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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 2432

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes

Review

How deep was the early Himalayan foredeep?

B.P. Singh
CAS in Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 30 August 2011
Received in revised form 25 April 2012
Accepted 28 April 2012
Available online 9 May 2012
Keywords:
Foreland basin
Facies associations
Paleoenvironment
Paleobathymetry
Himalaya
Indian subcontinent

a b s t r a c t
The Himalayan foredeep is a good archive of the events that occurred during different stages of the basin
evolution. The early part of this archive is used here to interpret depositional environments and paleobathymetry based on facies associations, sedimentary structures and larger foraminifera. Three facies
associations are recognized in the early Himalayan foreland basin sequences. Facies association I, containing chert breccia, bauxite/quartzose sandstone, coal and black shale, was deposited in short-lived
ephemeral streams, swamps and inner parts of lagoons. The limestones and shales of the facies association II were deposited in a barrierlagoonal system where the former represent barrier and the latter represent lagoon deposits. The limestone beds, containing hummocks and wavy ripples, were deposited
under the inuence of oscillatory storms and represent tempestites. Siltstone beds, containing hummocky cross-stratication and ripple cross-laminae, were deposited in the shoreface or foreshore zone
where storm activities were dominant. Facies association III, comprises marl laminites and purple shale
deposited in intertidal and supratidal zones of a tidal at. Larger foraminifera such as Nummulites and
Assilina ourished in the tropical climatic belt and accumulated in the coastal zone as a result of their
transportation by waves and tides. In general, the sedimentation took place on a ramp similar to the present day Persian Gulf with a paleobathymetry of 55 m. In strike continuity in Pakistan, the coeval
sequences were deposited on shelves with a paleobathymetry <200 m. The early foredeep sequences
are, thus, devoid of deep marine sediments.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Facies associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1.
Facies association I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2.
Facies association II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3.
Facies association III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Depositional environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Paleobathymetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tel.: +91 542 6701355; fax: +91 542 2369239.

E-mail address: drbpsingh1960@gmail.com
1367-9120/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.04.026

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1. Introduction
The Himalayan foredeep basin is a modern example of
peripheral foreland basins. Ancestral to the present day, the
Himalayan foreland basin was an eastwest trending elongate
basin that extended from Pakistan in the west to India in the
east (Fig. 1). It came into existence as a result of the IndiaAsia
collision in front of the rising Himalaya sometime during
the Paleogene Period (after 57.9 Ma). Garzanti et al. (1996) suggested that the Paleocene sequences of Pakistan represent a
pre-collisional stage, while the Eocene sequences represent a
syn-collision stage. The early foreland basin sequences have
been designated the Subathu Formation in the Jammu area
(Fig. 1B) and Shimla hills (Fig. 1C). Base of the Subathu Formation is rarely exposed, but wherever it is exposed it lies above
the Precambrian basement composed of dolomitic limestones
(Bhandari and Agarwal, 1966). The Paleogene Subathu Formation forms an angular unconformity with the underlying Precambrian basement. Klootwijk et al. (1986) interpreted the
paleomagnetic signature of the basal limestone beds of the
Subathu Formation as showing a primary component comparable to paleolatitudes of the latest Paleocene (57.9 Ma). They
have further suggested a Middle Eocene age (41.3 Ma) for purple and brown colored claystone beds that occur at the top of
this formation (Fig. 2). Based on the foraminifera stratigraphy,
Singh (1970) and Bhatia (1985) have suggested that the Subathu Formation represents the time span between foraminifera
stage P4 and P12. Najman and Garzanti (2000), and Singh and
Andotra (2000) considered the early sequences of the Himalayan foreland basin in India to be of Late PaleoceneMiddle
Eocene age (57.941.3 Ma). It is commonly believed that the
initial sequences of peripheral foreland basins are typically deep
marine (Miall, 1995). But, Wells and Gingerich (1987), and Pivnik and Wells (1996) suggested that the early foreland basin
sediments in Pakistan were deposited in seasonal streams and
on shelves. Chaudhri (1976) interpreted that the green sedimentary rocks of the early Eocene Himalayan foreland basin were
deposited in a coastal setting. Bera et al. (2008) argued that
the initial foreland sediments deposited on shelves were delivered by turbidity currents, while Singh (2010) questioned the
depositional environment suggested by Bera et al. (2008). Further, Singh et al. (2010) considered middle Eocene as transition
from marine to continental succession and sequence boundary
in the western Himalayan foreland basin. In the light of controversial depositional environments of the early Himalayan
foreland basin sequences, it becomes signicant to reexamine
depositional environments of them. The present paper concerns
with the depositional environments and inferred bathymetry for
the early Himalayan foreland basin based on evidence preserved
in the rock record.
2. Methods
Eleven stratigraphic sections were analyzed and individual facies were measured from different locations where Late PaleoceneEocene sequences of the Himalayan Foreland basin are
well exposed (Fig. 2). Sedimentary structures were further studied and interpreted from these sequences. The inferences of
foraminifera and other body fossils were incorporated from an
earlier study. Additionally, ichnofossils were also studied. Thin
sections were further studied to interpret depositional fabric.
Based on all these parameters, bathymetry is deduced for the
early foreland basin.

Fig. 1. Geological and location maps. (A) Geological map of the Himalaya showing
distribution of the different tectonic zones and the foreland succession (modied
after Kumar and Tandon, 1985). (B) Geological map of the Jammu area shows
exposures of the early foreland basin sequences (Subathu Formation) (modied
after Singh et al., 2009). (C) Geological map of the Shimla hills shows outcrops of the
Subathu Formation and other formations belonging to Himalayan foreland succession (modied after Singh et al., 2009).

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B.P. Singh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 2432

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic correlation chart of the sequences occurring in the Jammu area and Shimla hills. Sections 18 are from the Jammu area and from 9 to 11 are from Shimla
hills. Also, note the ordering of the facies associations from I to III.

Fig. 3. Idealized lithocolumn displaying architecture of the facies association I.

3. Results
Results are presented in terms of facies associations that include details of individual facies, associated foraminifera and ichnofossils, and sedimentary structures.
3.1. Facies associations
The Paleogene sedimentary history of the northwestern Himalaya is marked by late Paleocene chert breccia/bauxite and black

Fig. 4. Field photograph displaying coal seam and black shale capped by argillaceous limestone. Length of the hammer is 30 cm. Locality: Kalakot, Jammu and
Kashmir.

shale with coal, Early Eocene (Ypresian) limestone and green,

greenish-yellow shale alternations, and Lutetian-aged limestone
mudrock rhythmites followed by marl and purple shale. The chert
breccia is mainly exposed in the Jammu area, but black shale and
coal occur in Shimla hills also (Fig. 2). In the early foreland basin
sequences, three facies associations (IIII up section) within the
transitional coastal system are recognized.

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3.1.1. Facies association I

This association comprises chert breccia and reworked bauxite/
sandstonesilty-shale forming the base, followed by black shale
and coal (Fig. 3). The chert breccia contains pebble to granule size
clasts encased in siliceous matrix. The reworked bauxite and the
sandstonesilty shale are coeval and form the base of this facies
association. A thin soil horizon (610 cm thick), containing silt
and limonitic clay, occurs above the basal unconformity in the Jammu area. This soil horizon is followed by a thick (34 m) reworked
bauxite unit. The upper contact of this soil horizon is erosional and
the bauxite occurs in crudely bedded and laminated forms. Elongated and circular aluminous pisolites of up to 8 mm length lie
with their long axis parallel to the bedding planes. The bauxite is
impure and has a high silica content (33.5045.50%) (For detail
see Singh et al., 2009). The reworked bauxite/quartzose sandstoneferruginous silty-shale is overlain by a decameter-thick
black shale that also possesses a meter-thick coal seam (Fig. 4).
The black shale facies consists of hard platy silty-shale in the basal
part grading upward into clay-shale that is dominated by laminae
of less than 5 mm thickness. Pyrite and phosphate nodules are
commonly present in this facies in many horizons. Two to three
coal seams of around 1 m thickness each with restricted (100 s of
meters) lateral continuity are observed in the Jammu area. The
ash and sulfur (23%) contents are high in this coal and rank varies
from low volatile bituminous to semi-anthracite. The macerals are
vitrinite, inertinite and exinite with vitrinite being the dominant
one (Singh, 1988; Singh and Singh, 1995). The plant matter is
highly decomposed (humied) resulting in the conversion of plant
matter into a high rank coal.
3.1.2. Facies association II
This association comprises limestone and shale intercalcations
(Fig. 5). The limestone shows either erosional or sharp lower and
diffused upper contacts. The limestone is impure (argillaceous)
and contains shallow-marine fossils such as foraminifers and
lamellibranchs. This is thinly bedded (2030 cm) and has a few
kilometers of lateral extent (Fig. 6). It is composed of micro-spars
of calcite and dolomite and is classied as lime-mudstone (after
Dunham, 1962; Singh and Andotra, 2000). In the limestone, pellets
and welded faecal pellets are common within the micritic orthochem (Fig. 7A). The larger foraminiferal species like Ranikothalia
nuttalli, Nummulites burdigalensis kuepperi, Assilina leymeriei, A.
spinosa and Rotalia trochidiformis are recorded from this lithofacies.
This limestone facies also preserves well-developed sedimentlled burrows with positive hypo-relief such as Imbrichnus, and
Y-shaped irregular surface burrows as Thalassinoides.
An intra-formational limestone conglomerate with undulatory
contacts occurs above the argillaceous limestone. The conglomeratic limestone facies is less developed in the Shimla hills whereas
it is well developed in the Jammu area. The conglomeratic limestone extends a few kilometers laterally, and forms a 2 m thick
unit. This limestone is clast-supported and contains limestone
clasts of 1520 cm diameter in the middle part and 210 cm diameter in the bottom and top parts of the facies. The clasts are encased in argillaceous lime-mud that contains micritic crystals of
calcite. The foraminifers include Nummulites cf. rotularius, N. cf.
N. minervensis, Assilina spinosa, A. leymeriei, A. laminosa, A. dandotica
and A. pustolosa (Fig. 7B). The conglomeratic limestone is capped
by oyster bearing-limestone in some cycles. However, the oysterbearing limestone also occurs independently in the higher-up part
of the succession.
Oyster-bearing limestone facies is developed in both the Jammu
area and the Shimla hills with abundant oyster shells aligned along
the bedding planes. This limestone is laminated and is full of small
and large foraminifera capped by oyster-rich limestone. The oyster
limestones exhibit hummocks, symmetrical ripples and wavy

Fig. 5. Idealized lithocolumn exhibiting architecture of the facies association II.

Fig. 6. Stratigraphic architecture of the middle part (Facies association II) shows
limestone shale alteration (LSA) capped by oyster-bearing limestone (OBL). Length
of the man in the background is 165 cm. Locality: Kalakot, Jammu and Kashmir.

bedding (Fig. 7C). This limestone can be classied as a wackestone.

Well-developed dolomite crystals as large as 35 lm size are
recorded. However, the fossil oyster shells are mainly composed
of calcite.
Siltstones intercalated with yellowish green shales occur only in
a part of the Shimla hills. It commonly forms a decimeter thick unit
except in two cycles where it occurs as a meter-thick unit. The
lower surfaces of the siltstones are sharp, but upper surfaces are
diffused and thinner bands occur in lenticular forms within the

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B.P. Singh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 2432

Fig. 7. Photomicrographs of limestones and other sedimentary features. (A) Micritic carbonate possessing welded faecal pellets (in dark color). (B) Larger foraminifera Assilina
and broken oyster shells within the carbonate micro-spars. (C) Limestone bed shows hummocks and wavy ripples associated with wavy laminae. Length of the pen is 14 cm.
Locality: Jagni, Rajouri, Jammu and Kashmir. (D) Hummocky cross stratication in a siltstone bed. Note that hummocks of a previous storm are overlapped by the swale
surfaces of a next storm. Diameter of the coin is 2.5 cm. Locality: Chakki-ka-morh, Solan, Himachal Pradesh. (E) Marl of facies association III shows thick and thin lamina
couplets of light and dark colors. Length of the pen is 14 cm. Locality: Kalakot, Jammu and Kashmir. (F) Exposure of the ossiferous purple shale that contain white gypsum
streaks in it. Length of the hammer is 30 cm. Locality: Kharsi Bridge, 15 km SW of Subathu town, Himachal Pradesh.

shales. These are dirty yellow colored and the thick units contain
symmetrical ripples on the upper surfaces. They also possess hummocky cross-stratication at places (Fig. 7D). Ripple cross-laminae
and planar laminae occur as internal structures. The siltstones possess silt-sized quartz grains that are angular and occur within the
clay matrix. The silt and clay ratio is around 70:30 in these
siltstones.
The overlying shales are exposed extensively (many kilometers)
laterally, and are a few meters to a few tens of meters thick. The shales
are green and greenish-yellow colored, and are laminated, hard and
ssile with 12 mm thick laminae. These shales are clay rich having
textural similarities with the clay shales of Potter et al. (1980). These
shales are impregnated with calcareous matter including microscopic
patches of calcite and dolomite. Both the green and greenish-yellow
shales contain septarian nodules and 1020 cm long ellipsoid mud
balls. Phosphate nodules with thin concentric pyrite layers occur at
some levels in the greenish-yellow shale.
3.1.3. Facies association III
Facies association III is composed of marl sandwiched between
purple shales (Fig. 8). The characteristic facies of the top part of the
Subathu Formation is marl interbedded with purple shale that
shows white and pink beds/laminae (Fig. 7E). The lower beds are

centimeters thick, which decreases to millimeters thick in the

upper beds. The upper surfaces of the marl facies record exposure/weathering features such as desiccation-cracks and autobrecciation in addition to bioturbation. The marl is composed of
silt-size dolomite and clay along with calcite.
The purple shale in this association is aggy with lamina thickness of 46 mm. This shale also contains gypsum streaks in a part
of the Shimla hills (Fig. 7F). The purple shale is a mud-shale having
clay and silt in subequal amounts. The clay minerals are mainly
chlorite, illite and sepiolite. Hematite is the iron oxide imparting
red pigmentation to this shale. Fossils of freshwater and brackish
water sh have been reported by Ranga Rao (1971), Sahni and Khare
(1973), Sahni and Kumar (1974) and Sahni et al. (1983) from the
purple shale in the Jammu area. Similarly, Loyal (1986), Kumar
et al. (1997) and Blas et al. (2004) recovered brackish to freshwater
vertebrates from the purple shales exposed in the Shimla hills. Wells
and Gingerich (1987) have described fresh water mammals, snails,
crocodiles and turtles from the adjoining Kotli area in Pakistan.
4. Discussion
The foredeep is an elongate basin between the wedge-top and
the forebulge in a fold-thrust belt, and this part of the foreland

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B.P. Singh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 2432

basin system allows maximum sediment accumulation (DeCelles

and Giles, 1996). In the early sequences of the western Himalayan
foreland basin, the wedge-top seems missing as they are devoid of
coarse siliciclastic sedimentary rocks (Singh, 2003). The Himalayan
foreland succession is on the order of 10 km thick and is mostly
cyclic (Singh et al., 2004). The early foreland sequences are up to
120 m thick and these are used here to interpret depositional environments and paleobathymetry.
4.1. Depositional environments
Important characteristics of the individual facies and their inferred depositional environments are given in Table 1. The chert
breccia formed during the initial stage as a result of uplift of the
hanging walls of the faults that exposed the basement to weathering and erosion. The deposition took place by short-lived, small
streams. The bauxites show beds/laminae with an alignment of
the pisolites along the lamina planes, suggesting a sedimentary origin. The quartzose sandstone and associated ferruginous siltyshale are ning-upward and were possibly deposited in ephemeral
streams. The coal developed from a peat swamp of high vegetative
density under humidmarshy conditions maintained by groundwater; the vegetation was decomposed in the reducing conditions.
The parallel and even laminations are suggestive of sedimentation
in a quiet-water environment where currents were too weak to
sculpt the bottom and as a result, only clay and the nest silts settle (Potter et al., 1980). The nely laminated black shale was deposited in calm water condition in a lake or inner part of a lagoon
where reducing conditions prevailed. Thin laminae in these shales,
indicating a lack of burrowing organisms, suggest a slow rate of
sedimentation, and reducing conditions are demonstrated by the
occurrence of pyrite nodules (Singh and Andotra, 2000) and the
dinocyst assemblage such as Operculodinium and Thalassiphora
(e.g. Sarkar and Prasad, 1998).
The argillaceous limestone shows a micritic texture possibly
deposited in the low-energy coastal environments. Landward
migration of a barrier bar during transgression leaves behind an
erosional surface and there may occur a thin intraclastic breccia/
conglomerate derived from erosion of the underlying sediments
(Tucker and Wright, 1990). The conglomeratic limestone above
the argillaceous limestone, therefore, formed due to landward
migration of the barrier bar during transgression. The clasts for
the formation of the conglomeratic limestone were derived from
the lime hardgrounds, developed in the shoreface zone. The graded

Fig. 8. An ideal lithocolum exhibiting architecture of the facies association III.

unit in the limestones was deposited along the mid-ramp zone and
the alignment of the oyster shells along the bedding planes, coupled with the preservation of hummocks at some locations, is the
result of storm activity during sedimentation. The mid-ramp zone
is dominated by storms where graded beds and hummocky cross
stratications commonly occur (Aigner, 1984; Burchette, 1987;
Burchette and Wright, 1992; Singh and Srivastava, 2011). The
graded conglomeratic limestone and hummocky to wavy-bedded
limestones were deposited on a barrier bar with high intensity
storms. The siltstones coeval with graded limestone units that occur in a part of the Shimla hills possess hummocky cross stratication (HCS) and symmetrical ripples, suggesting that they also were
deposited above the wave-base inuenced by waves and storms.
Perhaps, the silt was supplied from an aqueous system and formed
the barrier bars under the inuence of storms. The change in color
of the shale from green to greenish-yellow is attributed to differential organic matter supply and the change from a weakly reducing
to weakly oxidizing condition. The overlying nely laminated and
clay-rich green/greenish-yellow shale was possibly deposited in a
lagoon. The microbiota occurring in this shale belongs to shallow
marine and coastal ecosystems. The occurrence of the ellipsoid
mud balls with doming of the adjacent shale layers suggests their
formation along slope possibly in the sub-littoral zone (e.g. Kale
and Awasthi, 1993). In the vicinity of tidal inlets a diverse assem-

Table 1
Characteristics of lithofacies occurring in the early sequences of the western Himalayan foreland basin and their formative environments (modied after Singh and Andotra,
2000).
Lithofacies

Characteristic features

Depositional environments

Chert breccia
Reworked
bauxite
Black shale
Coal

Pebble and granule size clasts are randomly arranged in the siliceous matrix/cement
Cyclic occurrence of crudely-bedded and laminated varieties. Pisolites are aligned along the bedding plains

Short-lived stream
Seasonal stream

Black, ssile, clay rich. Also contains pyrite crystals and nodules
Thin coal seams; bright, moderately bright and dull bands. Woody structures and dominance of vitrinite maceral.
Coal developed from complete decomposition of peat
Impure carbonate containing larger benthic foraminifera such as Nummulites and Assilina and bivalves. Trace
fossils of Skolitos assemblage. Also, contains single and welded pellets
Reworked gravels from hardgrounds encased in carbonate matrix. Gravel sizes show gradation that is rst reverse
and then normal as a result of single cycle of accelerating and de-celerating storm. Also possesses hummocky
cross-stratication. Larger benthic foraminifera such as Nummulites and Assilina
Alignment of shell fragments, wavy ripples, sparitic crystals of dolomite. Oyster shells are composed of calcite

Inner part of lagoon

Swamp

Laminated, ssile clay-rich shale. Also contains mud balls and septarian nodules
Thick and thin lamina couplets (possibly tidal bundles). Bioturbation, auto-brecciation and other exposure features

Lagoon (littoral bathymetry)

Inner tidal at (intertidal
zone)
Outer tidal at (supratidal
zone)

Argillaceous
limestone
Conglomeritic
limestone
Oyster-bearing
limestone
Gray/green shale
Marl laminite
Purple shale

Laminated silty shale contains fresh- and brackish-water vertebrates

Barrier bar (littoral to subtidal

bathymetry)
Storm-dominated barrier bar
(littoral to subtidal
bathymetry)
High-energy Barrier bar

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B.P. Singh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 2432

blage may occur in which open marine and lagoonal species may
be inter-mixed (Parker, 1960; Rusnak, 1960). The presence of a
diversied fauna of foraminifera, oysters and other lamellibranchs
in the Subathu Formation demonstrates connection between the
enclosed water bodies and the sea either through storm cuts or tidal inlets (Singh and Andotra, 2000). The majority of the benthic
forminiferal assemblage present in the argillaceous limestone indicates a subtidal bathymetry that fall in zone III of Boucot (1981).
Furthermore, experimental studies demonstrate that most of the
larger foraminifera are transported to the coastal areas by the tides
and waves from deeper parts of the sea depending upon their
shape and size (Yordanova and Hohenegger, 2007). Thus, the larger
foraminifera occurring in the facies association II were incorporated in the sediments by the waves and tides in the coastal regime. The trace fossils of the Scolithos assemblage were
developed in the littoral or subtidal zones. In combination, the facies association II represents a coastal barrier and lagoon system
and the lagoon was connected to the sea by storm cuts or tidal
inlets.
The thick and thin lamina couplets (possible tidal bundles) in
the marl were formed as a result of the tidal activities over the tidal
at. Fine scale laminations are one of the most characteristic features of the peritidal carbonates especially in the intertidal zone
and some of the laminations may result from deposition by
semi-diurnal tides in tidal ats (Tucker and Wright, 1990; Singh
and Andotra, 2000). The desiccation cracks and the auto-brecciation indicate sufcient exposure and pedogenesis in the upper part
of the marl unit. The purple shale, with high silt content and fresh
to brackish water fauna, most likely has deposited in the supratidal
zone. The increase in the silt content and the presence of hematite
suggest additional river inux from adjoining land under oxidizing
conditions. Gypsum streaks in the purple shale suggest that gypsum precipitated from the saline groundwater during an evaporative phase (e.g. Warren, 1986). Wells and Gingerich (1987)
considered the ossiferous shale facies as on-shore pedogenized
clays representing slow sedimentation in the Kotli area (Pakistan)
whereas Srivastava and Kumar (1996) interpreted the ossiferous
shale in the Jammu area as silty-claystone deposited under uvio-deltaic conditions.
The Late Paleocene sequences of the Himalayan foreland basin
developed near the equator and experienced tropical weathering
conditions during the northward drift of the Indian plate (Singh
et al., 2009). Most likely, the Early and Middle Eocene carbonates
also precipitated when northern India was in the tropical climatic
belt. Development of vast epeiric seas facilitates widespread shoalwater carbonate development in tropical and subtropical zones
(Edinger et al., 2002). Also, the tropical carbonates contain ooids
and peloids and host diverse genera of larger foraminifera that
are generally absent in the temperate carbonates (Ahr, 1998; Hottinger, 1998; Yordanova and Hohenegger, 2007). The occurrence of
peloids and diverse genera of larger foraminifera suggest that the
carbonate precipitated in the tropical climatic belt in the early
Himalayan foreland basin. The wave ripples and the alignment of
the shell fragments along the bedding plane favors the occurrence
of waves, tides or storms and indicates sedimentation in the midramp zone (e.g. Allen et al., 1991). The presence of substantial
amounts of the larger foraminifera in the Eocene carbonates suggests that they multiplied from early Eocene to middle Eocene as
a result of warm temperatures in shallow seas owing to the Eocene
warming (e.g. Hottinger, 1998).
Foreland basins develop in the fold-thrust belt in front of the
rising mountain system (Allen and Homewood, 1986). The chert
breccia in the initial part of the Himalayan foredeep developed in
the faulted zone and the clasts were supplied from the hangingwalls of the faults. The foredeeps deposit sediments derived mainly
from the orogenic belt and a part of the sediment is contributed by

Fig. 9. Cartoon shows hypothetical depositional model and related palaeobathymetry of the early foreland basin sequences.

the forebulge that occurs cratonward, and initial foredeep basins

also show sediment starvation (Miall, 1995; DeCelles and Giles,
1996). The bauxite occurring in the initial part of the succession
might have originated from the forebulge that was reworked and
deposited as sedimentary bauxite in the foreland basin. The early
Himalayan foredeep successions that are comprised of limestones,
representing barrier bars with erosional contacts, suggest sediment starvation during sedimentation. Also, the barrier bars acted
as forebulges and they supplied the limestone clasts to the successive barriers that formed during the phase of transgressions
(Fig. 9). Ramps are the most favorable settings for limestones deposition in the foreland basins (Allen et al., 1991; Ahr, 1998). The
limestones most likely have deposited on ramps in the early part
of the Himalayan foreland basin. The lagoons depositing shales received sediments most probably from the trans-Himalayan metamorphic rocks (Singh et al., 2000) those were exposed before the
uplift of the main Himalayan chain.

4.2. Paleobathymetry
The larger benthic foraminifera such as R. nuttalli, N. burdigalensis kuepperi, A. leymeriei, A. spinosa, R. rochidiformis, Nummulites cf.
rotularius, N. cf. N. minervensis, Assilina spinosa, A. leymeriei, A. laminosa, A. dandotica and A. pustolosa belong to zone III of Boucot
(1981), which suggests subtidal bathymetry. Even if one assumes
transportation of the larger foraminifers by tides and waves, they
would suggest a shallower bathymetry than subtidal. The occurrence of trace fossils of Skolithos assemblage further suggests littoral to subtidal bathymetry. Thus, the water depth might have
been <40 m during their (trace fossils) development. Presence of
wave ripples, wave ripple cross laminations and hummocky cross
stratications (HCS) differentiates tempestites from turbidites
(Einsele and Seilacher, 1991; Singh and Srivastava, 2011) and
HCS forms on continental shelves and ramps by oscillatory storms
(Walker, 1984; Aigner, 1985; Burchette and Wright, 1992; Immenhauser, 2009). The occurrences of an erosive base and wave ripples in association with HCS in the limestones and siltstones in
the early foreland basin sequences suggest that they are tempestites rather than turbidites (Singh and Srivastava, 2011). Further,
HCS can form in water depths ranging from the intertidal zone
(24 m) to the outer shelf at depths of nearly 200 m (Mulder
et al., 2009). The presence of HCS suggests that the sedimentation
took place between the intertidal zone and the outer shelf from a
depth of 2200 m.
Shallow water carbonates and siliciclastic sediments are deposited in a bathymetric range between 5 and 30 m on the shelf off
Florida (Immenhauser, 2009). Further, storm-wave induced bedforms develop at a depth-range of 2040 m on the continental
shelf off North Carolina and they develop at a deeper level in the
present day Persian Gulf (55 15 m) (Ardhuin et al., 2002; Immenhauser and Scott, 2002). Thus, the presence of storm deposits in
the early foreland succession suggests their development at a maximum 55 15 m of water depth (Singh and Srivastava, 2011). Car-

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B.P. Singh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 56 (2012) 2432

bonate ramps with a gently seaward dipping sea oor (0.11.5)

share bottom proles in equilibrium with wave action and are
commonly exposed to storm waves and currents (Wilson, 1975;
Walker, 1984; Tucker and Wright, 1990; Seilacher and Aigner,
1991; Burchette and Wright, 1992; Schlager et al., 1994). It appears
that the limestone and shale sequence of the early foreland succession developed on a ramp similar to present day Persian Gulf and
the ground slope was gentle (0.11.5).
Presumably the early foreland sediments were deposited in a
Persian Gulf-like setting. This gulf was hundreds of kilometers long
and ten of kilometers wide, and open from the western side and
close from the eastern side. This gulf was full of storm activities,
as revealed by the signature present in the limestones, strong in
the western part and weak in the eastern part. A possible cause
for the difference in storm intensities may be attributed as Coriolis
force. The Eocene sequences of the Pakistan were deposited on
continental shelves in shoreface and foreshore zones (Wells and
Gingerich, 1987; Pivnik and Wells, 1996). Similarly, Bera et al.
(2008) have interpreted that the early foreland basin sequences
in the western part of the Indian Himalaya were deposited between the shoreface and foreshore zone and the maximum water
depth was 200 m. Also, the coeval sequences in the eastern
Himalaya were interpreted to have deposited on continental
shelves (e.g. Alam et al., 2003; Acharyya, 2007).
Initial foreland basin sequences are typically deep marine
(Miall, 1995). To the contrary, all the evidences present in the early
Himalayan foreland sequences suggest that the sedimentation took
place between the shoreface and supratidal zone, and the paleobathymetry was <55 m (Fig. 9). Thus, it is envisaged that the early
foreland basin sequences of the Himalaya are devoid of a deep
marine succession. The basement of the early Himalayan foredeep
was Precambrian that was enough hard and rigid resulting in shallow exural subsidence (Singh, 2003). This may be the chief reason
for the absence of deep marine sediments in the early Himalayan
foredeep basin sequences.
5. Conclusions
Proxies such as facies associations, sedimentary structures and
foraminifera are used to interpret depositional environments and
paleobathymetry of the early Himalayan foreland basin. The early
Himalayan foreland basin sequences developed in ephemeral
streams, barriers, lagoons, swamps and tidal ats in India. The
depositional setting was a ramp similar to the present day Persian
Gulf. The paleobathymetry was <55 m during the development of
the early foreland basin sequences in the Himalaya. This implies
that the early Himalayan foredeep basin was devoid of deep marine sediments because the exural subsidence was shallow as a
consequence of hard and rigid Precambrian basement.
Acknowledgements
Help received in identication of the foraminifera by Dr. N.S.
Mathur and Dr. D.S. Andotra is gratefully acknowledged. The
Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi has kindly supported this work. Dr. P.K. Singh is thanked for carefully reading an
earlier version of this manuscript and Prof. Lawrence Tanner is
thanked for nal language editing. The fruitful suggestions of the
journal reviewer helped substantially in improving this
manuscript.
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