create the

illusion that the aircraft is higher than it
actually is, leading to a lower approach

s. 10-10

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A down-sloping runway can create the illusion that the

aircraft is lower than it actually is, leading to a higher
approach

s. 10-10

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Width of runways
4 A narrow runway may give
the impression of being too high

4 A wider than normal runway

may give the impression of
being too low
s. 10-10

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Black hole effect

Absents of visual cues other than
airfield lights may give an illusion of
being too high too low approach

s. 10-10

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Atmospheric Perspective
Incorrect distance calculation because
of clarity of atmosphere
(interference of fog, rain, smoke or
snow)
Errors of perception can occur when
ground features are atypical
(small trees)
s. 10-10

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Maintenance of the glideslope

When using fix position on the windshield
beeing unaware of speed loss + altitude can
lead to the impression of being on glideslope
when actually too low

s. 10-11

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Texture and texture flow

s. 10-11

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Ground Proximity judgement

(Assessment of height by cues)
4Apparent speed of objects on the ground
will increase as the height reduces
4Size of objects will increase with decreasing
distance
4Apparent width of the runway will increase
4Texture of the ground will change

s. 10-12

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Wheels and touch down point

s. 10-12

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Coning of attention
4Specially in the student pilot
4During stress and high workload

Restriction of the
field of attention
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Missed Approach
4Somatogravic illusion
4Oculogravic illusion

s. 10-13

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Response to linear
acceleration

Somatogravic illusion during forward

acceleration

s. 10-13

Performing a 0.5 G forward acceleration will result in a 30o pitch-up

somatogravic illusion provided that there are no visual cues
indicating the position of the horizon.
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Oculogravic illusion during forward

acceleration

If there is a weak, distant , non-horizon-like visual cue, the pilot will

perceive a similar upward movement of the object when experiencing
his somatogravic pitch-upAerodoc
illusion: an oculogravic illusion.
s. 10-13

Recorded flight path and calculated force

(weight) vector of an aircraft that crashed
after initiating an overshoot
Linear acceleration

s. 10-13

Radial acceleration

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Remember the potential danger of

being in a high arousal state
4 Prone to spatial disorientation despite training
4 Being unable to interpret the cockpit instruments
4 Degradation of performance
4 Funneling of attention of focus
4 Regression
4 Mental blocking
4 Mood swings
4 Restlessness
4 Trembling
4 Panic
s. 10-14

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Protective measures against illusions

The use of organised and formal training to
recognise:
4 Illusions are natural phenomena
4 The different types of illusions
4 The use of other visual cues for information
4 The need for flight briefings
4 Special care needed during accelerations
4 The effect of head movements, fatigue, night an
other conditions with reduced visibility
4 The need of protection provided by manufacturers
s. 10-14

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How to cope with spatial

disorientation when it
occurs in flight

s. 10-14

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Dont fly
Drugs
Exhaustion
Alcohol
Tobacco
Hypoglycemia
s. 10-14

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Make a positive effort to redirect

attention to other aspects of the
flying task
(ex. a quick shake of the head)

s. 10-14

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When you are suddenly confronted by strong

illusory sensations or difficulties in establishing
orientation and control of the aircraft:
4 Get on to instruments, check and cross-check,
ensure good instrument illumination
4 Maintain instrument reference and correct scan
pattern, watch your height at all time
4 Control the aircraft in such a way as to make the
instruments display the desired flight configuration
4 Do not attempt to mix flight by external visual
reference with instrument flight until external visual
cues are unambiguous
4 Seek help if severe disorientation persists. Hand
over to co-pilot, call ground controller and other
aircraft, check altimeter
s. 10-14

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Remember:
Nearly all disorientation is a normal
response to the unnatural
environment of flight. If you have
been alarmed by a flight incident
discuss it with colleagues including
your flight surgeon.
Your experience will probably not be
as unusual as you thought
s. 10-14

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Collision and the retinal image

The danger if a closing aircraft
remains on the same spot on the
windscreen it is maintaining a
Line of Constant Bearing (LCB)
and a collision risk exists

s. 10-14

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In Night remember the Night Blind

Spot

s. 10-14

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Example
Two jet aircraft converging at normal crusing
speeds of 550 KIAS each.
Closure rate of approx. 18 miles/minute
Reaction time is 5-12 sec. to take action
Recognition distance of 1,5 3,8 miles
At this distance the aircraft will appear small
And it will be difficult to see due to lack of
relative motion
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Retinal size of closing aircraft

Minimum visual
angel for detection:

0,2o

s. 10-15

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Visual angle of a 40-ft wide aircraft

closing at constant velocity

Time to
see and
avoid

s. 10-15

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Midair collision by constant angel

and speed

s. 10-15

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The see-and-avoid concept has physical and

behavioral limitations such that pilots cannot
reliably see and avoid conflicting aircrafts

s. 10-15

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Vision and Midair Collisions

Three most common mid-air collisions:
4 Head on
4 Converging from side
4 Climb/descent

s. 10-15

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Saccade of the eye

Eyes move in series of jerks and
each movement is followed by a
rest period of 1/3 second

s. 10-16

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The most successful scanning

technique:
4 Each movement should be of 100 with 2 seconds rest
4 Airspace above and below must be covered
4 The sky should be covered in overlapping sectors of about
100
4 Peripheral vision can be vital in spotting collision threats in
movement
4 Move the body and head around physical obstructions
4 Special care during take-off, landing, ascent and descent
4 Action immediately if another aircraft shows no lateral or
vertical movements (LCB) and is increasing in size.

s. 10-16

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Special situations
4Rain on windscreen

s. 10-17

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Special situations
4Rain on windscreen
4Flying over smooth water
4Snow coverage
4White out
4Fog and pollution
4Runway lights

s. 10-17

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