Ts-3 Effects of Drying Methods and Conditions On Drying Kinetics and Quality of Indian Gooseberry Flake - Thesis

EFFECTS OF DRYING METHODS AND CONDITIONS ON DRYING KINETICS
AND QUALITY OF INDIAN GOOSEBERRY FLAKE
MISS SIPORN
METHAKHUP
A SPECIAL RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING (FOOD ENGINEERING)
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
KING MONGKUTS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY THONBURI
2003
Effects of Drying Methods and Conditions on Drying Kinetics

and Quality of Indian Gooseberry Flake
Miss Siporn Methakhup B.Sc. (Food Technology)
A Special Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for
the Degree of Master of Engineering (Food Engineering)
Faculty of Engineering
King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi
2003
Special Research Project Committee

.
(Lect. Naphaporn Chiewchan, Ph.D.)
Chairman
.
(Asst. Prof. Sakamon Devahastin, Ph.D.)
Co-Chairman
.
(Asst. Prof. Tipaporn Yoovidhya, Ph.D.)
Member
.
(Lect. Chairath Tangduangdee, Ph.D.)
Member
.
(Assoc. Prof. Somkiat Prachayawarakorn, Ph.D.)
Member
Copyright reserved
ii
Special Research Project Title
Special Research Project Credits

Candidate
Special Research Project Advisors
Program
Field of Study
Department
Faculty
B.E.
Effects of Drying Methods and Conditions on

Drying Kinetics and Quality of Indian Gooseberry
Flake
6
Miss Siporn Methakhup
Dr. Naphaporn Chiewchan
Asst. Prof. Dr. Sakamon Devahastin
Mater of Engineering
Food Engineering
Food Engineering
Engineering
2546
Abstract
Vacuum drying and low-pressure superheated steam drying (LPSSD) of Indian

gooseberry flake were carried out at various drying temperatures (65 and 75oC) and
pressures (7, 10 and 13 kPa absolute pressure) to monitor the drying kinetics and quality
degradation (in terms of ascorbic acid and color) of the dried product, which is aimed as
an ingredient for an Indian gooseberry tea. In terms of drying kinetics, the drying
temperature was found to have an effect on the moisture reduction of samples dried both
by vacuum drying and LPSSD. However, pressure seemed to have an obvious effect
only for LPSSD but only slightly in the case of vacuum drying. Moreover, it was found
that the vacuum drying took shorter time to dry the product to the required moisture
content than those of LPSSD at every drying condition. The use of a modified Pages
equation could adequately describe the drying behavior for every condition studied (R2
= 0.9334-0.9868). In terms of the quality of the dried product, it was found that the
drying temperature and pressure had almost no effect on both the color and ascorbic
acid retention of products underwent LPSSD while only the drying temperature had a
significantly effect on the color and ascorbic acid retention of products underwent
vacuum drying; except drying under vacuum at 75oC and absolute pressure of 7 kPa,
most samples underwent LPSSD had higher level of ascorbic acid and better color
retention than those underwent vacuum drying. When comparing the products
underwent vacuum drying at 75oC and absolute pressure of 7 kPa it was observed that
the level of ascorbic acid retention was similar to those measured in samples underwent
LPSSD but higher than those measured in samples underwent vacuum drying at other
conditions. The total color difference value of this sample was, however, slightly higher
than those dried by LPSSD. Nevertheless, since the color changes are of no concern to
the consumers, this condition was proposed as the most favorable condition for drying
of Indian gooseberry flake in regard to minimum energy consumption.
Keywords : Ascorbic Acid / Color / Low-pressure Superheated Steam Drying / Pages

Equation / Vacuum Drying
iii
..

.
..
2546
65 75
7 10 13
()

Page
(R2 = 0.9334-0.9868)

iv
( )

75 7
75
: / / / Page /
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This special research would not be successful without contributions, both directly and
indirectly, of many persons. First of all, I would like to express my appreciation to my
advisors, Dr. Naphaporn Chiewchan and Asst. Prof. Dr. Sakamon Devahastin for their
advice and encouragement during the course of this project. I am also grateful to my
committee members, Asst. Prof. Dr. Tipaporn Yoovidhya, Dr. Chairath Tangduangdee
and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Somkiat Prachayawarakorn, for their valuable comments on my
presentation and for giving me suggestions as well.
Special thanks also go to Miss Peamsuk Suvarnakuta for her advice regarding the
operation of the dryer. I also wish to acknowledge the staff of the Food Engineering
Department for their assistance during the course of this study. Finally, I wish to thank
all friends in FEPS program and my family for their assistance and encouragement.
vi
CONTENTS
PAGE
ENGLISH ABSTRACT
ii
THAI ABSTRACT
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONTENTS
vi
LIST OF TABLES
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Scopes
1.4 Expected Benefit
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Indian Gooseberry
2.2 Drying Theory
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
26
3.1 Experimental Set-up
26
3.2 Experimental Design
28
3.3 Materials and Methods
29
vii
3.4 Moisture Content Determination
30
3.5 Total Ascorbic Acid Determination
31
3.6 Color Measurement
33
3.7 Statistical Analysis
33
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
34
4.1 Drying Kinetics of Indian Gooseberry Flake
34
4.2 Quality Degradation of Indian Gooseberry Flake
41
4.3 Empirical Modeling of Drying Process
47
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
49
5.1 Conclusions
49
5.2 Recommendation
50
REFERENCES
51
APPENDIX
59
A Calibration Curve for Total Ascorbic Acid Determination
59
B Experimental Data
61
C Statistical Analysis
80
CURRICULUM VITAE
84
viii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
PAGE
2.1 Nutritional values of Indian gooseberry fruit
3.1 A 3-factor factorial design
28
4.1 Total ascorbic acid content of fresh and dried samples
42
4.2 Hunter parameters and total color difference (E) of sample
45
4.3 Parameters of Pages equation and calculated drying times for various
48
drying methods and conditions

B.1 Data of vacuum drying at 65oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa
62
63
64
65
66
67
B.7 Data of LPSSD at 65oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa
68
70
71
72
B.11 Total ascorbic acid of retention Indian gooseberry flake dried at various
78
methods and conditions

B.12 Hunter parameters (L, a, b) and total color difference (E) of fresh and
79
dried Indian gooseberry flake

C.1 ANOVA for ascorbic acid of Indian gooseberry flake dried at various
81
ix
C.2 Dancan multiple test for ascorbic acid of Indian gooseberry flake dried at
81
various methods and conditions

C.3 ANOVA for total color difference of Indian gooseberry flake dried at
82

C.4 Dancan multiple test for total color difference of Indian gooseberry flake
dried at various methods and conditions
83
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
PAGE
2.1 Typical drying curve and drying rate curve
2.2 Ascorbic acid
18
2.3 Degradation of ascorbic acid
20
2.4 Reaction mechanism of ascorbic acid coupled with DNPH
22
2.5 Diagram of Hunter color system
25
3.1 Schematic diagram of low-pressure superheated steam dryer and
27
associated units
4.1 Drying curves of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing vacuum drying
36
4.2 Drying curves of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing low-pressure
39
superheated steam drying

4.3 Comparison drying curves of Indian gooseberry flake
40
A.1 The relationship between absorbance value at 520 nm and concentration
60
of standard ascorbic acid solution

B.1 Linearized curve of Pages Equation for vacuum drying at 65oC and
73
absolute pressure of 7 kPa

73

74

74
xi
75

75

B.7 Linearized curve of Pages Equation for LPSSD at 65oC and
absolute
76
absolute
76
absolute
77
B.10 Linearized curve of Pages Equation for LPSSD at 75oC and absolute
77
pressure of 7 kPa
pressure of 7 kPa
pressure of 10 kPa
pressure of 13 kPa
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica Linn.) or Ma-khaam Pom in Thai
(Chatchavalchokchai, 1987) is indigenous in tropical Southeast Asia, including
Thailand and is known as a rich source of vitamin C. The fruit is commonly consumed
as a healthy food in both fresh and various preserved forms such as pickles, dried fruits,
and beverage products (Montri, 1998).
Indian gooseberry tea is an alternative product to instant beverage powder and

pasteurized juice. It is usually drunk for thirst-quenching. In Indian gooseberry tea
processing, drying is the main thermal treatment which affects the quality of product
such as its ascorbic acid content and color. This quality loss has an influence on the
consumer satisfaction.
Ascorbic acid is the water-soluble vitamin and sensitive to heat (Erdman and Klein,
1982; Moser and Bendich, 1991). The degradation of ascorbic acid can cause the quality
loss and color formation of product. The color formation can also occurred by other
ways such as browning and pigment degradation. Both of ascorbic acid degradation and
color formation are well appeared in the thermal processing. Therefore, ascorbic acid
content and color are important factors for fruit and vegetable products and are
subjected to appreciable change during the drying process.
Vacuum drying has been applied widely to dry various heat-sensitive products in which
qualities such as color, texture and various vitamins are deteriorated at elevated
temperatures (Drouzas and Schubert, 1996; Markowski and Bialobrzewski, 1997; Jaya
and Das, 2003). Recently, a novel concept of using low-pressure superheated steam
drying has been proposed as an alternative to drying heat-sensitive products (Elustondo
et al., 2001; Devahastin et al., 2004) since it can combine the advantage of drying at
reduced temperature and pressure to those of conventional superheated steam drying
(Mujumdar and Devahastin, 2000). No data are available, either in terms of drying
kinetics and quality of Indian gooseberry undergoing either of these drying techniques,
however.
Due to the above-mentioned arguments, the aim of this work was to study the drying
kinetics as well as the quality loss of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing both vacuum
and low-pressure superheated steam drying at various conditions. The information
obtained could be used to design an appropriate drying process to minimize the quality
degradation of Indian gooseberry tea.
1.2 Objective
To study the effects of drying methods viz. vacuum drying and low-pressure
superheated steam drying and conditions on the drying kinetics and quality degradation
of Indian gooseberry flake.
1.3 Scopes
1. Studying the drying kinetics of Indian gooseberry flake at the drying temperatures
of 65o and 75oC and at absolute pressures ranging from 7-13 kPa using vacuum
drying and low- pressure superheated steam drying methods.
2. Determining the quality of Indian gooseberry flake, in terms of ascorbic acid and
color degradation, undergoing the above-mentioned drying techniques and
conditions.
3. Determining the suitable condition for the drying of Indian gooseberry flake from
both drying kinetics and quality points of view.
1.4 Expected Benefit

The information from this work could be used as a guideline for the design of an Indian
gooseberry tea production process, which yields a high-quality dried product.
CHAPTER 2 THEORY
This chapter provides the theory and literature related with this study. The first part
covers the general information on Indian gooseberry including its nutritional values and
the uses of the fruit. The second part describes the drying theory including the drying
kinetics and the drying methods as well as its effects on quality of the dried product.
2.1 Indian Gooseberry
2.1.1 General Information on Indian Gooseberry

Indian gooseberry or Ma-khaam Pom in Thai is classified as species Phyllanthus
emblica Linn. or Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (Chatchavalchokchai, 1987). It is a native
fruit of tropical South-Eastern Asia, particularly of central and southern India. The tree
is hardy, normally reaching a height of 8-12 meters. The fruit is light green at first and
becomes whitish, greenish-yellow or more rarely, brick-red as it matures. The fruit skin
is thin, translucent and adherent to the very crisp, juicy, concolorous flesh. The fruiting
season become fit for harvesting in December. However, they can be retained on the
tree up to March without any significant loss in quality or yield (Montri, 1998).
2.1.2 Nutritional Values

Indian gooseberry is one of the richest sources of natural ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
(Chatchavalchokchai, 1987; Montri, 1998). The ascorbic acid in the fruit is considered
highly stable, apparently protected by tannins (leucoanthocyanins) which can retard
oxidation reaction. The nutritional values of Indian gooseberry are listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Nutritional values of Indian gooseberry fruit
Ingredient
Value per 100 g of
Ingredient
edible portion
Value per 100 g of

edible portion
Moisture
71.1-81.8 g
Vitamin C
600-625 mg
Protein
0.07-0.75 g
Carotene
0.1 mg
Fat
0.1-0.2 g
Thiamine
0.03 mg
Carbohydrate
13.7-21.8 g
Riboflavin
0.05 mg
Fibre
1.9-3.4 g
Niacin
0.18 mg
Calcium
12.5-50 mg
Tryptophan
3.0 mg
Phosphorus
20-260 mg
Methionine
2.0 mg
Iron
0.48-1.2 mg
Lyisine
17.0 mg
Ash
0.5-2.9 g
Tannin
2.73 g
Source: Chatchavalchokchai (1987)
2.1.3 The Uses of Indian Gooseberry

Indian gooseberry has been used as medicine and food by people in various countries in
Asia (Montri, 1998). In China, the drink prepared from fruit extract is commonly
consumed and wine made from juice fermentation is seen in market. In Indonesia, fresh
fruit is added to import acidity to many dishes and is often used as a substitute for
tamarind. For India, fresh fruit is baked in tarts, added to other foods as seasoning and
the juice is used to flavor vinegar. Both ripe and half-ripe fruits are candied in whole
and also made into jam and other preserves, pickles and relishes. In Thailand, the fruit is
commonly consumed as fresh and in various preserved forms such as pasteurized juice,
beverage powder and dried fruit. It is also consumed as traditional medicine for
expectorant, antipyretic, diuretic, antidiarrhoeal and antiscurvy (Chatchavalchokchai,

1987).
2.2 Drying Theory

Drying is traditionally defined as that unit operation which converts a liquid, solid or
semi-solid feed material into a solid product of significantly lower moisture content. In
most cases, drying involves the application of thermal energy, which causes water to
evaporate into the vapor phase. The requirments of thermal energy, phase change and a
solid final product distinguish this operation from mechanical dewatering, evaporation,
extractive distillation, adsorption and osmotic dewatering.
Drying is a complex process invoving simultaneous coupled, transient heat, mass and
momentum transport. These are often accompanied by chemical or biochemical
reactions and phase transformations, such as glass transition and crystallization, along
with the shrinkage.
Foods are dried commercially, starting either from their natural state (e.g. vegetables,
fruits, milk, spices, grains) or after processing (e.g. instant coffee, whey, soup mixes,
non-dairy creamers). The production of a processed food may sometimes involve drying
at several stages in the operation. In some cases, pre-treatment of the food product may
be necessary prior to drying.
In addition to preserving the product and extending its shelf life, drying may be carried
out to accomplish one or more of the following additional objectives:
-
obtain desired physical form (e.g. powder, flakes, granules);
obtain desired color, flavor or texture;
reduce volume or weight for transportation;
produce new products which would not otherwise be feasible.
In drying heat may be supplied from the drying medium to the drying product by
convection (direct dryers), conduction (contact or indirect dryers) and radiation or
volumetrically by placing the wet material in a microwave or radio frequency
electromagnetic field (Mujumdar and Devahastin, 2000). In some cases, heat transfer
can occur as a result of a combination of these methods, either in parallel or
simultaneously.
2.2.1 Drying Kinetics

Drying kinetics is the description of the changes of moisture content of material during
drying. It can be expressed as a drying curve or drying rate curve which is shown in
Figure 2.1.
Drying curve (Figure 2.1 a) can be obtained experimentally by plotting the free
moisture content versus drying time. This plot can be converted into a drying rate curve
(Figure 2.1 b) by calculating the derivative of the curve over time as shown in Equation
2.1. From these two types of curve it is seen that drying is divided into two distinct
portions. The first is the constant rate period, in which unbound water is removed (line
BC). Water evaporates as if there is no solid present, and its rate of evaporation is not
dependent on the material being dried. In this stage of drying the rate-controlling step is
the diffusion of the water vapor across the air-moisture interface. This period continues
until water from the interior is no longer available at the surface of food material. Point
C distinguishes the constant rate period from the subsequent falling rate period and is
called the critical moisture content. The surface of the solid is no longer wet. The falling
rate period has two sections as is seen in the figure. From C to D, the wet areas on the
surface of the drying material become completely dry. When the surface is dry (point D),
the evaporation front continues moving toward the center of the solid. This is shown by
the curve from D to E. The water that is being removed from the center of the solid
moves to the surfaces as a vapor. Although the amount of water removed in the falling
rate period is relatively small, it can take considerably longer time than in the constant
rate period. The heat transmission now consists of heat transfer to the surface and heat
conduction in the product.
The drying rate in the falling rate period is controlled by diffusion of moisture from the
inside to the surface and then mass transfer from the surface. During this stage some of
the moisture bound by sorption is being removed.
As the moisture concentration is lowered by drying, the rate of internal movement of

moisture decreases. The rate of drying falls even more rapidly than before and continues
to drop until the moisture content falls down to the equilibrium value for the prevailing
air humidity and then drying stops.
Figure 2.1 Typical drying curve and drying rate curve (Okos et al., 1992)
(a) Drying curve (free moisture versus time)
(b) Drying rate curve (drying rate versus free moisture content)
10
For calculation, evaporation rate of moisture and moisture content can be calculated
using Equation 2.1 and 2.2, respectively;
N =
M dX f
M s dX
or s
A dt
A dt
(2.1)
where N is the rate of water evaporation (kg m-2 h-1)
A is the evaporation area (m2)

Ms is the mass of bone-dry solid (kg)
X is the dry-basis moisture content (kg/kg)
Xf is the free moisture content, Xf = X-X* (kg/kg)
X* is the equilibrium moisture content (kg/kg)
t is the drying time (h)
Dry basis moisture content:
% MC =
Wt Wb
100
Wb
(2.2.1)
Wet basis moisture content:
% MC =
Wt Wb
100
Wt
(2.2.2)
where MC is the moisture content (kg/kg)

Wt is the weight of sample at time t (kg)
Wb is the mass of bone-dry solid (kg)
The drying curve may also be plotted between the moisture ratio and drying time.
Moisture ratio is defined as:
MR =
M t M eq
M i M eq
(2.3)
11
where MR is the moisture ratio
Mt is the moisture content at time t (kg/kg)

Meq is the equilibrium moisture content (kg/kg)
Mi is the initial moisture content (kg/kg)
The drying kinetics of materials may be described adequately using both materials and
drying medium properties, and also the knowledge of the interface mass and heat
transfer coefficients (Karathanos and Belessiotis, 1999). However, it is sometimes much
more convenient to use a simple, empirial or semi-empirical model, to describe the
drying kinetics of material. This is espectially the case for foods. In such cases, the
model may consist of a drying constant, which is a combination of both transport
properties and interface transfer coeffiecients. The models are avaliable in many forms
and may be written in a thin-layer form as exemplified in Equation 2.4.
dM t
= K ( M t M eq )
dt
(2.4)
where Mt is the material moisture content at time t (kg/kg)
Meq is the equilibrium moisture content (kg/kg)

t is the time (s)
Equation 2.4 suggests that during the falling rate period of drying of porous hygroscopic
materials, the drying rate is proportional to the instantaneous difference between the
material moisture content and the expected material moisture content when it is in
equilibrium with the drying medium. It is assumed that the material layer is thin enough
and the drying medium velocity is high, so that the conditions of the drying medium
(humidity, temperature) are constant throughout the material.
12
The thin-layer equation (Equation 2.4) describes the drying phenomena in a unified way,
regardless of the controlling mechanism. The thin-layer equation has been used for the
estimation and prediction of drying times for several products and for generalization of
drying curves (Karathanos and Belessiotis, 1999). The drying constant is a suitable
quantity for the purposes of process design, optimization and in cases where a large
number of iterative model calculations are needed. This is due to the fact that the drying
constant embodied all the transport properties into a simple exponential function. The
solution of Equation 2.4 results in:
MR =
M t M eq
M i M eq
= exp( Kt )
(2.5)
where K is the drying constant in 1/s. The limitation of Equation 2.5 in the prediction of
the drying curve has necessitated the introduction of a second drying parameter, the
product constant N.
Equation 2.5 was modified by introducing an empirical parameter N, and the resulting
equation is known as the Modified Pages Equation:
MR =
M t M eq
M i M eq
= exp( Kt N )
(2.6)
The parameter N reflects the degree of non-linearity of the drying curve (Cronin and
Kearney, 1998). The parameters K and N depend on the product type, temperature and
drying conditions. This modified equation can also be presented in a linearized form
(Ramesh and Rao, 1996; Cronin and Kearney, 1998; Karathanos and Belessiotis, 1999)
as:
ln( ln MR) = ln( K ) + N ln(t )
(2.7)
This is of the form y = mx+C, the equation of a straight line. The graph of ln [-ln(MR)]
along the Y axis and ln(t) on the X axis will give the slope N, and Y intercept as ln(K).
13
By knowing the moisture ratios at various intervals of time, K and N values at a

particular temperature can be determined.
In earlier works, Pages equation had been used by many researchers to present thinlayer drying of various food products dried in the falling drying rate period such as
cooked rice (Ramesh and Rao, 1996), carrots (Cronin and Kearney, 1998), currants,
sultanas, figs, and plums (Karathanos and Belessiotis, 1999), mint leaves (Park et al.,
2002), papaya (El-Aouar et al., 2003).
2.2.2 Drying Methods

Drying method is one of the factors affecting the drying kinetics and quality of food
products. Hot air drying is the most common mode of thermal dehydration. However, it
causes the degradation of sensitive components leading to the losses of organoleptic and
other properties of the dried products. Vacuum drying and superheated steam drying,
espectially the one that operates at reduced pressures, are two methods that have proven
to be good means to avoid such problem. The characteristics of these drying techniques
are reviwed briefly as follows.
2.2.2.1 Vacuum Drying
In vacuum drying, the boiling point of water is lowered below 100oC by reducing the
pressure. The degree of vacuum and the temperature for drying depend on the
sensitivity of the material to drying rate and temperatures. At constant temperature and
pressure, the drying time varies; depending on the kind of fruit, initial moisture and size,
but is generally 4 to 16 hours (Brown et al., 1964).
14
However, vacuum drying is one of the most expensive methods of drying. So, they
often serve as a secondary dryer. The moisture content of high moisture food is reduced
to 20-25% by a conventional method, such as hot air drying and then vacuum is applied
to bring the moisture down to 1-3% (Sokhansanj and Jayas, 1995).
Because of reducing pressure, transfer of heat depends on methods other than

convection. Radiation and/or conduction are other modes; however, conduction may not
be efficient because the drying materials shrink, thus reducing the contact area. This
method is not very common in the food industry because its high costs. However, it has
been applied for dehydration of citrus juices, apple flakes, and various heat-sensitive
products in which the ascorbic acid retention is important (Sokhansanj and Jayas, 1995).
Drouzas and Schubert (1996) studied the drying of banana using microwave vacuum
drying at pressures of 15 to 300 mbar and at magnetron level of 150 to 850 W. The
results showed that there is no significant variation was observed as far as the drying
rate under different pressure level is concerned. Moreover, the worth quality (as
examined by taste, aroma, smell and rehydration tests) results were also obtained for
high values of pressure.
Markowski and Bialobrzewski (1997) studied the drying kinetics of celery slice (10 mm
thick, 57 mm diameter) using air drying in vacuum chamber. Experiments were carried
out at temperatures of 25o to 50oC and pressure inside the chamber was maintained at
10+0.2 kPa. The drying rate versus product water content curves showed no constant
drying rate period in all cases. The amount of water absorbed by celery slice previously
dried with a vacuum drier was measured. The samples dried at lower temperature level
15
absorbed more water than those dried at higher temperatures. The results proved that
vacuum drying could be used for preservation of high quality celery slices in terms of
color and flavor.
Jaya and Das (2003) studied the vacuum drying of mango pulp at varying conditions of
pulp thickness (2,3, and 4 mm) and vacuum chamber plate temperature (65o, 70o, and
75oC) was carried out under 30-50 mm of mercury absolute pressure. A model based on
moisture diffusivity was found to give close prediction to moisture content of the pulp
at different times of drying with correlation coefficient varying between 0.98-0.99 for
pure mango pulp and pulp with ingredients. Color change of reconstituted pulp made
from mango powder was found to depend more on pulp thickness than plate
temperature. For getting low color change vacuum drying should be carried at
maximum pulp thickness of 2.6 mm and vacuum chamber plate temperature of 72.3oC.
2.2.2.2 Superheated Steam Drying
Superheated steam drying (SSD) involves the use of superheated steam in a direct
(convective) dryer in place of hot air, combustion, or flue gases as the drying medium to
supply heat for drying and to carry off the evaporated moisture. Any direct or
direct/indirect dryer can be operated as an SSD, in principle (Mujumdar, 1995). It has
long been recognized as a drying method that leads to nonpolluting and safe drying at
low energy consumption. In food industry, the SSD provides many advantages that are
the absense of oxidative reactions (e.g., enzymatic browning, lipid oxidation) due to
lack of oxygen, high drying rates in both constant and falling rate periods, depending on
steam temperature and pressure, and its ability to yield a higher porosity dried product
due to an evolution of steam within the product. Moreover, SSD strips more of the acids
16
that contribute to an undersirable taste or aroma of the products (Devahastin et al.,

2004).
However, for drying operation, the product temperature necessarily exceeds the
saturated temperature of steam at the corresponding operation pressure. For products
that may undergo undesirable physical transformations such as melting or chemical
transformations such as hydrolysis at elevated temperature, a low pressure operation is
desirable (Mujumdar and Devashastin, 2000). Lowering the dryer operating pressure is
a feasible option that not only preserves the quality of dried product, but may also
enhance the drying rates as well (Devahastin et al., 2004).
Elustondo et al. (2001) studied sub-atmospheric pressure superheated steam drying of

foodstuffs both experimentally and theoretically. Wood slabs, shrimps, bananas, apples,
potatoes and cassava slices were dried using the steam pressures of 10,000-20,000 Pa,
the steam temperatures of 60o-90oC and the steam circulating velocities of 2-6 m/s. A
semi-empirical mathematical model was also developed based on a theoretical drying
mechanism, which assumed that the water removal was carried out by evaporation in a
moving boundary allowing the vapor to flow through the dry layer built as drying
proceeded to predict the drying characteristics of foodstuffs undergoing this drying
operation. A simplified expression, which has two experimentally determined
parameters, was derived and used to predicte the drying rate of tested samples. A model
proposed was found to predict the drying kinetics resonably well. No mention about the
dried product quality is given, however.
17
Devahastin, et al. (2004) used carrot cubes as a model heat-sensitive material,

experimental investigations were conducted to examine the drying kinetics and various
quality parameters of the dried product undergoing both low-pressure superheated steam
and vacuum drying. Effects of operating parameters such as pressure (absolute of 7-10
kPa) and temperature (60o-80oC) on the drying characteristics as well as quality
attributes, i.e., volume, shrinkage, apparent density, color and rehydration behavior, of
the dried product underwent the two drying processes were also evaluated and
compared. Although low-pressure steam drying required longer dwell time to achieve
the same final moisture content than vacuum drying, some of the quality attributes were
superior to those obtained in vacuum drying.
2.2.3 Effect of Drying on Quality of Food Products

Drying, the added heat and exposure times of the product at elevated temperatures affect
three quality degradations of the food products (Sokhansanj and Jayas, 1995). These
three qualities are in terms of chemical quality such as browning reaction, lipid
oxidation, and color loss; physical quality such as rehydration, solubility, and texture;
and nutritional quality such as vitamin loss, protein loss and microbial survival. In this
study, however, only ascorbic acid degradation and color change of the product as
affected by the drying processes are considered. The details of the effect of drying on
ascorbic acid and color deterioration of food are described in the following sub-sections.
2.2.3.1 Ascorbic Acid
Ascorbic acid or vitamin C is the water-soluble vitamin and sensitive to heat (Erdman
and Klein, 1982; Moser and Bendich, 1991). The structure of ascorbic acid is given in
Figure 2.2. Vitamin C is available in a wide variety of natural products but is present in
18
significant quantities in vegetables and fruits. Plants rapidly synthesize L-ascorbic acid
from carbohydrates and the variations occur in its content due to the different species of
plants, ripeness, place of origin, storage conditions and handling (Ottaway, 1993).
As ascorbic acid is susceptible to heat, it is difficult to retain it during the dehydration of

foods (Erdman and Klein, 1982). The loss of ascorbic acid is dependent on many factors
including the presence and type of heavy metals, such as copper and iron, light, pH,
water activity level in the product, dissolved oxygen, and the drying temperature
(Villota and Hawkes, 1992; Ottaway, 1993).
Figure 2.2 Ascorbic acid
(Moser and Bendich, 1991)
The relevant factors that affect the degradation of ascorbic acid involved with the
present study are pH, O2 and drying temperature as well drying time. The amount of O2
and drying temperature and time varied with the drying condition while the pH value
varied with the sample itself. The effects of O2, temperature and pH on the degradation
of ascorbic acid are described as follows.
The degradation of ascorbic acid affected by oxygen is divided into 2 mechanisms,

which are aerobic and anaerobic destructions (Erdman and Klein, 1982; Wedzicha,
19
1984; Villota and Hawkes, 1992; Lee and Nagy, 1996). An anaerobic destruction of
ascorbic acid is generally believed to proceed at a slower rate than an aerobic
degradation, probably only one-tenth or one-thousandth of aerobic degradation rates
(Lee and Nagy, 1996). The aerobic oxidation of ascorbic acid occurs rapidly when
metal catalysts, particularly copper or iron, or enzymes such as ascorbic acid oxidase,
polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase and cytochrome oxidase are present. An anaerobic
destruction of ascorbic acid may proceed by a variety of mechanisms that have been
postulated but not verified (Erdman and Klein, 1982). The overall schematic diagram
of ascorbic acid destruction of both mechanisms is shown in Figure 2.3.
Under an aerobic condition, L-ascorbic acid in foods is easily oxidized to form dehydroL-ascorbic acid; both forms are likely to be present in equilibrium in foods (Ottaway,
1993). The vitamin C activity of L-ascorbic acid and its oxidized form, dehydroascorbic
acid, is the same. In fresh foods the reduced form is the major one present, but cooking,
processing and storage increase the proportions of the oxidized form.
From Figure 2.3, it can be seen that dehydroascorbic acid can be reduced to L-ascorbic
acid by chemical agents such as hydrogen sulfide or enzymatically by dehydroascorbic
acid reductase. The conversion of dehydroascorbic acid to diketogluonic acid is
irreversible and occurs both aerobically and anaerobically, particularly during heating.
The oxidation of reduced ascorbic acid may result in the formation of furfural, which is
reactive aldehyde, by decarboxylation and dehydration. When furfural passes through
polymerization, the formations of dark-colored pigments are resulted. These darkcolored compounds affect the color and flavor of certain foods, such as citrus juices, and
decrease their nutritive values.
20
L-ascorbic acid
+2H+
Anaerobic
Delactonization
-2H+
Aerobic
Dehydroascorbic acid
H2O
2,3- Diketogluonic acid

-H2O
CO2
Deoxypentosone
CO2
Xylosone
Furfural
+ Amino acids
Brown pigments
Reductones
Figure 2.3 Degradation of ascorbic acid
(Erdman and Klein, 1982)
The effects of both drying temperature and time on ascorbic acid degradation can be
presented as in terms of the thermal resistance (D121), which is time at 121oC to decrease
concentration of ascorbic acid by 90%. The D121 of ascorbic acid is around 100 minutes
depending on aw, pH, and other factors (Erdman and Klein, 1982). However, Maroulis
and Saravacos (2003) reported that D121 and z value (thermal resistance factor) which is
the temperature rise required to reduce the decimal reduction time by 90% (one log
cycle) is 931 minutes and 17.8oC, respectively.
21
Erdman and Klein (1982) reported that drying of carrot and tomato slices at 47oC for
16-24 hours in a forced-draft oven to a water activity of 0.33 resulted in no loss of the
total ascorbic acid for carrot and less than 20% loss for tomato.
Zanoni et al. (1999) studied the drying of tomato halves at temperatures of 80oC and
110oC in a cabinet air dryer. Their results showed that drying treatment at 110oC for 350
minutes could reduce ascorbic acid by 100%. For drying at 80oC, the retention of
ascorbic acid was 10% at drying time of 420 minutes.
For the effect of pH, the rate of ascorbic acid degradation in aqueous solutions is pH
dependent with the maximum rate at about pH 4. Moura et al. (1994) determined the
optimum pH value for ascorbic acid degradation which has to maintain prior to spraydrying. The sample used in the study was pure water solution containing ascorbic acid
for which its pH was adjusted to be in the range of 2.5-5.0 using 37% HCl. The
degradation was determined at 20oC+0.5oC. It was found that the rate of ascorbic acid
oxidation was pH dependent, showing a maximum at pH 5.0 and minimum at a pH
range of 2.5 to 3.0.
For the determination of ascorbic acid in foods, the technique is based on the ability of
the acid to be oxidized or to act as a reducing agent. Roe and Kuether (1943) suggested
the determination of vitamin C on the basis of coupling of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine
(DNPH) with the ketonic groups of dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA) and diketogulonic
acid (DKGA). This technique has previously used to determine total ascorbic acid in
various food materials (Damrongnukool, 2000). In most plant foods, the predominant
form of ascorbic acid is the reduced compound. However, during thermal processing or
22
storage, the amount of DHAA increases substantially as percent of total ascorbic acid
(TAA). Therefore, the measurement of DHAA should not be neglected (Erdman and
Klein, 1982). Moreover, this technique can prevent interference from reducing agents,
such as sulfhydryl compounds, reductones, tannins, betanin and reduced metals (Fe, Sn,
and Cu), which are often present in foods. Damrongnukool (2000) proved that the
determination of total ascorbic acid in fruit juices using DNPH gave high asccuracy and
precision results.
The schematic diagram of the determination of total ascorbic acid is shown in Figure
2.4. Ascorbic acid is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid and diketogulonic acid which
then reacted with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH). The osazone formed is extracted
in sulfuric acid yielding a red solution whose intensity is proportional to the total
ascorbic acid concentration.
Figure 2.4 Reaction mechanism of ascorbic acid coupled with DNPH
(Damrongnukool, 2000)
23
2.2.3.2 Color
Color is an important quality attribute of foods to most consumers. It is an index of the

inherent good quality of foods and the association of color with the acceptability of food
is universal. One color-related problem that is always encountered during dehydration
and long-term storage of dehydrated fruits and vegetables is the discoloration due to
browning. Browning in foods is of two types: enzymatic and nonenzymatic. For
enzymatic browning in fruits and vegetables, enzyme polyphenoloxidase (PPO) can be
inactivated at temperatures above 60oC. Moreover, in citrus fruits the ascorbic acid and
its isomers and derivatives act as inhibitors of enzymatic browning (Roig et al., 1999).
Wakayama (1995) studied the effect of temperature on PPO activity in Japanese apple.
It was found that for Fuji apple, the relative PPO activity decreased from 49% to 13% as
the temperatures increased from 50oC to 60oC and the enzyme was reduced to an
undetectable level at temperature above 70oC.
Nonenzymatic browning consists of three types, also known as Maillard reaction,

caramelization and ascorbic acid degradation. It has been reported that Maillard
condensation and oxidation of ascorbic acid are the causes of browning in fruits and
their derivatives (Barreiro et al. 1997; Lozano and Ibarz, 1997; Maskan, 2001).
Ascorbic acid browning is the spontaneous thermal decomposition of ascorbic acid
under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions and either in the presence or absence of
amino-compound (Wedzicha, 1984).
24
Maillard reaction is often the limiting factor in dehydration of foods particular of those
with intermediate moisture contents. The Maillard reaction occurs when foods are
heated-treated. Parameters affecting the Maillard reaction are primarily temperature and
duration of the heat treatment (Chua et al., 2002).
Other than browning, many reactions can affect color during thermal processing of
fruits and their derivatives. Among them, the most common are pigment degradation,
especially carotenoids and chlorophyll (Barreiro et al. 1997; Lozano and Ibarz, 1997;
Maskan, 2001, Maskan et al., 2002). Other factors affecting color include fruit pH,
acidity, processing temperature and duration, fruit cultivar and heavy metal
contamination (Maskan, 2001).
The color measurement is normally done in an indirect way to estimate the color
changes of foods since it is simpler and faster than the chemical analysis (Maskan, 2001;
Maskan et al., 2002). Hunter Lab system is one type of measuring color systems. It has
proven valuable in describing visual color deterioration and providing useful
information for quality control in various fruits and vegetables during drying such as
tomato (Zanoni et al., 1999), kiwifriut (Maskan, 2001), banana and guava (Chua et al.,
2002) and mango pulp (Jaya and Das, 2003). The color parameters are expressed as L
(whiteness or brightness/darkness), a (redness/greenness) and b (yellowness/blueness).
The color diagram of Hunter color system is shown in Figure 2.5.
There are other parameters derived from Hunter L-, a-, b- scale viz. the total color
difference (E) which is the saturation index or chroma that indicates color saturation
25
and is proportional to its intensity. It is a combination of parameters L-, a-, b-values as

shown in Equation 2.8.
Figure 2.5 Diagram of Hunter color system
(MacDougall, 2001)
E = [(L) 2 + (a) 2 + (b) 2 ]1 / 2
where E is the saturation index or chroma
L is the difference of lightness (L-Lo)

a is the difference of redness (a-ao)
b is the difference of yellowness (b-bo)
(2.8)
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
This chapter explains the experimental set-up including the steps of experiment
performed in this study. The experimental design and the statistical analysis are also
explained as well as the procedure of quality determination.
3.1 Experimental Set-up

A schematic diagram of the low-pressure superheated steam dryer and its accessories is
shown in Figure 3.1. The dryer consists of a stainless steel drying chamber, insulated
carefully with rock wool, with an inner dimension of 45 45 45 cm3; a steam reservoir,
which received the steam from the boiler and maintained its pressure at around 200 kPa
(gage); and a liquid ring vacuum pump (Nash, model ET32030, Germany), which was
used to maintain the vacuum in the drying chamber. Steam trap was installed to reduce
the excess steam condensation in the reservoir. An electric heater, rated at 1.5 kW,
which was controlled by a PID controller (Omron, model E5CN, Japan) was installed in
the drying chamber to control the steam temperature and to minimize the condensation
of steam in the drying chamber during the start-up period was reduced considerably. A
variable-speed electric fan was used to disperse steam throughout the drying chamber.
The steam inlet was made into a cone shape and was covered with a screen to also help
distribution of the steam in the chamber. The sample holder was made of a stainless
steel screen with dimensions of 12 12 cm3. The change of the weight of the sample
was detected continuously (at 30 seconds intervals) using a load cell (Minebea, model
Ucg-3 kg, Japan), which was installed in a smaller chamber connected to the drying
chamber by a flexible hose (in order to maintain the same vacuum pressure as that in the
drying chamber), and also to an indirector and recorder (AND A&D Co., model AD
27
4329, Japan). The temperatures of the steam and of the drying sample were also
measured continuously using type K thermocouples, which were connected to an
expand board (Omega Engineering, model no. EXP-32, USA). Thermocouple signals
were then multiplexed to a data acquisition card (Omega Engineering, model no. CIODAS16Jr., USA) installed in a PC. LABTECH NOTEBOOK software (version 12.1,
Laboratory Technologies Corp., USA) was then used to read and record the temperature
data.
12
4
TEMP
13
6
9
8
14
12
10
11
17
5
16
15
Legend
1, boiler; 2, steam valve; 3, steam reservoir; 4, pressure gauge; 5, steam trap; 6, steam
regulator; 7, drying chamber; 8, steam inlet and distributor; 9, electric fan; 10, sample
holder; 11, electric heater; 12, on-line temperature sensor and logger; 13, vacuum breakup valve; 14, insulator; 15, on-line weight indicator and logger; 16, vacuum pump; 17,
PC with installed data acquisition card
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of low-pressure superheated steam dryer and associated
units
28
3.2 Experimental Design

The effects of three factors, drying method, temperature and pressure of drying, on
drying kinetics and quality degradation of Indian gooseberry flake were investigated in
this study. The hypothesis of this work were 1) drying method had an effect on drying
kinetics and quality degradation of Indian gooseberry flake and 2) Temperature and/or
pressure had an effect on drying kinetics and quality degradation of Indian gooseberry
flake.
The experiments were conducted for 2 types of drying method, which are
vacuum and low-pressure superheated steam drying (LPSSD). The drying conditions
were experimented at 2 levels of temperatures, i.e. 65 and 75oC and 3 levels of absolute
pressures, i.e. 7, 10 and 13 kPa.
The overall of experiment was divided into 2 parts. The first part was to study the
effects of drying methods and conditions on drying kinetics of Indian gooseberry flake
to determine the drying time for reducing of moisture content of Indian gooseberry flake
to 7.5% dry basis. The second part was to study the effects of drying methods and
conditions on quality degradation of dried Indian gooseberry flake which had moisture
content of 7.5% dry basis.
Table 3.1 A 3-factor factorial design

Absolute pressure (kPa)
Temp.
Vacuum drying
LPSSD
(oC)
10
13
10
13
65
y1111, y1112
y1121, y1122
y1131, y1132
y2111, y2112
y2121, y2122
y2131, y2132
75
y1211, y1212
y1221, y1222
y1231, y1232
y2211, y2212
y2221, y2222
y2231, y2232
29
A 3- factor factorial design was used in scheduling of the experiments with two
replicates in each case as shown in Table 3.1. The level of significance was determined
at confident level of 95%.
3.3 Materials and Methods

Fresh Indian gooseberry fruits were purchased from a local market and stored in
refrigerator at 5oC. After rinsing the fruits by tap water and dewatered by a cloth, the
seeds were then removed using a stainless steel knife. The flesh was cut into small
pieces and blended using blender (Moulinex, AS184, Germany) for 1 minute. After that
40 grams of the prepared sample were spread in perforated tray (9.5 X 9.5 cm.) which
was made from aluminum foil. After that the tray containing flake samples were dried
by vacuum and low-pressure superheated steam drying at temperatures of 65 and 75oC
and absolute pressures of 7, 10 and 13 kPa. During drying, weight of samples was
recorded every 10 min. The drying was operated until the weight of samples reached
equilibrium. Then the samples were dried in hot air oven (Memmert, model ULM 600
II, Germany) at 105oC until the weights, which was measured by digital balance
(Sartorious, model RC 250S, Germany), were constant in order to obtain dry masses.
The modified Pages equation was used to fit the experimental data to calculate drying
time for reducing the moisture content of Indian gooseberry flake to 7.5% dry basis.
After that the new sets of prepared samples, which had pH value (measured by pH
meter, Tv Rheinland, type CG 841, West Germany) in the ranges of 2.2-2.7, were
dried at the same conditions as drying kinetics study until moisture content reach 7.5%
using time obtained from modified Pages equation. This final moisture content was
selected since it is the maximum final moisture content of black tea (TISI, 1983).
30
Moisture content (AOAC, 1990), ascorbic acid and color of fresh and dried Indian
gooseberry flake were measured All experiments were performed in duplicate.
3.4 Moisture Content Determination

Procedure
Moisture can was cleaned and dried in hot air oven (Memmert, model ULM 600 II,
Germany) for 2 h, then cooled in desiccator and recorded the weight which was
measured by digital balance (Sartorious, model RC 250S, Germany). The Indian
gooseberry samples were weight for 2 grams into the moisture can and dried in hot air
oven at 105oC for overnight until the weight was constant. The moisture can containing
sample was cooled in desiccator. After that the weight of can and sample was
determined. Weight of dried sample was then calculated to determine its moisture
content.
Calculation
The percentage of moisture content is calculated as follows:
% Moisture content =
w 2 w3
*100
w2 w1
Where w1 is initial weight of moisture can (g)

w2 is weight of moisture can containing sample before drying (g)
w3 is weigh of moisture can containing sample after drying (g)
(3.1)
31
3.5 Total Ascorbic Acid Determination

Procedure
1. Extraction
Two grams of fresh Indian gooseberry flake was added to 50 g of 10% metaphosphoric
acid (HPO3) (AR Grade, Carlo Erba, Italy). Then the slurry was blended using blender
(Moulinex, AS184, Germany) for 2-3 minutes. The 20 grams of the slurry was diluted
with mixed acid (5% metaphosphoric acid + 10% acetic acid (CH3COOH,) (AR Grade,
J.T.Baker, USA)) to 100 ml in volumetric flask. After that the diluted slurry was filtered
by buchner funnel and Whatman filter paper no.42.
2. Oxidation to dehydroascorbic acid

50 ml of aliquots of the filtrates were shaken with 1 gram of acid-washed charcoal (C)
(AR Grade, Carlo Erba, Italy) and filtered by buchner funnel and vacuum pump
(M104X, USA). 20 ml of the filtered solution was pipette into 50 ml volumetric flask
which contained 20 ml of 2% of thiourea (NH2CSNH2) (AR Grade, Carlo Erba, Italy).
The mixers were then shaken and diluted with 5% metaphosphoric acid to make 50 ml
of solution in volumetric flask.
3. Formation of osazone
Each 4 ml of solution from previous was pipette into 4 test tubes. The first tube was
considered as a blank. Three other tubes were added with 1 ml of 2% 2,4dinitrophenylhydrazine or DNPH ((NO2)2C6H3NHNH2) (AR Grade, Carlo Erba, Italy).
Then all of test tubes were soaked in water bath (Heto-Holten A/S, model DK-3450,
Denmark) at 37oC for 3 hours.
32
4. Formation of soluble pigment (osazone)

Every test tube obtained from previous was soaked in ice bath and slowly added drop by
drop with 85% of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) (AR Grade, Merck, Germany) using dropper.
Then 1 ml of 2% DNPH was added to the blank tube while it was soaked in an ice bath.
All test tubes were shaken and kept at room temperature for 30 minutes. The absorbance
of the resulting red solution was measured at 520 nm by a spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu, UV-2101 PC, Japan). Each sample was measured 2 replicates and the data
were presented in an average.
Calculation
The total ascorbic acid (TAA) in Indian gooseberry flake is calculated as follows;
W =
Weight fraction of ascorbic acid;
w1 * w3
250 * ( w1 + w 2 )
g/ml
Where w1 is weight of sample (g)

w2 is weight of 10% HPO3 solution (g)
w3 is weight of slurry (g)
Ascorbic acid read from standard curve
g/ml
Ascorbic acid per ml of each solution of sample
Total ascorbic acid of 100 g sample =
X
10W
mg
(3.2)
The percentage retention of total ascorbic acid (TAA) is calculated as following

equation (Ramesh et al., 2001);
33
%Retention = (Wt. of sample after dried)(Conc. of TAA in the sample after dried) *100
(Wt. of sample before dried)(Conc. of TAA in the sample before dried)
(3.3)
3.6 Color Measurement

Color changes of fresh and dried Indian gooseberry flake were analyzed by measuring
the reflectance using a colorimeter (JUKI, model JP7100, Japan). 2o North skylight was
used as the light source. The colorimeter was calibrated against standard white plate for
powder (L= 91.78, a = -0.28, b= 0.07) before the sample measurement. A glass cylinder
containing fresh/dried Indian gooseberry flake was placed above the light source and
covered
with
lid.
Three
Hunter
parameters,
namely
(lightness),
(redness/greenness), and b (yellowness/blueness) were measured. Each sample was

measured 2 replicates and the data were presented in an average.
3.7 Statistical Analysis

The designed experiment was completely random. The data was analyzed and presented
as mean values with standard deviations. Differences between means value were
established using Duncans multiple range test. Values were considered at 95%
significant ( <0.05) and a statistical program SPSS was used to perform the
calculation.
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presents the results and discussion of the study of drying kinetics and
quality degradation of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing various drying methods and
conditions. The quality degradation was reported in terms of the color changes and the
ascorbic acid degradation.
4.1 Drying Kinetics of Indian Gooseberry Flake

Fresh Indian gooseberry flake with an initial moisture content in the range of 380 to 470
% dry basis (80 to 82.5 % wet basis) was dried until its equilibrium moisture content
was reached in both a low-pressure superheated steam dryer (LPSSD) and a vacuum
dryer. The drying curves of Indian gooseberry flake dried at various conditions and the
data fitted according to the well-known Pages equation are shown in Figures 4.1 to 4.3.
Generally, drying at higher temperature gives shorter time to reach the equilibrium
moisture content than drying at lower temperatures. Figure 4.1 shows the drying curves
of Indian gooseberry dried by vacuum drying. The dehydration times for reaching the
equilibrium moisture content (4.2-5.7% dry basis) were approximately 200, 210 and 230
minutes when using the drying temperature of 65oC at absolute pressures of 7, 10 and
13 kPa, respectively. For drying at 75oC at the same levels of absolute pressure, the
drying times to reach the equilibrium moisture content (2.4-3.8% dry basis) were
reduced about roughly 20%, namely, 160, 170 and 190 minutes, respectively. This is
due to the fact that drying at higher temperature implies a larger driving force for heat
transfer, which is, in this case, the temperature difference between the drying medium
and the temperature close to the wet-bulb temperature since the chamber was not at lowenough pressure and the effect of convection (due to the fan) was still significantly
35
present. In addition, higher drying temperature leads to the higher values of moisture
diffusivity. It has also been reported by Prabhanjan et al. (1995) that the higher drying
temperatures provided a larger water vapor pressure deficit or the difference between
the saturated water vapor pressure and partial pressure of water vapor in air at a given
temperature, which is one of the driving forces for drying. Similar behavior was
observed by Jaya and Das (2003).
It can be seen also in Figures 4.1 a and 4.1 b that higher rates of drying were obtained
when the absolute pressure of the dryer was decreased. This is because decreasing of
absolute pressure results in a lower boiling point of water. The decrease of a boiling
point of water resulted in an increase of the driving force for the outward moisture
diffusion process. Hence, escaping of moisture molecules from the drying product
became easier and faster.
36
1.2
Moisture ratio
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time (min)
1.2
Moisture ratio
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time (min)
Figure 4.1 Drying curves of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing vacuum drying at
temperatures:
(a) 65oC, absolute pressures 7 kPa ( ), 10 kPa (+) and 13 kPa ()
(b) 75oC, absolute pressures 7 kPa ( ), 10 kPa () and 13 kPa ()
Solid line () represents curve fitting using modified Pages equation
37
Figure 4.2 shows the drying behavior of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing lowpressure superheated steam drying (LPSSD) at similar conditions to the vacuum drying.
Since the preliminary results demonstrated that after drying the samples for more than 8
hours, the equilibrium moisture content could not be obtained when drying at 65oC and
absolute pressures of 10 and 13 kPa. Therefore, for drying at 65oC the experiments were
conducted only at the absolute pressure of 7 kPa.
It can be seen from this figure that during the first few minutes of superheated steam
drying, there was an increase in moisture content of the sample due to the steam
condensation on its surface. The occurrence of condensed water could be explained by
the gas law that the pressure is proportional to the temperature of the gas (Mujumdar
and Menon, 1995). In the warming up period, when the saturated steam that was fed to
the drying chamber flashed due to the low pressure environment in drying chamber, the
corresponding temperature of saturated steam was reduced to lower than 100oC. If the
temperature of the drying chamber (and of the product) was lower than that of steam,
the water condensed. Moreover, it could be seen that the initial gain in moisture content
varied with the drying temperature and pressure; the samples could gain more moisture
at lower drying temperature and higher absolute pressure. This is due to the fact that
increasing of the drying temperature could accelerate the rising of temperature in the
drying chamber. Therefore, the steam was accelerated to obtain the superheated state
faster than at lower drying temperatures. Such results are similar to the works reported
by Tang and Cenkowski (2000) and Devahastin et al. (2004). For the effect of pressure
on initial steam condensation, it is expected that at lower operating pressure, the
saturated steam would flash into the superheated steam of higher degree of superheated.
The amount of initial steam condensation is therefore minimized.
38
Similar to drying in the vacuum system, the times needed to reach the equilibrium
moisture contents of Indian gooseberry flake dried at 65oC were longer than those at
75oC and lowering the absolute pressure could reduce the moisture faster than doing so
at higher absolute pressures. An increase of the absolute pressure causes the saturation
temperature to increase and hence reduces the driving force for heat transfer and hence
the reduced drying rates (Urbaniec and Malczewski, 1997). From the experimental data,
the time taken for the sample to reach the moisture content of 6.4% dry basis was
approximately 400 minutes at 65oC and at an absolute pressure of 7 kPa. For drying at
75oC and absolute pressures of 7, 10 and 13 kPa, it took approximately 290, 330 and
370 minutes, respectively to obtain the equilibrium moisture contents in the range of 4.4
to 6.1% dry basis. Increasing the temperature from 65o to 75oC at an absolute pressure
of 7 kPa decreased the dehydration time by approximately 27.5%.
Figure 4.3 compares the drying characteristics of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing
vacuum drying and LPSSD at various conditions. It was found that after the
condensation stage, the drying curves of LPSSD were very similar to those of vacuum
drying. However, the longer drying times were observed for the samples undergoing
LPSSD. This is due to the existence of the condensation period and the lower
evaporation rate of LPSSD than that of vacuum drying at these conditions.
As seen in Figure 4.3 (b), it was found that the impact of the operating pressure on the
rate of moisture reduction was more pronounced in the case of LPSSD than in the case
of vacuum drying.
39
1.2
Moisture ratio
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Time (min)
1.2
Moisture ratio
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Time (min)
Figure 4.2 Drying curves of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing low-pressure

superheated steam drying at temperatures:
(a) 65oC, absolute pressures 7 kPa ()
(b) 75oC , absolute pressures 7 kPa ( ), 10 kPa (), and 13 kPa ()
40
1.2
Moisture ratio
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Time (min)
1.2
Moisture ratio
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Time (min)
Figure 4.3 Comparison drying curves of Indian gooseberry flake at temperatures:

(a) 65oC, absolute pressures of 7 kPa ( ), 10 kPa (+), 13 kPa () for vacuum
drying and 7 kPa () for LPSSD
(b) 75oC, absolute pressures of 7 kPa ( ), 10 kPa () and 13 kPa () for
vacuum drying and 7 kPa ( ), 10 kPa (), and 13 kPa () for LPSSD
41
4.2 Empirical Modeling of Drying Process

To describe the drying behavior of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing both types of
drying processes as well known Pages equation (Equation 4.1) was used:
MR =
M t M eq
M i M eq
= exp( Kt N )
(4.1)
Table 4.1 lists the drying constants obtained by application of modified Pages equation
to the experimental data. A good agreement was found between the experimental and
fitted values with the R2 values of 0.9334-0.9862. The values of K, representing the
transport properties of sample undergoing vacuum drying and LPSSD, were in the
ranges of 2.4010-3 to 5.0210-3 min-1 and 1.3010-3 to 1.8910-3 min-1, respectively. It
can be seen that K values for vacuum drying were higher than LPSSD. This is because
the moisture reduction rate of superheated steam drying was lower than that of vacuum
drying at the conditions tested in this work.
Considering the two drying processes at the same temperature, parameter K of both
LPSSD and vacuum drying decreased as the absolute pressure increased. This is due to
the fact that lower absolute pressure gives lower boiling point of water. Thus, the
evaporation of water from the sample was enhanced. At the same pressure, parameter K
increased as temperature increased because an increase of the drying temperature
increased the driving force of heat and mass transfer (through an increase of the value of
moisture diffusivity).
42
Table 4.1 Parameters of Pages equation and calculated drying times for various drying

Drying
method
VD1
Condition
T (oC)
65
75
LPSSD2
65
75
Pab (kPa)
7
10
13
7
10
13
7
10
13
7
10
13
Modified Page's parameter

K (10-3 min-1)
2.86
2.40
2.29
5.02
4.24
3.33
1.30
1.89
1.59
1.45
N
1.40
1.41
1.37
1.32
1.36
1.38
1.33
1.35
1.35
1.34
VD stands for vacuum drying
LPSSD stands for low-pressure superheated steam drying
R2
0.9862
0.9593
0.9806
0.9804
0.9334
0.9868
0.9507
0.9618
0.9799
0.9687
Drying time
(7.5% d.b.)
(min)
170
190
200
145
150
160
400
280
320
370
For parameter N, the degree of non-linearity of the drying curve (Cronin and Kearney,
1998) which can be defined as a product constant, it varied from 1.32 to 1.41 for
vacuum drying and 1.33 to 1.35 for LPSSD. From Table 4.1, it is seen that the N value
did not possess a clear trend. The results for parameters K and N were similar as those
found by Karathanos and Belessiotis (1999), Park et al. (2002) and El-Aouar et al.
(2003).
4.3 Quality Degradation of Indian Gooseberry Flake

The fresh Indian gooseberry flake which had pH in the range of 2.2 to 2.7 and initial
moisture contents in the range of 410 to 480 % dry basis were dried using two different
drying methods at various conditions to obtain the final moisture contents in the range
43
of 7.1 to 7.5% dry basis. This final moisture content was lower than the maximum
allowable moisture content of black tea which is 7.5% dry basis (TISI, 1983). The
quality of dried product in terms of ascorbic acid content and color was then
determined.
Table 4.2 shows the total ascorbic acid content in fresh and dried Indian gooseberry
flake samples. The average initial ascorbic acid content was about 1.04 g/100 g sample.
The change of ascorbic acid was expressed as percentage of retention. All dried Indian
gooseberry flake tended to lose some ascorbic acid as compared to the fresh one. The
ascorbic acid retentions were in the ranges of 64 to 94% for vacuum drying and 93 to
96% for LPSSD. For vacuum drying, it was found that the ascorbic acid retention of the
sample increased as the drying temperature increased. This may be due to the shorter
drying time required to dry the samples to the desired moisture content (Jayaraman and
Gupta, 1995; Maharaj and Sankat, 1996). However, the pressure had only a little effect
on the ascorbic acid retention. This may be explained by the fact that the drying times
were not much affected by the operating pressure and that the level of oxygen content
(which caused the aerobic degradation of vitamin C) was not much different at different
pressures.
For LPSSD, the ascorbic acid retention was not significantly different at different
drying conditions even though the drying times were different. The results implied that
a very low amount of oxygen was available in the drying system and thus presented no
effect on the ascorbic acid degradation during drying.
44
Table 4.2 Total ascorbic acid content of fresh and dried samplesa
Drying
method
1
VD
Condition
%Retention
T ( C)
Pab (kPa)
Fresh
Dried
65
1.08+0.07
3.67+0.13
71.52ab+1.97
10
1.06+0.09
3.50+0.25
66.89a+2.51
13
0.94+0.05
3.07+0.30
64.84a+6.01
0.96+0.02
3.84+0.18
94.46cd+2.57
10
0.99+0.02
3.72+0.11
89.46c+2.78
13
0.98+0.11
3.34+0.03
78.13b+2.83
65
7
10
13
1.05+0.06
-
3.99+0.22
-
93.46cd+1.58
-
75
1.06+0.04
4.04+0.08
95.35d+3.49
10
1.09+0.08
4.03+0.11
95.67d+2.10
75
LPSSD2
Ascorbic acid (g/100g)
13
1.04+0.08
3.99+0.11
94.96cd+2.14
Mean +S.D. (n=2). Means in the same column having a same letter are not
significantly different ( < 0.05).
1
2

Generally, an increasing level of ascorbic acid degradation is resulted from slower

drying methods (Nindo et al., 2003). From part the kinetics results, it was found that
drying by LPSSD took longer time than by vacuum drying at the same drying
conditions. However, Table 4.2 shows that LPSSD could preserve ascorbic acid better
than vacuum drying. This is because the level of ascorbic acid oxidation in the vacuum
drying system was higher than in LPSSSD due to the higher level of oxygen in the
system. The ability of the superheated steam drying system has, in fact, been reported
earlier by other investigators (e.g., Moreira, 2001)
45
For the statistical analysis of the results, drying in LPSSD at every condition and drying
in the vacuum drying system at 75oC, and absolute pressures of 7 and 10 kPa gave
insignificantly different level of ascorbic acid retention. Among these drying methods
and conditions, vacuum drying at 75oC and absolute pressure of 7 kPa was the best
because it gave the highest level of ascorbic acid retention and consumed shortest
drying time.
Effects of drying methods and conditions on the color of the sample were also
determined. Table 4.3 shows the Hunter parameters (L, a, b) and the total color
difference (UE) of Indian gooseberry flake. It was found that LPSSD and vacuum
drying at every condition resulted in a decrease of an L value and an increase of an a
value of dried sample compared with the fresh one. However, b value of the dried
sample was similar to that of fresh sample. These results implied that the browning
reaction and pigment destruction occurred in the dried sample (Maskan, 2001; Maskan
et al., 2002). However, the overview of color changes of sample could be observed from
the UE value.
In the vacuum drying system, drying at 65oC and an absolute pressure of 7 kPa could
preserve the color of the sample better than at other conditions. This is due to the fact
that the main cause of color changes in vacuum drying was chlorophyll degradation and
nonenzymatic browning reaction, which was the Maillard reaction and ascorbic acid
oxidation since oxygen and light, which are the causes of these reactions existed at the
lowest level in the system. Because Maillard reaction depends on temperature and
duration of the heat treatment (Chua et al., 2002), drying at lower temperatures gave
better color retention than drying at higher temperatures. However, there were no
46
significant differences between drying at 65oC, absolute pressures of 10 and 13 kPa and
drying at 75oC.
For LPSSD, it was found that there were no significant differences in terms of color
between different drying conditions. In this case, the main cause of color change was
the Maillard reaction. Other causes of color changes were the ascorbic acid and
chlorophyll degradation. However, these degradations had only a small effect on the
color of the sample when compared with Maillard reaction since the system had only a
small amount of oxygen.
When considering the color retention of sample between two different drying methods,
it was found that the LPSSD could retain the color better than the vacuum drying
system. This is because the degree of ascorbic acid and chlorophyll degradation of
LPSSD was lower than that of the vacuum drying system.
The color results presented here are somewhat different from those reported by other
investigators studying superheated steam drying system. Iyota et al. (2002) reported that
potatoes dried in superheated steam at temperature ranging from 170o to 240oC were
glossier and reddish than dried in hot air drying. However, this is due to the effect of
temperature on color and amount of soluble polysaccharides was less in this work.
Moreover, in this study Indian gooseberry was used as a sample, it had a small amount
of amino acid and carbohydrate when compared with potato in study of Iyota et al.
(2002). Therefore, less effect of Maillard reaction of Indian gooseberry than that of
potato drying.
Table 4.3 Hunter parameters and total color difference (UE) of samplea
Drying
method
VD1
LPSSD2
Condition
Pabs (kPa)
7
10
13
75
7
10
13
65
7
10
13
75
7
10
13
T (oC)
65
L
Fresh
63.25+0.04
67.51+0.05
67.05+0.04
63.78+0.12
64.86+0.98
63.69+2.27
67.64+1.12
67.91+0.03
65.89+2.36
67.70+0.99
a
Dried
58.35+0.04
61.99+0.22
60.82+0.23
60.25+0.26
60.37+0.04
59.52+2.58
64.80+1.05
65.47+0.25
63.92+1.46
65.18+3.69
Fresh
-1.6+0.09
-1.24+0.01
-1.35+0.01
-1.57+0.02
-2.17+0.2
-2.22+0.42
-1.26+0.58
-2.37+0.89
-1.81+0.47
-1.83+0.1
b
Dried
0.62+0.08
-0.36+0.01
0.15+0.02
-0.14+0.02
0.07+0.47
1.11+1.05
-0.43+1.29
-1.12+0.03
-0.65+0.10
-0.69+0.52
Fresh
18.65+0.13
18.75+0.18
18.16+0.26
17.73+0.12
18.28+0.04
18.42+0.76
18.59+0.12
17.28+0.34
17.62+1.07
17.60+1.52
E
Dried
18.39+0.08
18.35+0.16
18.09+0.52
18.13+0.11
18.70+0.07
17.82+0.43
17.86+0.15
16.67+0.11
16.93+0.67
17.25+0.70
Mean +S.D. (n=2). Means in the same column having a same letter are not significantly different ( < 0.05).
3.83b+0.09
5.40cd+0.10
4.99c+1.04
5.61cd+0.28
6.42d+0.26
5.38cd+0.66
3.09ab+0.19
2.48a+0.44
2.88ab+0.18
2.93ab+0.39
48
However, for Indian gooseberry tea production, dried Indian gooseberry flake was filled
in a tea bag before it was soaked into the water by the customer. Therefore, the color of
dried product was not concerned in this study. In contrast, the difference conclusion was
proposed if the color of dried product could not be neglected.
From the results of ascorbic acid and color retention of product, it could be concluded
that the drying in vacuum system at temperature of 75oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa was
proposed to be the suitable method and condition for drying of Indian gooseberry flake.
This is because it gave highest ascorbic acid retention while the color does not much
change from natural sample. Moreover the vacuum drying at 75oC, absolute pressure 7
kPa also consumed shortest drying time which may lead to lowest operating cost.
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
The effects of drying methods and conditions on drying kinetics and quality degradation
of Indian gooseberry flake have been examined in this study. In terms of drying
kinetics, the drying temperature was found to have an effect on the moisture reduction
of samples dried both by vacuum drying and LPSSD. However, pressure seemed to
have an obvious effect only for LPSSD but only slightly in the case of vacuum drying.
Moreover, it was found that the vacuum drying took shorter time to dry the product to
the required moisture content than those of LPSSD at every drying condition. The
drying curve of Indian gooseberry flake could be well fitted by the modified Pages
equation. For both low-pressure superheated steam and vacuum drying, the drying
constant, K, was increased as temperature increased and absolute pressure decreased
while product constant, N, was not affected by these factors. Parameter K of vacuum
drying was higher than low- pressure superheated steam drying.
The quality studies showed that except the vacuum drying at 75oC and absolute
pressures of 7 kPa amd 10 kPa, LPSSD could retain ascorbic acid better than the
vacuum drying. In addition, LPSSD could preserve the color of the sample better than
the vacuum drying at every drying condition tested. For vacuum drying, temperature
had a significant effect on ascorbic acid content and color of the product while absolute
pressure did not significantly affect the quality. For low-pressure superheated steam
drying, on the other hand, the drying conditions did not affect the ascorbic acid and
color of dried product.
50
It could be concluded that drying in vacuum system at temperature of 75oC, absolute

pressure of 7 kPa was proposed to be the suitable method and condition for drying of
Indian gooseberry flake. It gave highest ascorbic acid retention while the color did not
change a large from natural sample and consumed shortest drying time, which may lead
to lowest operating cost and energy consumption. However, in case of product that the
important of color could not be neglected, the conclusion would be different from this
study.
5.2 Recommendations
Further study should be conducted on the study of drying at higher temperature and
lower absolute pressure to cover the conditions generally applied for industrial-scale
drying. Moreover, the study of effects of pre-treatments on the drying kinetics and
quality degradation of Indian gooseberry flake is also recommended.
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Appendix A
Calibration Curve for Total Ascorbic Acid Determination
60
1
0.9
Adsorbance (520 nm)
0.8
y = 0.0219x
2
R = 0.9975
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Concentration (ug/ml)
Figure A.1 The relationship between absorbance value at 520 nm and concentration of
standard ascorbic acid solution
The concentration of total ascorbic acid can be calculated from equation, obtained from
calibration curve as follows:
Absorbance value (520 nm) = 0.022 conc. of total ascorbic acid
(g/ml)
(A.1)
Appendix B
Experimental Data
62
Experiment 1
Determination of Drying Kinetics
B.1 Drying Data of Indian Gooseberry Flake dried in Vacuum System
Table B.1 Data of vacuum drying at 65oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
a
%MC
%MC
(d.b.)
(min) W (g)
W (g)
(d.b.)
MRb
MR
0
40.0
421.34
1.00
40.0
456.53
1.00
10
36.6
377.02
0.89
36.8
412.01
0.90
20
32.8
327.50
0.77
33.0
359.14
0.78
30
29.8
288.40
0.68
30.0
317.40
0.69
40
26.8
249.29
0.59
27.0
275.66
0.60
50
24.4
218.01
0.51
24.6
242.27
0.52
60
22.0
186.73
0.44
22.4
211.66
0.46
70
20.0
160.67
0.37
20.2
181.05
0.39
80
18.0
134.60
0.31
18.2
153.22
0.33
90
16.4
113.75
0.26
16.2
125.39
0.27
100
14.8
92.89
0.21
15.0
108.70
0.23
110
13.4
74.65
0.17
13.6
89.22
0.19
120
12.2
59.01
0.13
12.2
69.74
0.14
130
11.0
43.37
0.09
11.2
55.83
0.11
140
10.0
30.33
0.06
10.2
41.92
0.08
150
9.4
22.51
0.04
9.4
30.78
0.06
160
8.8
14.69
0.02
9.0
25.22
0.04
170
8.4
9.48
0.01
8.4
16.87
0.02
180
8.0
4.27
0.00
8.0
11.31
0.01
190
8.0
4.27
0.00
7.8
8.52
0.01
200
8.0
4.27
0.00
7.8
5.74
0.00
a
b
MC stands for moisture content, MR stands for moisture ratio
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
1.00
0.90
0.78
0.69
0.59
0.52
0.45
0.38
0.32
0.26
0.22
0.18
0.14
0.10
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
MR
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
63

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
%MCa
%MC
b
(d.b.)
(min) W (g)
(d.b.)
MR W (g)
MR
0
40.0
435.15
1.00
39.4
379.25
1.00
10
38.2
411.07
0.94
36.2
342.76
0.94
20
34.8
365.58
0.84
33.0
308.70
0.84
30
31.8
325.45
0.75
30.2
277.07
0.74
40
29.2
290.66
0.66
28.0
245.45
0.67
50
26.0
247.85
0.57
25.6
218.69
0.59
60
24.2
223.77
0.51
23.6
191.93
0.53
70
21.8
191.66
0.44
21.6
167.60
0.45
80
19.6
162.22
0.37
19.8
143.27
0.39
90
18.2
143.49
0.32
18.0
123.81
0.33
100
16.4
119.41
0.27
16.4
104.35
0.29
110
14.8
98.01
0.22
15.0
87.32
0.24
120
13.4
79.28
0.17
13.8
70.29
0.19
130
11.4
52.52
0.14
12.8
58.13
0.15
140
11.0
47.17
0.10
11.6
45.96
0.11
150
10.0
33.79
0.07
10.6
36.23
0.08
160
9.2
23.09
0.05
10.2
26.50
0.06
170
8.6
15.06
0.03
9.6
19.20
0.04
180
8.0
7.03
0.02
9.2
11.91
0.02
190
8.0
7.03
0.01
9.0
7.04
0.01
200
8.0
7.03
0.00
8.8
7.04
0.01
210
7.8
4.35
0.01
9.0
4.61
0.00
a
MC stands for moisture content, b MR stands for moisture ratio
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
1.00
0.94
0.84
0.74
0.67
0.58
0.52
0.45
0.38
0.33
0.28
0.23
0.18
0.15
0.11
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
MR
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
64

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
%MC a
%MC
b
(min)
W (g)
(d.b.)
W (g)
(d.b.)
MR
MR
0
40.0
462.83 1.00
40.0
464.88
1.00
10
38.2
437.50 0.94
38.0
434.27
0.93
20
35.6
400.91 0.87
35.0
398.09
0.86
30
32.6
358.70 0.77
31.6
364.70
0.78
40
29.8
319.30 0.69
29.4
334.09
0.72
50
27.6
288.35 0.62
26.8
300.70
0.64
60
25.4
257.39 0.55
24.8
270.09
0.58
70
23.0
223.62 0.48
22.4
239.48
0.51
80
21.0
195.48 0.42
20.4
208.87
0.45
90
19.4
172.97 0.37
18.4
178.26
0.38
100
17.6
147.64 0.31
17.2
153.22
0.33
110
16.2
127.94 0.27
15.4
133.74
0.28
120
14.8
108.25 0.23
13.8
114.26
0.24
130
13.6
91.36
0.19
12.6
94.79
0.20
140
12.6
77.29
0.16
11.4
78.09
0.16
150
11.4
60.41
0.12
10.4
64.18
0.13
160
10.6
49.15
0.10
9.6
47.48
0.10
170
10.0
40.71
0.08
9.0
36.35
0.07
180
9.2
29.45
0.06
8.6
25.22
0.05
190
8.8
23.82
0.04
8.2
14.09
0.02
200
8.6
21.01
0.04
8.0
8.52
0.01
210
8.2
15.38
0.02
7.8
2.96
0.00
220
7.8
9.75
0.01
7.8
2.96
0.00
230
7.6
6.94
0.01
7.8
2.96
0.00
240
7.6
6.94
0.01
7.8
2.96
0.00
a
b
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
1.00
0.94
0.86
0.78
0.70
0.63
0.57
0.50
0.43
0.37
0.32
0.28
0.23
0.19
0.16
0.13
0.10
0.08
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
MR
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
65

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
Avg.
%MCa
%MC
(min)
W (g)
(d.b.) MRb W (g)
(d.b.)
MR
MR
0
40.0
429.94 1.00
39.4
355.97
1.00 1.00
10
36.4
382.25 0.89
35.4
309.67
0.87 0.88
20
32.4
329.25 0.76
31.4
263.38
0.74 0.75
30
29.2
286.86 0.66
28.4
228.67
0.64 0.65
40
25.8
241.81 0.56
25.0
189.32
0.53 0.54
50
23.0
204.72 0.47
22.2
156.91
0.43 0.45
60
20.6
172.92 0.40
20.0
131.45
0.36 0.38
70
18.2
141.12 0.32
17.6
103.68
0.28 0.30
80
16.0
111.98 0.25
15.6
80.53
0.22 0.24
90
14.0
85.48 0.19
14.0
62.02
0.16 0.18
100
12.4
64.28 0.14
12.6
45.82
0.12 0.13
110
10.8
43.08 0.09
11.6
34.24
0.09 0.09
120
9.8
29.84 0.06
10.6
22.67
0.05 0.06
130
8.8
16.59 0.03
10.0
15.73
0.03 0.03
140
8.2
8.64
0.01
9.4
8.78
0.01 0.01
150
8.0
5.99
0.01
9.2
6.47
0.01 0.01
160
7.8
3.34
0.00
9.0
4.15
0.00 0.00
170
7.6
0.69 -0.01
8.8
1.84
-0.01 -0.01
180
7.6
0.69 -0.01
9.0
4.15
0.00 0.00
a
Standard
deviation
MR
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
66

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
%MCa
%MC
b
(d.b.)
(min) W (g)
W (g)
(d.b.)
MR
MR
0
40.2
433.99
1.00
39.6
403.09
1.00
10
36
378.20
0.87
35.6
352.27
0.87
20
32.2
327.73
0.75
32
306.54
0.76
30
28.8
282.56
0.65
29
268.42
0.66
40
26
245.37
0.56
26
230.31
0.57
50
23
205.52
0.47
23.4
197.28
0.48
60
20.2
168.32
0.39
21
166.79
0.41
70
18
139.10
0.32
18.8
138.84
0.34
80
15.6
107.22
0.25
16.6
110.89
0.27
90
14
85.97
0.20
14.8
88.02
0.21
100
12.2
62.06
0.14
13.2
67.70
0.16
110
11
46.12
0.10
11.8
49.91
0.11
120
9.8
30.18
0.07
10.8
37.21
0.08
130
8.8
16.89
0.04
9.8
24.50
0.05
140
8
6.27
0.01
9
14.34
0.03
150
7.6
0.95
0.00
8.8
11.80
0.02
160
7.6
0.95
0.00
8.4
6.72
0.01
170
7.6
0.95
0.00
8.2
4.17
0.00
180
7.6
0.95
0.00
8.2
4.17
0.00
a
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
1.00
0.87
0.76
0.66
0.57
0.48
0.40
0.33
0.26
0.20
0.15
0.11
0.08
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
MR
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
67

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
%MCa
%MC
b
(d.b.)
MR
(min)
W (g)
W (g)
(d.b.)
MR
0
40
437.64 1.00
39.2
416.78
1.00
10
36.2 386.57 0.88
35.6
369.32
0.88
20
32.6 338.18 0.77
32.2
324.49
0.78
30
29.2 292.48 0.67
28.8
279.67
0.67
40
26.4 254.84 0.58
25.8
240.12
0.57
50
23.8 219.90 0.50
23.4
208.48
0.49
60
21.4 187.64 0.43
20.8
174.21
0.41
70
19.2 158.07 0.36
18.6
145.20
0.34
80
17.2 131.19 0.30
16.8
121.48
0.28
90
15.4 106.99 0.24
15
97.75
0.22
100
13.6
82.80
0.19
13.4
76.65
0.17
110
12.4
66.67
0.15
12
58.20
0.13
120
11.2
50.54
0.11
10.8
42.38
0.09
130
10.4
39.79
0.09
10
31.83
0.06
140
9.8
31.72
0.07
9.4
23.92
0.04
150
9
20.97
0.04
8.6
13.37
0.02
160
8.4
12.90
0.02
8.2
8.10
0.01
170
8
7.53
0.01
8.2
5.46
0.00
180
8
7.53
0.01
8.2
5.46
0.00
190
7.6
2.15
0.00
8.2
5.46
0.00
200
7.6
2.15
0.00
8.2
5.46
0.00
a
b
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
1.00
0.88
0.77
0.67
0.58
0.50
0.42
0.35
0.29
0.23
0.18
0.14
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
MR
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
68
B.2 Drying Data of Indian gooseberry Flake dried in Low-pressure

Superheated Steam System
Table B.7 Data of LPSSD at 65oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa

Time
(min)
0
1
2
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
Replication 1
%MC a
W (g)
(d.b.)
40.0
380.49
41.6
386.25
40.8
384.95
36.8
353.39
35.0
331.21
33.6
313.96
32.0
294.25
30.6
277.00
29.4
262.22
28.2
247.43
27.2
235.11
26.2
222.79
25.2
210.47
24.2
198.15
23.4
188.29
22.4
175.97
21.6
166.12
20.6
153.80
20.0
146.41
19.2
136.55
18.4
126.69
17.6
116.84
17.0
109.44
16.4
102.05
15.6
92.20
15.0
84.80
14.4
77.41
13.8
70.02
13.4
65.09
MRb
0.99
1.06
1.02
0.92
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.68
0.64
0.60
0.57
0.54
0.51
0.48
0.45
0.42
0.39
0.37
0.34
0.32
0.29
0.27
0.25
0.23
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.16
Replication 2
%MC
W (g)
(d.b.)
40.0
389.69
41.4
394.66
40.8
392.18
38.6
379.75
36.6
354.89
34.8
332.52
33.6
317.60
32.0
297.72
30.6
280.32
29.4
265.40
28.4
252.97
27.2
238.06
26.4
228.12
25.2
213.20
24.2
200.77
23.2
188.35
22.2
175.92
21.0
161.00
20.0
148.57
19.0
136.15
18.0
123.72
17.2
113.77
16.4
103.83
15.8
96.37
15.0
86.43
14.4
78.97
13.8
71.52
13.4
66.54
13.0
61.57
MR
1.00
1.05
1.02
0.97
0.91
0.85
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.68
0.64
0.60
0.58
0.54
0.51
0.47
0.44
0.40
0.37
0.34
0.31
0.28
0.25
0.23
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.16
0.14
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
0.99
1.05
1.02
0.94
0.88
0.83
0.79
0.74
0.69
0.66
0.62
0.59
0.56
0.52
0.49
0.46
0.43
0.40
0.37
0.34
0.31
0.29
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.15
MR
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
69
Table B.7 Data of LPSSD at 65oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa (continue)

270
12.8
57.70
0.14
12.4
54.12
0.12
280
12.4
52.77
0.12
12.0
49.14
0.11
290
11.8
45.38
0.10
11.4
41.69
0.09
300
11.4
40.45
0.09
11.0
36.72
0.08
310
11.0
35.52
0.08
10.6
31.74
0.06
320
10.6
30.59
0.06
10.2
26.77
0.05
330
10.2
25.67
0.05
9.8
21.80
0.04
340
10.0
23.20
0.05
9.6
19.32
0.03
350
9.6
18.27
0.03
9.2
14.34
0.02
360
9.4
15.81
0.03
9.2
14.34
0.02
370
9.2
13.35
0.02
9.0
11.86
0.01
380
9.0
10.88
0.01
8.8
9.37
0.01
390
8.8
8.42
0.01
8.6
6.89
0.00
400
8.8
8.42
0.01
8.6
6.89
0.00
a
MC stands for moisture content , b MR stands for moisture ratio
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
70

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
%MC
%MC
(min)
W (g)
(d.b.)
(d.b.)
MR W (g)
MR
0
40.0
396.35 1.00
40.0
368.57
1.00
1
40.2
401.27 1.01
40.2
370.91
1.02
2
40.2
401.27 1.01
40.0
368.57
1.01
10
36.6
376.69 0.88
37.8
342.79
0.94
20
34.6
347.21 0.82
35.0
309.99
0.85
30
32.6
320.18 0.75
32.8
284.22
0.78
40
30.8
298.06 0.70
30.8
260.80
0.71
50
28.8
275.95 0.64
29.2
242.05
0.66
60
26.8
251.38 0.57
27.6
223.31
0.61
70
25.8
229.26 0.54
26.2
206.91
0.56
80
24.2
214.52 0.49
25.0
192.85
0.53
90
22.6
194.86 0.44
23.6
176.45
0.48
100
21.2
175.20 0.40
22.4
162.40
0.44
110
19.8
158.00 0.35
21.2
148.34
0.40
120
18.6
140.80 0.31
20.2
136.63
0.37
130
17.4
126.06 0.28
19.2
124.91
0.34
140
16.4
113.77 0.25
18.0
110.85
0.30
150
15.4
101.49 0.21
17.2
101.48
0.27
160
14.4
89.20
0.18
16.2
89.77
0.24
170
13.4
74.46
0.15
15.4
80.40
0.21
180
12.4
64.63
0.12
14.8
73.37
0.19
190
11.6
52.35
0.09
13.8
61.65
0.16
200
10.8
44.97
0.07
13.4
56.97
0.15
210
10.4
35.15
0.06
12.8
49.94
0.13
220
9.8
25.32
0.04
12.2
42.91
0.11
230
9.6
20.40
0.03
11.8
38.23
0.10
240
9.2
15.49
0.02
11.0
28.86
0.07
250
9.0
13.03
0.01
10.6
24.17
0.06
260
8.8
10.57
0.01
10.0
17.14
0.04
270
8.6
5.66
0.00
9.6
12.46
0.03
280
8.6
5.66
0.00
9.0
5.43
0.01
290
8.6
5.66
0.00
9.0
5.43
0.01
a
b
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
1.00
1.02
1.01
0.91
0.83
0.77
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.55
0.51
0.46
0.42
0.38
0.34
0.31
0.27
0.24
0.21
0.18
0.16
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
MR
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.00
0.00
71

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
%MC a
%MC
b
(d.b.)
MR
(min)
W(g)
W (g)
(d.b.)
MR
0
40.0
379.76 1.00
40.0
391.69
1.00
1
40.4
382.16 1.01
40.6
399.07
1.02
2
40.4
382.16 1.02
40.4
401.52
1.03
10
36.8
362.97 0.96
38.0
367.11
0.97
20
34.6
334.18 0.88
35.6
337.60
0.89
30
32.8
310.19 0.82
33.6
313.02
0.83
40
30.8
286.21 0.75
31.8
290.89
0.77
50
29.2
267.02 0.70
30.2
271.23
0.72
60
27.8
247.83 0.65
28.8
254.02
0.67
70
26.4
228.64 0.60
27.2
234.35
0.62
80
25.0
214.24 0.56
26.2
222.06
0.59
90
23.8
197.45 0.52
24.8
204.85
0.54
100
22.8
183.06 0.48
23.6
190.10
0.50
110
21.4
168.67 0.44
22.6
177.81
0.47
120
20.4
154.27 0.40
21.4
163.05
0.43
130
19.2
142.28 0.37
20.4
150.76
0.39
140
18.4
132.68 0.34
19.4
138.47
0.36
150
17.4
118.29 0.30
18.4
126.18
0.33
160
16.0
103.90 0.26
17.6
116.34
0.30
170
15.0
89.51
0.23
16.8
106.51
0.28
180
14.0
77.51
0.19
16.0
96.68
0.25
190
13.2
65.52
0.16
15.2
86.84
0.22
200
12.6
55.92
0.14
14.4
77.01
0.20
210
12.0
48.73
0.12
13.6
67.17
0.17
220
11.6
43.93
0.10
13.0
59.80
0.15
230
11.0
36.73
0.08
12.4
52.42
0.13
240
10.6
31.93
0.07
11.8
45.05
0.11
250
10.2
27.14
0.06
11.4
40.13
0.10
260
9.8
22.34
0.05
10.8
32.76
0.08
270
9.6
17.54
0.03
10.6
30.30
0.07
280
9.4
15.14
0.03
10.0
22.92
0.05
290
9.2
12.74
0.02
9.6
18.01
0.05
300
9.0
7.95
0.01
9.2
13.09
0.03
310
8.8
7.95
0.01
8.8
8.17
0.02
320
8.8
5.55
0.00
8.4
3.25
0.01
330
8.8
5.55
0.00
8.4
3.25
0.00
a
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
1.00
1.02
1.02
0.97
0.89
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.66
0.61
0.57
0.53
0.49
0.45
0.41
0.38
0.35
0.32
0.28
0.25
0.22
0.19
0.17
0.14
0.13
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
MR
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
72

Time
Replication 1
Replication 2
%MCa
%MC
b
(d.b.) MR
(min) W (g)
W (g)
(d.b.)
MR
0
40.0
388.85 1.00
40.0 398.58 1.00
1
40.8
393.74 1.03
40.6 406.06 1.06
2
40.6
396.19 1.03
40.8 408.55 1.05
10
36.8
379.08 0.98
39.4 391.10 1.00
20
34.6
347.30 0.90
37.0 361.19 0.92
30
32.6
320.41 0.83
34.8 333.76 0.85
40
31.0
295.97 0.76
33.2 313.82 0.80
50
29.4
276.42 0.71
31.6 293.88 0.75
60
28.0
256.86 0.66
30.0 273.93 0.70
70
26.8
239.75 0.61
28.8 258.98 0.66
80
25.4
225.09 0.57
27.6 244.02 0.62
90
24.4
210.42 0.54
26.2 226.57 0.57
100
23.2
195.76 0.50
25.2 214.10 0.54
110
22.2
181.09 0.46
24.0 199.15 0.50
120
21.0
168.87 0.43
23.0 186.68 0.47
130
20.0
154.20 0.39
22.0 174.22 0.44
140
19.0
141.98 0.35
21.2 164.25 0.41
150
18.0
132.21 0.33
20.2 151.78 0.38
160
17.0
119.98 0.30
19.4 141.81 0.35
170
16.2
107.76 0.26
18.6 131.84 0.33
180
15.2
97.99 0.24
17.8 121.87 0.30
190
14.4
85.76 0.21
17.0 111.90 0.28
200
13.8
73.54 0.17
16.2 101.92 0.25
210
13.0
66.21 0.15
15.6
94.45
0.23
220
12.2
56.43 0.13
14.8
84.47
0.21
230
11.8
49.10 0.11
14.2
77.00
0.19
240
11.2
44.21 0.10
13.6
69.52
0.17
250
10.6
36.88 0.08
13.0
62.04
0.15
260
10.4
31.99 0.06
12.4
54.56
0.13
270
10.0
27.10 0.05
12.0
49.57
0.12
280
9.8
24.66 0.05
11.4
42.10
0.10
290
9.6
19.77 0.03
11.0
37.11
0.08
300
9.4
17.32 0.03
10.6
32.12
0.07
310
9.2
14.88 0.02
10.2
27.14
0.06
320
9.2
12.44 0.01
9.8
22.15
0.05
330
9.0
12.44 0.01
9.4
17.17
0.03
340
8.8
9.99
0.01
9.0
12.18
0.02
350
8.4
7.55
0.00
8.8
9.69
0.01
360
8.4
7.55
0.00
8.4
4.70
0.00
370
8.4
7.55
0.00
8.40
4.70
0.00
a
Avg.
Standard
deviation
MR
1.00
1.05
1.04
0.99
0.91
0.84
0.78
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.60
0.55
0.52
0.48
0.45
0.41
0.38
0.35
0.33
0.30
0.27
0.24
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.15
0.13
0.11
0.10
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
MR
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
73
B.3 Parameters of Pages Equation of Indian Gooseberry Flake Dried

in Vacuum System
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
-1.0
y = 1.4021x - 5.8569
R2 = 0.9862
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln (t)
Figure B.1 Linearized curve of Pages Equation for vacuum drying at 65oC and
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
-1.0
y = 1.4093x - 6.0317
R2 = 0.9593
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
7.0
74
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
-1.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
y = 1.3712x - 6.0792
R2 = 0.9806
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
-1.0
y = 1.3224x - 5.2934
R2 = 0.9804
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
7.0
75
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
-1.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
y = 1.3623x - 5.4632
R2 = 0.9334
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
-1.0
y = 1.3758x - 5.7048
R2 = 0.9868
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
7.0
76
B.4 Parameters of Pages Equation of Indian Gooseberry Dried in

Low-pressure Superheated Steam System
3.0
2.0
ln[-ln(MR)]
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
-1.0
y = 1.3539x - 6.2712
R2 = 0.9618
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
Figure B.7 Linearized curve of Pages Equation for LPSSD at 65oC and absolute
pressure of 7 kPa
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
-1.0
y = 1.3048x - 6.265
R2 = 0.9884
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
Figure B.8 Linearized form of Pages Equation for LPSSD at 75oC and absolute
pressure of 7 kPa
7.0
77
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
-1.0
y = 1.3048x - 6.265
R2 = 0.9884
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
pressure of 10 kPa
3.0
2.0
ln(-ln MR)
1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
-1.0
y = 1.3391x - 6.5362
R2 = 0.9687
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
ln(t)
pressure of 13 kPa
7.0
Experiment 2
Determination of Quality Degradation
B.5 Experimental Data of Ascorbic Acid Content
Table B.11 Total ascorbic acid of Retention Indian gooseberry flake dried at various methods and conditions
Conditions
VDa
Temperature
(oC)
65
75
LPSSDb
65
75
a
Pressure
(Abs.)(kPa)
7
10
13
7
10
13
7
10
13
7
10
13
Total ascorbic acid (g/100 g sample)

Replication 1
Replication 2
Fresh
1.03
1.12
0.90
0.94
1.01
0.90
1.10
1.19
1.04
1.09
Dried
3.58
3.67
2.91
3.97
3.64
3.36
3.99
4.28
4.24
4.37
%Retention
72.91
68.66
69.09
92.64
85.53
80.13
91.22
97.82
94.18
93.45
stands for vacuum drying, b stands for low-pressure superheated steam drying
Fresh
1.13
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.97
1.06
1.01
1.14
1.15
0.98
Dried
3.76
3.32
3.24
3.72
3.79
3.32
4.12
4.39
4.41
4.21
%Retention
70.12
65.11
60.58
96.27
89.46
76.13
95.69
92.88
97.15
96.47
Avg.
Standard
deviation
%Retention
71.52
66.89
64.84
94.46
87.50
78.13
93.46
95.35
95.67
94.96
%Retention
1.97
2.51
6.02
2.57
2.78
2.83
3.16
3.49
2.10
2.14
68
B.6 Experimental Data of Hunter Parameters (L, a. b) and Total Color Difference (E)
Table B.12 Hunter parameters (L, a, b) and total color difference (E) of fresh and dried Indian gooseberry flake
L
VDa
LPSSDb
Conditions
Temperature
(oC)
Pressure (Abs.)(kPa)
65
7
10
13
75
7
10
13
65
7
10
13
75
7
10
13
Rep.1
Fresh
63.87
63.27
64.16
67.55
67.02
65.29
68.43
67.56
67.93
68.40
Dried
60.43
58.32
60.40
61.83
60.99
61.34
65.54
64.95
65.29
67.79
a
Rep. 2
Fresh
63.69
63.22
65.55
67.47
67.07
62.09
66.85
64.22
67.89
67.00
Dried
60.07
58.37
60.34
62.14
60.66
57.69
64.06
62.89
65.65
62.57
Rep.1
Fresh
-1.59
-1.67
-2.31
-1.24
-1.36
-2.51
-0.85
-1.48
-1.74
-1.95
Dried
-0.12
0.57
-0.40
-0.37
0.13
0.37
0.48
-0.58
-1.10
-1.06
stands for vacuum drying, b stands for low-pressure superheated steam drying
b
Rep. 2
Fresh
-1.55
-1.54
-2.03
-1.25
-1.35
-1.92
-1.67
-2.14
-3.00
-1.81
Dried
-0.15
0.68
0.27
-0.35
0.16
1.85
-1.34
-0.72
-1.14
-0.32
Rep.1
Fresh
18.74
18.88
17.97
17.64
18.31
17.88
18.50
16.86
17.04
16.53
Dried
18.33
18.24
18.46
18.20
18.75
17.52
17.96
16.45
16.59
16.75
Rep. 2
Fresh
18.55
18.63
18.34
17.82
18.25
18.95
18.67
18.38
17.53
18.67
Dried
18.45
18.46
17.72
18.05
18.65
18.12
17.75
17.40
16.75
17.75
Rep.1
3.79
5.50
4.16
5.73
6.18
4.93
3.23
2.79
2.75
3.32
E
Rep. 2
3.90
5.35
5.74
5.38
6.56
5.86
2.96
2.18
3.01
2.54
Avg.
E
Stdev.
E
3.85
5.42
4.95
5.56
6.37
5.40
3.09
2.48
2.88
2.93
0.08
0.11
1.12
0.25
0.27
0.66
0.19
0.44
0.18
0.39
Appendix C
Statistical Analysis
81
Table C.1 ANOVA for ascorbic acid of Indian gooseberry flake dried at various
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: E
Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
COND
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Type III Sum

of Squares
2891.469a
142043.827
2891.469
99.877
145035.173
2991.346
df
9
1
9
10
20
19
Mean Square
321.274
142043.827
321.274
9.988
F
32.167
14221.85
32.167
Sig.
.000
.000
.000
a. R Squared = .967 (Adjusted R Squared = .937)
Table C.2 Dancan multiple test for ascorbic acid of Indian gooseberry flake dried at
E
a,b
Duncan
Subset
COND
3.00
2.00
1.00
6.00
5.00
7.00
4.00
10.00
8.00
9.00
Sig.
N
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
64.8350
66.8850
71.5150
71.5150
78.1300
87.4950
93.4550
94.4550
94.9600
.071
.063
.052
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

Based on Type III Sum of Squares
The error term is Mean Square(Error) = 9.988.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 2.000.
b. Alpha = .05.
where
93.4550
94.4550
94.9600
95.3500
95.6650
.532
82
cond. 1-3 = vacuum drying at 65oC, absolute pressures of 7, 10 and 13 kPa, repectively
cond. 7
= LPSSD at 65oC, absolute pressure of 7kPa
cond. 8-10 = LPSSD at 75oC, absolute pressures of 7, 10 and 13 kPa, repectively
Table C.3 ANOVA for total color difference of Indian gooseberry flake dried at various
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: E
Source
Corrected Model
Intercept
COND
Error
Total
Corrected Total
Type III Sum

of Squares
35.186a
368.597
35.186
2.392
406.175
37.578
df
9
1
9
10
20
19
Mean Square
3.910
368.597
3.910
.239
F
16.345
1541.022
16.345
Sig.
.000
.000
.000
a. R Squared = .936 (Adjusted R Squared = .879)
Table C.4 Dancan multiple test for total color difference of Indian gooseberry flake
83
dried at various methods and conditions
E
a,b
Duncan
Subset
COND
8.00
9.00
10.00
7.00
1.00
3.00
6.00
2.00
4.00
5.00
Sig.
N
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2.4850
2.8800
2.9300
3.0950
2.8800
2.9300
3.0950
3.8450
4.9500
5.3950
5.4250
5.5550
.271
.096
.275
5.3950
5.4250
5.5550
6.3700
.093
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

Based on Type III Sum of Squares
The error term is Mean Square(Error) = .239.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 2.000.
b. Alpha = .05.
where
cond. 7
= LPSSD at 65oC, absolute pressure of 7kPa
cond. 8-10 = LPSSD at 75oC, absolute pressures of 7, 10 and 13 kPa, repectively
84
CURRICULUM VITAE
NAME
Miss Siporn Methakhup
DATE OF BIRTH
11 November 1981
EDUCATIONAL RECORD
HIGH SCHOOL
High School Graduation

Satriwittaya School Bangkok, 1998
BACHELORS DEGREE
Bachelor of Science (Food Technology)

Chulalongkorn University, 2001
MASTERS DEGREE
Master of Engineering (Food Engineering)

King Mongkuts University of Technology
Thonburi, 2003
SCHOLARSHIP/
Food Engineering Practice School (FEPS)
RESEARCH GRANT
Half Scholarship, 2002-2004

Ts-3 Effects of Drying Methods and Conditions On Drying Kinetics and Quality of Indian Gooseberry Flake - Thesis

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Ts-3 Effects of Drying Methods and Conditions On Drying Kinetics and Quality of Indian Gooseberry Flake - Thesis

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EFFECTS OF DRYING METHODS AND CONDITIONS ON DRYING KINETICS

AND QUALITY OF INDIAN GOOSEBERRY FLAKE

A SPECIAL RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

Effects of Drying Methods and Conditions on Drying Kinetics

Miss Siporn Methakhup B.Sc. (Food Technology)

A Special Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

Special Research Project Committee

Special Research Project Title

Special Research Project Credits

Effects of Drying Methods and Conditions on

Vacuum drying and low-pressure superheated steam drying (LPSSD) of Indian

Keywords : Ascorbic Acid / Color / Low-pressure Superheated Steam Drying / Pages

1.4 Expected Benefit

2.1 Indian Gooseberry

2.2 Drying Theory

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Experimental Set-up

3.2 Experimental Design

3.3 Materials and Methods

3.4 Moisture Content Determination

3.5 Total Ascorbic Acid Determination

3.6 Color Measurement

3.7 Statistical Analysis

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Drying Kinetics of Indian Gooseberry Flake

4.2 Quality Degradation of Indian Gooseberry Flake

4.3 Empirical Modeling of Drying Process

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

A Calibration Curve for Total Ascorbic Acid Determination

2.1 Nutritional values of Indian gooseberry fruit

3.1 A 3-factor factorial design

4.1 Total ascorbic acid content of fresh and dried samples

4.2 Hunter parameters and total color difference (E) of sample

drying methods and conditions

B.2 Data of vacuum drying at 65oC, absolute pressure of 10 kPa

B.3 Data of vacuum drying at 65oC, absolute pressure of 13 kPa

B.4 Data of vacuum drying at 75oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa

B.5 Data of vacuum drying at 75oC, absolute pressure of 10 kPa

B.6 Data of vacuum drying at 75oC, absolute pressure of 13 kPa

B.7 Data of LPSSD at 65oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa

B.8 Data of LPSSD at 75oC, absolute pressure of 7 kPa

B.9 Data of LPSSD at 75oC, absolute pressure of 10 kPa

B.10 Data of LPSSD at 75oC, absolute pressure of 13 kPa

methods and conditions

dried Indian gooseberry flake

various methods and conditions

various methods and conditions

2.1 Typical drying curve and drying rate curve

2.2 Ascorbic acid

2.3 Degradation of ascorbic acid

2.4 Reaction mechanism of ascorbic acid coupled with DNPH

2.5 Diagram of Hunter color system

3.1 Schematic diagram of low-pressure superheated steam dryer and

4.2 Drying curves of Indian gooseberry flake undergoing low-pressure

superheated steam drying

A.1 The relationship between absorbance value at 520 nm and concentration

of standard ascorbic acid solution

absolute pressure of 7 kPa

absolute pressure of 10 kPa

absolute pressure of 13 kPa

absolute pressure of 10 kPa

absolute pressure of 13 kPa

Indian gooseberry tea is an alternative product to instant beverage powder and