Infraestructure in The Comprehensive Development

Infrastructure in
the Comprehensive
Development
of Latin America
Strategic Diagnosis and Proposals
for a Priority Agenda
IDeAL 2011
Title: Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Strategic Diagnosis and Proposals for a Priority Agenda
IDeAL 2011
Legal Deposit: If43220113003556
ISBN: 978-980-6810-66-2
This document was prepared by CAF at the request of the Ibero-American General
Secretariat (ESGIB, in Spanish) to be presented in the XXI Ibero-American
Summit of Chiefs of State and Government held in Asuncin, Paraguay.
The current document is part of the series Infrastructure in the Comprehensive
Development of Latin America (IDeAL, in Spanish).
Editor: CAF
Vice-Presidency of Infrastructure
Antonio Juan Sosa, Corporate Vice-President
Jorge Kogan, Advisor
CAFs Task force: Jos Carrera, Juan Pablo Rodrguez, Rolando Terrazas,
Luca Meza, Bernardo Requena, Pablo Sanguinetti, Nicols Estupian, Mauricio
Garrn, Daniel Rivera and Mauricio Pardn.
Author: Jos A. Barbero
Contributors: Jorge H. Forteza, Julieta Abad and Andres Gartner. This
document benefited from the contributions of: Jorge Kohon (transportation);
Abel Mejia (potable water and sanitation); Julia Antmann, Alejandro Arnau,
Eduardo Fernandez, Ramn Sanz, and Carlos Skerk (electric energy); Raul Katz
(telecommunications); Raul Garcia (gas transportation); Fernado Aportela and
Roberto Duran (financing); Jos Luis Bonifaz (infrastructure in Peru); and Jaime
Maldonado (infrastructure in Colombia).
The ideas and contents in this publication are the sole responsibility of its
authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of CAF.
Graphic Design and Printing: Gatos Gemelos Comunicacin
Bogota, ColombiaOctober 2011
The digital version of this book is available at: www.caf.com
2011 Corporacin Andina de Fomento
All rights reserved
Contents
Foreword
Executive summary
13
Introduction
29
Motivation
29
Organization and scope of the document
29
Chapter 1. Infrastructure: key for taking advantage

of development opportunities
The opportunities of Latin America
33
33
A favorable international environment

Infrastructure: key variable for
taking advantage of opportunities
Infrastructure as a driver of development
38
Social inclusion, equity, and quality of life

Competitiveness and development of the domestic market
Territorial cohesion and regional integration
Business development to supply works,
equipment, and services
Infrastructure gap in the region
40
The relative backwardnessof Latin America

Disparity in the performance of its components
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Content
How much infrastructure is necessary?
41
Best practices:
aligning infrastructure plans with the vision
Other regions plan infrastructure as a key variable
for development
Aspirations and scenarios for the region
45
Key issues: quality of the international environment

and of our societies
The desirable scenario and the role of infrastructure
Chapter 2. The state of the infrastructure sectors and the
challenges they face
Transportation
49
49
Ensure increasing mobility and control negative externalities

Roads: overcome the structural deficit,
increase capacity, and guarantee security
Railroads: a strategic mode for cargo transportation
Ports: key logistic nodes for international insertion and
competitiveness
Air traffic infrastructure: the challenge
of unprecedented growth
Urban transportation: the need for a new paradigm
Electricity
57
Growing demands requires continuous expansion

The trend toward renewable sources and
the new network designs
Managing of the sector: balancing planning and regulation
The need for change in the production
and consumption of electricity
4 |
Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Strategic Diagnosis and Proposals for a Priority Agenda.
Natural gas transportation
62
Growing demand and greater weight

of gas in the regional energy matrix
Growth of trade in liquefied gas modifies
the infrastructure demands
A sector with high potential for regional integration and
emission reductions
Telecommunications
67
Advances in mobile telephony, growing gap in wideband

The road toward universalization of services
The challenge of integrating ICTs in the productive and
administrative processes
Water and sanitation
71
Water: an abundant resource with unequal

distribution and inefficient use
The difficulty in providing quality services
in the face of informal land use
The need for a comprehensive approach to water resources
Chapter 3. Key elements to ensure
the sustainable development of infrastructure
77
Main requirements for responding to the challenges
77
Financing: needs and sources
80
Required investment is at least 50% higher than today

Optimize public and private financing
Address the inevitable role of public financing
rationally and efficiently
Attract the private sector to the infrastructure sectors
where it adds the most value
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Content
Exploit the potential derived from the

numerous sources of financing
Institutions for infrastructure development
88
Ensure capacities through the project cycle

Key areas of action to expand and improve the use of
infrastructure
The importance of knowledge management and continuous
improvement
A social, environmental, and participatory framework,
condition for infrastructure projects
92
Integrate environmental factors

and social actors in policies and projects
Balance a responsible role regarding climate change with
development objectives
Good environmental management is key in the competitive
differentiation of Latin America
Chapter 4. Toward a strategic
infrastructure agenda in Latin American
97
Priority issues in the short term
97
Link infrastructure plans with the development plan

Themes requiring priority attention
Creating and developing capacities
The six main action axes for implementing
the strategic agenda
100
Significantly increase investment in infrastructure

Frame policies and projects in a sustainable development
paradigm and territorial vision
Strengthen institution in their different dimensions
Optimize the use of the multiple financing
sources and modalities
6 |

Promote the development of companies in businesses

associated with infrastructure
Promote exchange among governments,
regions and cities
A call to action
105
Bibliography
109
Annexes
114
Annex 1. Infrastructure indicators in Latin America
114
Annex 2. Physical integration projects financed by CAF
122
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Foreword
For Latin America to achieve a more relevant role in the global economy
and substantially improve the quality of its people, it must achieve a
higher and better quality growth rate that is sustained over time, efficient,
inclusive, sustainable, and respects cultural diversity and the environment.
Infrastructure must be part of this model of comprehensive development,
together with the orderly management of public finances, innovation, and
regional integration.
Infrastructure contributes to this development objective in a number
of dimensions: it helps to improve the quality of life, social inclusion,
and opportunities for isolated communities while, at the same time, it
promotes economic growth and the competitiveness of its businesses. At
the same time, it facilitates national integration, regional interconnection,
decentralization, and internal mobility. By the same token, it may contribute
to the diversification of the productive fabric through the promotion of
development and the internationalization of national or regional businesses
linked to infrastructure and its services.
Throughout its more than forty years of operations, CAF development
bank of Latin America has provided strong support to the development of
infrastructure in the region. This reflects the view that the level of infrastructure
of a territory is intimately related with the development of the society that
inhabits it, and that its insufficiency constitutes a severe restriction for
possible improvements in the material welfare of society. CAF currently
allocates 54% of its loan portfolio to infrastructure projects. During the period
2000-2010, CAF has been the main source of infrastructure financing in
Latin America, with loan approvals that exceed USD 28 billion and include 57
projects of regional physical integration. However, this support has not been
limited to financing projects in the areas of transportation, electricity, gas
transportation, water and sanitation, but also is reflected in the permanent
analytical effort carried out to better understand the infrastructure needs of
|9
Foreword
the region. The analytical work carried out by CAF in the infrastructure area
is reflected in multiple studies and publications that cover practically all of its
components: roads, electricity sector, urban mobility, telecommunications,
railroads, river transportation, water and sanitation, and the social and
environmental safeguards for their sustainable management.
On occasion, the studies have been of a national scope, while in others the
scope has been regional, with a focus on the infrastructure situation in a
group of countries such as the Andean Region or South America or in
Latin America as a whole. This is particularly the case of initiatives promoted
for regional integration such as the Initiative for the Integration of the Regional
Infrastructure of South America (IIRSA, in Spanish) and the Mesoamerica
Project. The current situation in the region is a particularly good moment
for CAF to review the infrastructure sector with a strategic approach. This
implies identifying the areas of greatest need and the challenges to be faced,
so that an agenda that places infrastructure as one of the pillars of social
progress and regional economic growth may be proposed.
CAFs goals coincide with the request from the Ibero-American General
Secretariat (SEGIB, in Spanish), to prepare a Strategic Diagnosis of
Infrastructure in Latin America, that includes the analysis of the current
situation and recent developments in regional infrastructure, the
identification of the main obstacles for its development, and propose
priorities for its agenda. The present document, prepared by CAF in response
to that request, is presented to the countries that participate in the XXI IberoAmerican Summit of Heads of State and Government on October 28 and 29,
2011 in Asuncion, Paraguay.
L. Enrique Garcia
Executive President of CAF
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Executive summary
Infrastructure: key variable in a model of comprehensive development

In coming decades, Latin America will have the opportunity of consolidating
its progress toward comprehensive development. This opportunity is the
result of the new configuration of the world economy and the resource
endowment of the region. Progress toward comprehensive development will
be confirmed only if countries are able to achieve just and equitable societies
that promote opportunities and inclusion, as well as a more diversified
insertion in the world economy, with greater value added. To confront these
challenges, there need to be substantial improvements in a number of factors
such as education, innovation capacity, the quality of institutions, and the
quality of infrastructure and its associated services.
Why is infrastructure a key variable for development? Beyond all the academic
knowledge that supports this view, it is believed that infrastructure may
contribute to the consolidation of the comprehensive development process
in the region through four key dimensions: i) by favoring the improvement
in the quality of life, social inclusion, and opportunities for isolated
communities; ii) by supporting economic growth and the competitiveness
of enterprises; iii) by facilitating integration within the national boundaries
and regionally, decentralization, and internal mobility; and iv) by contributing
to the diversification of the productive fabric by promoting the development
and internationalization of national or regional companies specialized in the
production of goods and services linked to infrastructure.
Notwithstanding its relevance, infrastructure in Latin America lags behind
that of other regions of the world even with other developing regions and
the lags are more acute in some sectors and countries. Although there is
no single hard indicator that can reflect the situation of all infrastructure
sectors, the available indices show that Latin Americas comparative
performance is weak, and only exceeds that of Africa. The situation is quite
| 13
Executive summary
diverse by sector (more positive in telecommunications, electricity, and

ports; more negative in water and sanitation, and in various transportation
modes), by country, and even by region within countries.
The future scenarios available to Latin America will depend, on the one
hand, on the international environment (economic growth, trade dynamism,
peace), and on the other hand, on the quality and competitiveness that
societies achieve (social inclusion, competitiveness, institutional quality).
The desired scenario combines a favorable international environment with
a constant effort to improve in social inclusion and competitiveness in the
region. A less favorable international environment leads to an intermediate
scenario in which Latin America takes advantage of the limited opportunities
and protects itself from an unstable situation. The strategic agenda for
infrastructure must be founded in the aspirations for comprehensive
development and on these expected scenarios. At the same time, it must be
based on an understanding of the situation of the infrastructure sectors, and
the challenges they face, to extend and improve their services. The following
sections deal with these issues.
Current situation of the main infrastructure sectors

Transportation
The most significant fact of this sector is the growth experienced by the
demand for mobility of people and goods. During the past twenty years, trade
volumes of Latin American countries grew at twice the rate of GDP, which
created strong pressure on the foreign trade nodes (ports, border crossings,
airports), and on the road networks, as road transportation is the dominant
mode of domestic transportation (approximately 75%). The movements of
people have also increased rapidly, boosted by the growth of cities toward
low density suburban areas, and by the increased rate of motorization
(automobiles and motorcycles).
The modal matrix of the region shows a clear distortion in favor of
road transportation, which presents significant challenges in terms of
sustainability. With the exception of Brazil and Mexico, where railroad
transportation of cargo has a share of around 20%, in the other countries of
the region that have railroads the figure does not exceed 5%. This distortion
in the modal matrix is reflected in an elevated consumption of fossil fuels,
high congestion in cities, excessive emissions (the transportation sector has
the highest increase in the emission of greenhouse gases), and deaths from
traffic accidents that double the world average.
In the area of the mobility of people, there has been a change toward a
paradigm of sustainable transportation, particularly in large cities, and its
14 |

implementation presents numerous challenges. The countries of the region

are still in debt regarding the mobility of the least favored sectors, which
conditions their inclusion in society. Thus, development requires a wide
ranging and flexible vision regarding sustainable transportation that is not
restricted exclusively to emission reductions.
As far as roads are concerned, the challenge is to overcome the
structural gap of a network with low standards and missing sections
while simultaneously expanding capacity in critical sections to deal with
vehicular traffic, mitigate congestion, and provide secure conditions.
Railroads are a strategic mode for transportation of cargo and urban
passengers in high density corridors. Their expansion will require an
active role of the state.
Ports have become critical logistic nodes. The private sector has
demonstrated that it can make significant investments, but the public
sector must ensure adequate access by water and land by exercising
leadership in organizing the city-port relationship. The growth of the size
of ships and the restructuring of routes that incorporate transshipments
constitutes a strong challenge for the competitiveness of countries in
the region.
The air traffic infrastructure faces growth rates without precedence; the
entry of the private sector has in general had a positive effect, although it
requires adequate regulatory frameworks and efficient control capabilities.
Urban transportation is facing the challenge of stepping up to a new
model that prioritizes public transportation, pedestrians, and bicycles,
while considering the general traffic and urban logistics. In recent years,
there has been a trend toward the reform and modernization of public
transportation through integrated systems that include mass modes in
the sectors with the highest densities. These projects have important
requirements in terms of institutional capacity, regulatory frameworks,
and financing mechanisms. The large cities of Latin America require a
new model of urban transportation, as the current one, characterized by
congestion, contamination, and accidents, has proven to be unviable.
Electricity
Electricity service in Latin America covers 93% of the total population, 99%
in the urban areas, and 74% in the rural areas. Although the general situation
of the sector is not unfavorable relative to the world average, a number of
countries and areas are lagging behind. The region has experienced a
sustained growth of demand for energy and power: between 2000 and
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Executive summary
2010, the increased was of 36% and 25%, respectively. The main source
of generation is hydroelectric, reaching 56% of the installed capacity, while
thermal sources represent 40%.
Other relevant characteristics of the sector are the reduction in the reserve
margins in the face of dry spells, and the high costs of the transmission
infrastructure, as the region combines low consumption density with vast
geographic spaces.
The trend to incorporate renewable sources, such as aeolic energy, to reduce
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, has recently strengthened. This has
required government support, creating conditions for development of these
sources that energy markets have been unable to sustain on their own.
There are a number of management models in the electricity sector that
combine public and private sector participation, in addition to market
mechanisms with public planning. Private participation is significant,
particularly in the area of generation. The sector faces technological
changes as it moves toward an intelligent network, which implies production
and consumption nodes with various energy injection points instead of
unidirectional grids. In this new model, rates can be dynamic, with prices
changing as a function of demand. In the classic model, the network does not
adjust easily to renewable energies, as these, with their variability, change the
direction of the flows.
The development of the energy sector in Latin America requires the
introduction of important changes in the way electricity is produced and
consumed, so as to promote sustainable modalities that include the
conservation of the environment. The main objectives of the sector are to
maximize the populations access to electricity services under economic
and sustainable conditions to achieve an improvement in the quality of life
and in equity, achieve quality conditions in the service, a reliable supply,
and competitive prices that support economic development. It will be
necessary to promote greater efficiency in supply and demand by means of
improving the effectiveness of expenditure, reducing the losses, and regional
integration. It will also be necessary to promote the rational use of energy
through adequate incentives and awareness among users.
Transportation of natural gas

The consumption of natural gas in the region has increased at a rate of
3.3% over the world average, and represents 25% of the consumption of
energy in Latin Americas primary energy matrix, although with an uneven
distribution both in terms of consumption as well as the location of reserves.
In fact, probable and possible reserves continue to increase as a result of the
16 |

application of new technologies for the development of deposits. Intraregional

trade has also grown, mostly by shipments of liquefied gas in ships and
distributed by trucks or barges rather than the use of gas pipelines.
Prospects are that consumption will continue to increase, especially due to
electricity generation, which finds in this fuel the best response to climate
change in the context of fossil fuels, as well as its use in refineries and the
petrochemical industry.
Demand and supply of gas is expected to continue growing in the region. The
use of natural gas is no longer limited only to those countries that own the
resource and have the reserves to develop it and produce it, and eventually
export it to neighboring countries. Technological advances have expanded
the boundaries and the market so that today, natural gas may be exported
through pipelines, ships, and trucks in different states until its regasification
for consumption.
This is a sector that requires large investments that mature slowly and carry
considerable risk, which must deal with factors such as the adoption of a
culture for its consumption, the need to connect large consumers to justify
the construction of pipelines, and the engineering of a financing/rates system
that diminishes the risk of an important investment in transportation and
distribution. The development of this infrastructure must be protected by
national policies. Social and environmental issues that make the development
of natural gas sustainable are of the greatest importance, and constitute a
key condition for the availability of financing for future projects.
Telecommunications
During the past twenty years, there has been a significant dissemination of
information and telecommunications technologies in Latin America. The
penetration of fixed telephony went from 6% in 1990 to 18% in 2010, while
that of mobile telephony reached 99% in 2010. Currently, the region is at a
middle stage of development in fixed telephony and at a level similar to that
of developed countries in the mobile sector. The accelerated growth of the
sector has been boosted by the privatization of the fixed line operators and the
liberalization of markets in the mobile sector. The availability of Internet and of
personal computers has grown, albeit much slower than telephony, reaching
levels of 36% and 17%, respectively.
The dissemination of broad band is still in its early stages, close to 7% compared
with 24%-30% in developed countries, representing a growing challenge for
social inclusion and competitiveness in the region. The comparative analysis of
the telecommunications sector in the region, be it between countries, internal
regions, or social economic levels, shows stark contrasts in the adoption of
mobile telephony and Internet.
IDeAL 2011
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Executive summary
The multiplier effect that technology provides over the whole economy
underlines the need to unfold infrastructure that satisfies the needs of
information transmission of the different economic sectors. The migration to
mobile networks of third and fourth generation (3G and 4G), needed to satisfy
the growing traffic will not only require a greater capacity of trunk networks
but also of a greater assignment of the radio electric spectrum. The greater
the availability of infrastructure, the more efficient productive processes will
become, and the generation of positive externalities will increase. To deal
with the current gaps, the key goals of policy should be the universalization
of coverage, the promotion of demand of the least favored sectors, and the
promotion of their use by small enterprises by providing assistance to develop
their management practices. These actions would lead to the adoption and
greater use of ITT in the activities of the population, productive processes, and
in the public administration.

Latin America is a region with an abundance of water, but it is unequally
distributed in space and time, relative to the population and economic
activity (urban demand). In addition, there is a marked variability of rainfall.
In the past fifty years, the coverage of water and sanitation networks in
the region has increased significantly, from 40% of the urban population
in 1950 to more than 80% in 2008, but without providing quality services
to the population in informal urban settlements. The problems in the cities
can be structured around three elements: the informal settlement of urban
land and the consequent poor housing conditions, the low quality of public
services, and the degradation of the urban environment (most urban rivers
have intolerable levels of pollution).
Industrial demand for water will grow even faster than urban demand, and
will require a more efficient use, a high percentage of recycling, and the
internalization of the cost of new developments. The demand from the
agricultural sector will compete increasingly with urban use and will need to
be rationalized significantly with productivity increases, best practices in land
management, reduction of the unitary water footprint, and reuse. Extractive
mining competes with agricultural and urban use in areas of low availability.
At the same time, the disposal of waste material and residual waters are
sources of pollution. Moreover, the combination of scarcity and pollution is a
potential source of social conflict in some countries in the region.
If the current scenario were to prevail, Latin America will be a region with an
economic scarcity of water approximately in the year 2025. Not so much
due to the lack of liquid, but rather as a result of the deficit in infrastructure
and the weaknesses in sectorial governments. Water companies, with few
exceptions, whose performance indicators are comparable to the best in the
18 |

world, are a heterogeneous set of more than one thousand companies with
low levels of operational efficiency and high dependency on fiscal resources
to finance their investments and, in some cases, the cost of their operations.
The main challenges to achieve the sectorial goals include the resistance
to effective transformation processes in each of the phases of service
management; the weakness (or absence) of mechanisms of economic
regulation and the quality of services in many countries of the region; and the
absence of public policies that consider the negative externalities of pollution
as well as the weakness of the instrument for applying and controlling those
policies.
Elements that make infrastructure development viable

The analysis of the infrastructure sectors allows identifying the main
challenges faced by each one of these areas to adapt the supply of services
to the needs required by the desired scenario of high, sustained, and
quality growth that benefits from a favorable international environment. To
prepare for a scenario of possible deterioration in the external environment,
infrastructure must also contribute to maximize the potential of the Latin
American domestic market, prioritizing the facilitation of intra-regional trade
and the integration of national areas. This implies building a robust regional
infrastructure strategy that should include a decisive support to regional
integration projects.
The analysis of the infrastructure sectors also allows the identification of
the main cross cutting elements that ensure the conditions for growth and
improvement of its services. These elements may be summarized as follows:
financing needs, improvements in policies and institutions, and an adequate
consideration of environmental and social aspects in the planning and
execution of infrastructure projects.
Financing needs
A review of the existing analysis on infrastructure needs to cover the regional
deficit and to accompany a process of sustained growth, indicates that a level
of investment in the order of 5% of GDP is required in coming years without
considering maintenance costs, which represents annual investment
levels of between USD 200 and USD 250 billion. This level of investment is
50% higher than the current one, which in turn is considerably higher than
the level prevailing at the beginning of this decade. Neither the public nor
the public sectors by themselves could ensure the provision of the required
resources. To do so, countries will have to combine both sources, clearly
IDeAL 2011
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Executive summary
assigning the role to be played by national governments, local governments,

and private investors in the provision of infrastructure.
Currently, the capacity for public investment is relatively strong, at least
compared with previous decades. While a fiscal context that facilitates the
increase of public investment may be expected, it should be noted that the
proposed development model will generate multiple demands on public
finances, particularly aimed at promoting social inclusion and educational
policies. Therefore, the use of public resources in infrastructure will have an
opportunity cost that must be appropriately considered.
The challenge for governments in the region will be to transform the
macroeconomic and demographic strengths into a source of attraction for
private investment in infrastructure. To this end, it is necessary to advance in
a number of areas such as the capacity for planning, financial evaluation and
analysis, regulatory frameworks, promotion of transparency, and deepening
of local financial markets by taking advantage of the demographic
dividend to promote medium and long term saving mechanisms that allow
financing productive and infrastructure investments. The wide variety of
financing sources available makes it necessary to carefully analyze the
allocation of projects to each one of them, so as to make full use of their
potential. Latin America will need to develop financing strategies that take the
most advantage of the following seven sources of resources (originating both
in domestic savings and in private foreign investment): the domestic market,
stock exchanges (issue of titles that represent assets), international banks,
multilateral organizations, the climate finance instruments, natural resource
corporations, operators of transportation and logistics, and sovereign funds
or state owned companies.
Institutions and policies for infrastructure development

Institutions (the rules of the game, the organizations, and their procedures)
constitute one of the determinants of performance in the infrastructure
services sectors. Looking at the institutional cycle as a process allows for the
identification of the most common deficiencies in each one of the sectors.
These have been organized into four groups:
The policies and plans that cover all projects, whatever their means of
financing. The lack of strategic planning of infrastructure duly aligned with
development objectives stands out, as do the difficulties in coordinating
policies with other areas of government such as environmental
management or urban development.
The capacity to formulate, evaluate, execute, and maintain projects,
particularly those financed with public resources. This includes the
20 |

negative impact generated by initiating projects that are not sufficiently

mature, or the lack of care regarding maintenance, by concentrating
attention exclusively on the execution of new works.
The capacity to structure projects and coordinate actors, in particular
projects that are executed with private participation or that require the
involvement of different jurisdictions. The main weaknesses are found
in design problems, management of risks and guarantees, and in the
generation of financial burdens for the state due to future obligations and
contingent liabilities.
The capacity to promote a better use of the infrastructure. The policies
are not aimed exclusively at increasing supply but increasingly aim at
acting on the demand side to reduce the need for resources. To close
the infrastructure cycle, knowledge management and continuous
improvement are of the utmost importance. The ex post analysis of
projects is little practiced in the region, and monitoring, as a means of
following up and permanently evaluating the social and economic impact
of projects, is not sufficiently established.
Integrating environmental factors

and social actors in policies and projects
The analysis of the sectors shows that the execution of projects frequently
stumbles over environmental and social issues. There are abundant
examples in the region and the prospect of expanding infrastructure into
environmentally sensitive geographic areas, suggests that tensions will
increase. The areas responsible for supplying the infrastructure must
seriously reconsider the ways in which they conceive their development,
including the sustainability criterion into the project cycle from its beginning.
Rather than considering environmental and social aspects as an obstacle,
policies must balance the multiple objectives and include sustainability goals.
Good environmental management is also a key element in the competitive
differentiation of Latin America and will come to be an element of its
competitiveness, by measuring the carbon footprint of the products
its exports. This adds an important incentive to include that element in
infrastructure policies and projects. At the same time, citizen participation
in planning and implementing infrastructure projects is a distinctive trend
of a society that includes the development model to which it aspires in the
infrastructure projects. Therefore, opportune communication with the
community must also be a part of the project cycle.
The international agenda surrounding climate change is especially relevant
to the infrastructure sectors, and proposes both mitigation and adaptation
IDeAL 2011
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Executive summary
actions. These actions are becoming a pressing need for countries in the
region and, currently, the agenda for adaptation is less developed than the
agenda for mitigation. Countries face the challenge of responsibly joining the
global effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions generated by infrastructure
sectors (particularly energy generation and transportation), without ignoring
the contribution that those sectors could make to satisfy the needs of social
and economic development. In addition, the region must step up its efforts to
generate a strategy for adaptation to the challenges of climate change.
Infrastructure plans and their link to the development model

For Latin America to achieve a more relevant position in the global
economy and allow a substantial improvement in the quality of life of its
inhabitants, it must maintain a sustained growth rate. This growth must be
of quality, efficient, inclusive, sustainable, and respectful of cultural diversity.
Infrastructure must be a part of this development model together with other
key public policies, such as the orderly management of public finances,
innovation, inclusion, and regional integration.
The analysis of the performance of the infrastructure sectors and their
challenges, as well as the recognition of the factors that condition the growth
and improvement of their services, allows the identification of a number of
issues that make up the strategic infrastructure agenda proposed for the
region. In addition, the analysis has enabled the identification of certain
priority issues in the short term that will require special attention on the part
of governments, as a result of the relative shortage of infrastructure or to
their direct impact on social inclusion and the quality of life of the population.
Issues that require priority attention

Investment efforts in infrastructure must be aimed primarily at especially
critical areas.
Increasing the coverage and quality of water and sanitation services
that have a high social impact.
Promoting and supporting urban public transportation by prioritizing
it over the use of private vehicles.
Improving road safety policies in cities and highways. Traffic accidents
are the first cause of death among Latin American youths and adults
of productive age.
22 |

Strengthening road maintenance, which is as important as building

new roads. Therefore, the low priority generally assigned to road
conservation programs, regardless of the management model, must
be overcome.
Expanding the broad band which has a strong multiplier effect as it
influences quality of life and productivity in the economy, and promotes
integration in the States productive and administrative processes.
Developing infrastructure for regional integration, which is critical
for reducing the dependence of economic growth on changing
international conditions.
The development of new housing particularly social housing must be
accompanied by a comprehensive planning of urban development and
mobility. The purpose is to avoid the need for simultaneous trips, typical
of bedroom communities. The informal occupation of urban land and
poor housing conditions make it difficult to provide quality infrastructure
services.
The adoption of a policy of energy efficiency, focused on actions to
increase the efficiency of expenditure, to reduce losses, and to increase
regional integration together with the development of renewable
generating sources, is part of the immediate challenges of the energy
agenda in Latin America.
The development of river transportation and coastal shipping, which
may contribute to improve the transportation matrix in the region, by
making use of the extensive navigable routes available particularly in
South America.
Investments in infrastructure must be planned and executed over
territorial lines through the use of packages of basic services to take
advantage of synergies, especially in rural areas.
Increase the rational use of infrastructure, not only by expanding
capacity and coverage but also by generating policies that influence
demand. Governments have a number of policy instruments available to
achieve this task, such as the price of services or restrictions on circulation.
Adaptation to climate change and attention to the management of
natural disasters, which due to their significant social impact deserve
urgent attention. To overcome the challenge of improving infrastructure
in the region, it is critical to strengthen the capacity for project
preparation of Latin American countries in the short term. The creation
of a pre-investment Latin American program with the participation of the
development banks, ministries of planning, economy, and finance, with
IDeAL 2011
| 23
Executive summary
the support of CAF and other multilateral entities will generate new ways
of guaranteeing quality results. It is also necessary to review urgently the
infrastructure planning and building standards for their adaptation to
the challenges of climate change. CAF proposes creating a network of
professionals and institutions of the whole continent to exchange best
practices and generate new proposals.
The continent has a solid experience regarding planning, coordination, and
execution of infrastructure for integration projects. This effort must be
continued through regional working groups that will identify and design the
best lines for integration in the coming decade.
Six lines of action for implementing a strategic agenda

To advance toward the implementation of a medium and long term agenda,
six key lines of action are proposed, whose main elements are described
below. This agenda constitutes a proposal to help countries in the region in
considering the multiple elements that allow infrastructure development to
be carried out in a systematic way.
Significantly increase investment in infrastructure

To realize its aspirations, Latin America must continue increasing its
investment in infrastructure: investments close to 5% of GDP annually will be
needed to cover the existing deficit and accompany the continuous growth
expected to reach development. Increasing the stock of infrastructure will
generate a greater need of resources for maintenance, which in turn, will
require stable financing modalities.
Frame policies and projects in a paradigm of sustainable development

and territorial vision
Investments must be implemented within the framework of a vision that
incorporates productive, social, and environmental aspects, in addition to a
territorial and not only a sectorial perspective. It will be necessary to adopt
a more comprehensive definition of infrastructure than the one currently
in use, to emphasize the expansion of telecommunication services, the
comprehensive management of water, and infrastructure of high social
impact. The new paradigm must not be limited to increasing the supply of
infrastructure but must also include demand management and promote the
responsible use of the associated services.
24 |

Strengthen institutions in their various dimensions

The infrastructure planning process must be clearly established in the
national sphere, within a framework that ensures compliance with the
public strategies and enables the development of private initiative. It will be
necessary for the countries to promote the coordination of infrastructure
policies with other policies to overcome the island mentality that has
dominated governmental organizations and, thus, facilitate coordination
among jurisdictions, providing for the fact that subnational entities will
have a growing responsibility in the provision of infrastructure. It is highly
convenient to advance in the regional coordination of integration projects,
to continue with the efforts undertaken in programs such as IIRSA or the
Mesoamerica Project.
Optimize the use of multiple financing sources and modalities

The region will face a strong need of funds for investment in infrastructure.
Faced with new sources of financing such as: specialized institutions, natural
resource operators, sovereign funds, funds linked to climate change, pension
funds, etc., countries must develop their ability to manage and guide the
multiplicity of resources and ensure their optimal use in the different projects
or institutional situations.
Promote the development of enterprises in businesses linked to

infrastructure
A strong impulse to investment generates the opportunity to promote the
development of world class companies in a wide range of businesses linked
to infrastructure. The countries may provide incentives for the development
of companies that participate in the value chain of service provision for
infrastructure within a reasonably competitive environment, in addition to
promoting the development of truly viable enterprises, which are not rent
seekers.
Promote the exchange between governments, regions, and cities.

Permanently monitor best practices and develop mechanisms for
research, exchange of information, and institutional development. The
regions bilateral and multilateral fora, such as IIRSA, COSIPLAN (within
UNASUR), and the Mesoamerica Project, constitute valuable initiatives in
this direction.
IDeAL 2011
| 25
Executive summary
A call for action

The coming decade may be definitive in the progress toward comprehensive
development, and one of the large challenges is to significantly improve the
availability and performance of infrastructure and its associated services.
Infrastructure is one of the necessary conditions for advancing toward a
more inclusive and equitable society; it is also the support for economic
competitiveness, and the development of the domestic market; it constitutes
the main mechanism for regional integration, and may generate important
opportunities for business development. The key factors for confronting this
challenge depend on the public policies that countries implement. Now is the
time to adopt the decisions to implement an aggressive development agenda
and make the most of the opportunity. Throughout its forty years of existence,
CAF has provided strong support to the development of infrastructure in
Latin America and constitutes the main multilateral source for its financing.
CAF provides its support to work closely with the governments and the private
sector of countries in the region, with the aim of confronting these challenges
and provide support, both in financing as well as knowledge management
and the dissemination of best practices.
26 |

| 27
Introduction
Motivation
Infrastructure and its associated services constitute a necessary condition
for the development of countries due to its contribution to social inclusion,
quality of life, competitiveness of the economy, and territorial integration.
Latin America is lagging considerably with respect to the provision of
infrastructure, while at the same time it experiences an accelerated economic
growth and improvements in the life conditions of its populations. The
countries of the region face the double challenge of covering the structural
gaps in the diverse components of infrastructure while simultaneously
expanding the provision so as to avoid that the insufficiencies in quality and
quantity become obstacles for development.
The goal of this document is to provide a strategic diagnosis of infrastructure
in the Latin American countries, by analyzing the main components without
leaving aside the strong disparities between countries, infrastructure
sectors, and even regions within the same country. It is expected that this
strategic diagnosis contributes to recognize the current situation, identify
and determine the scope of the needs for its development, and propose a
strategic agenda for coming years. The works is focused in the transportation
infrastructure in all its modalities, electricity, telecommunications, natural
gas transportation, and water and sanitation.
Organization and scope of the document

The document starts by identifying the role that infrastructure can perform
in the current moment in Latin America, especially because the international
environment generates a unique opportunity to access development.
Chapter two briefly describes this environment and the new opportunities
| 29
Introduction
it offers, and recognizes infrastructure as one of the key factors to achieve a

comprehensive development. When analyzing and comparing the situation
of infrastructure to other regions of the world, the conclusion is that it
presents a considerable deficit.
In order to achieve development, it is necessary to close that gap and increase
the provision and quality of infrastructure and its associated services so they do
not become an obstacle. This same chapter reviews the role of infrastructure as
a driver of development, the methods to estimate the amount of infrastructure
that is necessary, and concludes by presenting the scenarios that may be
expected in the region to advance in its development goals.
Chapter 3 presents an analysis of the situation of the main sectors that
integrate the economic infrastructure. It tries to identify the main problems
in each area and the challenges faced by the increase in demand, and
the diverse trends in this context, such as the increasing urbanization,
technological changes, and a consideration of environmental and social
aspects in the infrastructure policies and projects.
This chapter presents a brief summary of the performance of each sector and
the main challenges faced. CAF requested five studies on each one of the sectors
to recognized specialists, which are available electronically. These studies detail
the performance of each area and have been the base of this document1.
Building on the analysis of the sectors analyzed, Chapter 4 focuses on
identifying the challenges to be overcome so that infrastructure can provide
the necessary support to attain the desired scenario. These challenges are:
i) The financing requirements of the needed investment, ii) the policies and
institutions to carry out the planning and implementation of the projects,
and iii) the incorporation of environmental factors and social actors in the
preparation of policies and the implementation of projects.
1 The base documents

are available at www.
caf.com. They have
been promoted by
CAF considering they
constitute a valuable
contribution for
debate. The ideas and
approaches contained
in these documents are
of the sole responsibility
of the authors and do
not compromise CAFs
official position.
30 |
Chapter 5 contains the priorities of a strategic infrastructure agenda for Latin

America, aimed at reaching the desirable scenarios proposed in Chapter
2. It first presents a set of issues that seem of high priority in the near term,
which should be the object of special attention on the part of governments in
the region due to their large relative gaps, their strategic importance, or their
direct impact on social inclusion and quality of life of the population. Then,
the main lines for implementing the strategic agenda are presented. Two final
annexes include a set of selected indicators on infrastructure in Latin American
countries, and a list of the regional integration projects financed by CAF.
It should be noted that the scope of this work is that of a strategic diagnosis:
it does not pretend to examine in detail the subjects it deals with which
are many, quite diverse, and each one of great complexity but rather to
identify the key challenges so as to contribute to establish public policies for
infrastructure in the region.

IDeAL 2011
| 31
Chapter1
Infrastructure:
key for taking advantage
of development opportunities
The opportunities of Latin America

A favorable international environment
In the framework of a slow recovery of the global economy after the great
recession of 2008-2009, emerging countries and, in particular, Latin
American countries, show a hopeful scenario. While the latest projections
from the International Monetary Fund show a global economy recovering at
rates of close to 2% per year, and only recovering a growth rate of 4% per
year toward 2016, emerging countries will continue growing at rates around
6% per year in the next five years. In this context, Latin America should grow
at rates between 5% and 6% per year to maintain its share in the global
economy and firmly advance toward economic and social development.
The next two decades will show a significant redistribution of world
economic activity. The emergence of a two-speed economy will lead to the
progressive consolidation of three large global consumption poles: North
America, the macro region that includes Western and Eastern Europe and
the Mediterranean, and China and the countries surrounding it. Each one
of these three consumption and growth poles will represent approximately
20% of the global economy. Beyond these three large poles, new regional
areas will begin to consolidate, with shares of between 2% and 6% of global
GDP, which will be led by an economy that will establish a dynamic regional
area (OECD 2010). In Latin America, Mexico and Brazil will probably be the
countries that will play the role of regional engines.
In addition, a group of high middle income emerging countries is positioning
itself to achieve development within the next two decades. Various studies
converge on a list that includes countries such as Poland, Turkey, Malaysia, as
well as a number in Latin America. The reconfiguration of world and regional
growth poles implies that the global economic geography will be profoundly
IDeAL 2011
| 33
Chapter 1. Infrastructure: key for taking advantage of development opportunities
modified by a new combination of factors: the joint action of business

decisions and the differential evolution of consumer groups.
Multinational enterprises of developed countries and the new segment of
multinationals from emerging countries show a growing trend toward a model
of productive disaggregation and the establishment of international value
chains. They evolve toward network models, where they tend to maintain
the decision and innovation centers in their countries of origin, but take wide
ranging decisions regarding productive plant localization to regions with
cost advantages or market potential, subcontracting productive activities
or service centers, and the relocation of research and development (R&D)
and innovation activities. All of these movements present opportunities
for emerging countries: competition is not only to attract foreign direct
investment, in the form of factories, but also to attract service centers and
regional decision centers. The quality of infrastructure will be an important
competitive factor that will play a significant role in the evaluation of
alternative locations for these investments. At the same time, multinational
enterprises from emerging countries are becoming increasingly important
players in the global economy and will become large international investors
which must be attracted.
With respect to consumers, the evolution of developed countries will give
rise to a contrast between the consumption styles of the winning classes
of globalization and the middle classes challenged, and even impoverished,
by the restructuring of the productive processes and the welfare state. In
these countries, opportunities will arise for the sale of products with a good
price-value relationship for the more challenged classes. However, it will be
in emerging countries where the greatest opportunities will arise: the new
affluent classes, the new middle classes, and the millions of inhabitants
that will increase their consumption will generate high growth markets. The
growth potential of the middle classes has been estimated at more than 2.8
billion people by the year 2030, of which 2.7 billion will be in Asia Pacific, with
Latin America incorporating more than 130 million of its inhabitants into the
middle class (OECD 2010).
Latin America faces a unique opportunity in this new international scenario:
It produces the natural resources and food to supply the growth in
consumption of the new dynamic areas of the world. It has the largest
reserves in the world of key elements: 20% of the forested surface, 7
mega diverse countries, one third of the worlds arable land and sweet
water reserves, 31% of the world production of biofuels, 13% of the world
production of oil, 47% of the world production of copper, and 48% of the
world production of soybean2.
2 ECLAC, 2011.
34 |
It may attract a significant proportion of foreign direct investment (FDI)

that will look for new markets or production bases.

At the same time, the region is adopting growth models that lead to
an increase of its middle classes (130 million additional middle class
consumers toward 2030), which contributes to the growth of its domestic
markets.
It has advanced in economic integration, which is reflected in the high
growth rates of intraregional trade in the past 10 years. The impact of world
growth and the economic policies adopted by Latin American countries is
already visible. During the decade 2000-2010, the region has grown at the
highest rates in its recent history and has been able to improve its social
indicators. The current situation presents opportunities and challenges:
a high percentage of the countries of the region are already considered
middle income and could achieve development in the next 20 to 40
years3. A number of countries of the region could reach the levels of per
capita income of countries recently developed, around USD 25,000 per
capita, if they continue growing at current rates. They would continue to
improve their income distribution, which could be expressed in terms of
lowering the Gini coefficient to about 0.40 (see Graph 1.1).
Graph 1.1. The challenge of development
Income growth / per capita
Income / per capita (PPP)
29,000
with better income distribution
GINI coefficient of income distribution
Recently
developed
Countries
22,000
13,500
35
Recently
developed
countries
40
47
Latin
America
53
Latin
America
3 Middle income as
defined by the World
Bank.
2,400
Source: author compilation with World Bank data.
IDeAL 2011
| 35
The two key questions that arise are: Is Latin America able to sustain and
perhaps increase its current growth rates? Will Latin America be able
to transform these years of growth into a true process of economic and
social development? In considering the opportunities, the challenges to
development must also be weighed. The review of the experience of countries
recently developed and the comparison with the more dynamic countries
of Eastern Europa and Asia leads to focus the analysis on the following five
major challenges:
i. Develop societies that promote opportunities and inclusion. The
region is making progress in reducing absolute poverty and in the
growth of its middle classes, but its income distribution indicators are
still unsatisfactory.
ii. Advance toward a more diversified and greater value added insertion
into the world economy. Latin America has a stable share of international
trade. When its share grows, it is mostly due to Price effects (clearly in
grains and minerals), and less so due to quantity effects. The structure
of its exports is highly concentrated on natural resources, food, and
manufactures of low-medium technology intensity. The region has
not been able to significantly increase its share in the dynamic service
sectors, such as information, tourism, and education.
iii. Increase the competitiveness of its private sector. In contrast with
Asian countries, with a few exceptions, there are no countries in the
region within the group of 35-40 most competitive countries in the
world (according to the World Economic Forum or the IMD)4. In Latin
America there are a few large scale multinationals, but these represent
a small minority of the 2,000 largest companies in the world (according
to the Forbes ranking), and in general, they are concentrated in
natural resources. Of the 100 most valuable trademarks in the world,
Latin America has created very few, while countries like Korea have
consolidated trademarks of global importance.
iv. Improve the quality of its institutions. The region has consolidated its
democracies in recent decades, but large gaps remain in institutional
development. At the same time, the business climate in most countries
of the region needs to be improved.
4 IMD World
Competitiveness Center,
Geneva, Switzerland.
36 |
v. Strengthen its innovation capacity and the quality of education.

Latin America has few innovation activities, it spends little in
research and development, and generates few patents. At the same
time, the region is improving the quality of its education, but at a
slower pace than is needed; the countries of the region with the best
performance in the OECD PISA tests are losing positions relative to
the Asian countries.

In summary, it may be said that Latin America, as a result of the new

configuration of the world economy and its own resource endowment, in
coming decades faces the unique opportunity of consolidating its progress
toward economic and social development. To achieve that goal, it must ensure
sustained growth, which will require overcoming significant challenges that
are summarized in Graph 1.2, together with the elements needed to attain it.
Graph 1.2. The challenges of high, sustained, quality growth
Equality and social inclusion
Macroeconomic stability
Sustained quality growth
Microeconomic efficiency
Environmental balance
Investment in
all forms of capital
Productive
transformation
Smart international
insertion
Institutional quality
Source: CAF (2011).
Infrastructure: key variable for taking advantage of opportunities.

Progress toward development will be confirmed if countries in the region
are able to consolidate a position in the global economy that is built on its
undeniable advantages in the production of natural resources, but that
at the same time, migrate toward a production model that systematically
incorporates knowledge and differentiation of its primary, secondary,
and service production. Five major challenges have been enumerated;
overcoming them will require substantial progress in the current levels of
four key factors: i) institutional quality and business climate, ii) the quality
of education and the development of skills for continuous employment, iii)
the capacity to innovate and create differentiated products and services,
and iv) finally, but not less important, a high quality infrastructure and
logistic systems.
IDeAL 2011
| 37
Infrastructure as driver for development

Why do quality infrastructure and efficient logistics constitute one of the
key factors for development? Beyond the academic work that supports
this statement, it is believed that infrastructure and logistics will be able to
contribute to the consolidation of the development process in the region
through four dimensions:
They favor a better quality of life, social inclusion, and opens opportunities
for isolated communities.
They support economic growth and the competitiveness of enterprises.
They facilitate national and regional integration, decentralization, and
internal mobility.
They contribute to diversify the productive fabric through the promotion
of development and the internationalization of national or regional
companies that provide engineering and construction equipment,
together with their associated professional services.
In spite of the long presence of its components, the concept of infrastructure
is relatively new. Until recently, toward the end of the 80s, the concept was
included as a subset within capital. It is not infrastructure as such which
generates an impact, but rather the service it provides. Roads and ports
make transportation services possible; telephone plants and fiber optic
make communications viable; and so on with energy, water and sanitation,
irrigation, elimination of residuals, and others. The impact of infrastructure
is first produced when works are under execution through the generation
of employment that varies significantly according to the type of project
and the development of the companies that provide goods and services.
However, the greatest impact occurs during the long period of exploitation in
which the services contribute to development in the four dimensions listed
above, and which are described below.
Social inclusion, equity, and quality of life

Access to infrastructure and its services constitutes a key factor for
improving the quality of life of individuals, facilitate social inclusion, and
move increase equity. The quality of infrastructure and its services has
an effect on the health and education of lower income individuals, and is
critical to improve their access to employment opportunities. Access to
water and sanitation is crucial for good heath; the diseases acquired from
drinking contaminated water, or due to the lack of water and sanitation, are
38 |

among the main causes of infant mortality5. The availability of electricity,

the access of people to goods and communications favor inclusion and
opportunities for isolated communities in urban and rural areas.
Competitiveness and development of the domestic market

There is wide consensus that infrastructure is one of the determinants of
productivity and economic growth. The consensus arises from numerous
empirical analysis and surveys that compare their results. This nexus is
stronger the lower the income levels6. Infrastructure is an intermediate
input for enterprises, in proportions similar to those of their use by
households and constitutes one of the keys of productivity7: an adequate
infrastructure contributes decidedly to the international competitiveness of
enterprises and of economies. In the case of Latin America, transportation
infrastructure, electricity, and telecommunications play a decisive role in
the competitiveness of the main value chains, such as the production of
bulk products (grains, minerals), agribusiness, manufacture, tourism, or
services. The impact on productivity is not linear; there are network effects
that give rise to relevant indirect impacts.
Territorial cohesion and regional integration

In addition to its traditional objectives of supporting growth and quality of life,
infrastructure is also an instrument for territorial organization. It facilitates
the integration and cohesion of the national territory, the development of
productive nodes and intermediate cities, and the commercial and productive
integration between countries of the region.
Business development to provide works, equipment, and services

The growth of infrastructure and its associated services also presents
an opportunity for the development of enterprises and the associated
human capital, in the sense of increasing the knowledge, abilities, and
skills of the people that provide them. Building companies, suppliers
of equipment and capital goods, engineering services, technology, and
other multiple activities that make up the value chain that supports
the infrastructure works and services, may find opportunities for
development and growth. Active industrial policies may maximize the
impact of infrastructure plans.
5 Mejia, A. 2011.
6 See, for example,
Calderon and Serven
(2006), Estache and Fay
(2007).
7 Prudhomme (2004).
IDeAL 2011
| 39
Infrastructure gap in the region

The relative backwardnessof Latin America
Infrastructure in Latin America shows a generalized lag relative to other
regions, even some developing ones, which is sharper in some sectors and
countries. Although there is no one (hard) indicator that reflects conditions
in all infrastructure sectors, the survey of the World Economic Forum (WEF)
is a good approximation. That study ranks the quality of infrastructure in 140
countries, assigning a value of 1 through 6 to the different components of the
sector. As shown in Graph 1.3, the general performance of infrastructure in
the region is weak, and only exceeds that of Africa.
Graph 1.3. Comparetive general performance of infrastructure (2010)
Infrastructure Quality Indicator.
Average score
6
5.4
5
4.2
3.8
3.6
3.9
2.7
2
1
Southeast Asia
Middle East and

Northern Africa
OECD
Latin America and

the Caribbean
Africa
Eastern Europe
and Central Asia
Source: compilation of WEF data (2010).
Disparity in the performance of its components

The analysis by subsectors, on the basis of the WEF survey, and some hard
indicators available, shows uneven results. Electricity and telecommunications
tend to have an acceptable development in comparative terms, showing good
evaluations in the WEF survey and high levels of fixed and mobile telephony,
respectively. As shown in Graph 1.4 (b). the region has an intermediate
performance in electricity services, above that of Africa and just above that of
Southeast Asia.
However, compared with OECD countries, there is a large difference of
almost two points. The supply of water and sanitation shows a certain lag;
40 |

a more detailed analysis will show that it is greater than it appears at first
sight. Although the levels of access to water and sewage networks reached
80% of urban populations in 2008, the sanitary quality of water is very low,
and there are deficiencies regarding the continuity of services8. In addition,
the treatment of residual waters is insufficient, as less than 30% is subject
to some type of treatment. In transportation, ports show an intermediate
position and a large dispersion in the performance across countries. The
situation is similar regarding airports, with some countries in good positions.
Roads and railroads appear as the weakest subsectors, achieving in both
cases unfavorable valuations compared with other regions.
As shown in graph 1.4 (a), the valuation achieved by regional roads is far below
that of developed countries, and is even below other developing regions, such
as the North of Africa and Southeast Asia.
How much infrastructure is necessary?

Over more than two decades the impact of infrastructure on the economy
has been evaluated, so as to establish the optimal level to which countries
should generally aspire as well as the subsectors that make it up. Two
views have been developed: achieving equality in some key indicators of
a country that is considered an example (benchmarking), or establishing
absolute goals to be attained, for example, universal coverage in the supply
of certain services, or providing for the demands of enterprises and families
based on a prediction of GDP growth. The results are usually expressed as
the provision of infrastructure in physical terms (coverage, quality, etc.), or
as the annual investment flows needed to achieve the proposed targets.
This type of analysis presents some difficulties. Deciding how much must
be invested in infrastructure is not an easy exercise, but it is convenient
to do it and it may offer a basic reference point.9 Quantifying the needs
for infrastructure through benchmarking is a useful procedure to establish
orders of magnitude, but it can hardly be adopted as the basis for a national
investment policy.
Best practices:
aligning infrastructure plans with the vision
Best practices: aligning infrastructure plans with a vision of Latin American
has developed a valuable institutional experience in planning and building
infrastructure. The strategic infrastructure plans prepared in Brazil are a good
example. In that instance, on the basis of a strategic vision for the country
and as a function of that vision, lines of action and regions of growth were
established, as well as the infrastructure projects necessary to achieve two key
IDeAL 2011
8 Latin American and

Caribbean Demographic
Centre (CELADE in
Spanish), 2009.
9 Estache and Fay
(2007), page 14.
| 41
Graph 1.4. Comparative performance of (a) roads and (b) electricity
(a)
6
5.3
4.5
4.1
4
3.3
3.3
Eastern Europe
and Central Asia
Africa
3.7
3
2
1
Southeast Asia
Middle East and

Northern Africa
OECD
Latin America
and the Caribbean
(b)
7
6.2
6
5
4.7
4.3
4.2
4
3
3
2
1
Southeast Asia
Middle East and

Northern Africa
OECD
Latin America
and the Caribbean
Africa
Eastern Europe
and Central Asia
Source: compilation of WEF data (2010).
objectives: the appropriate insertion in the global economy, and the territorial
integration for the consolidation of new productive areas and expansion of the
domestic market.
Another relevant example is the IIRSA process, in which a strategic vision was
established and then the areas for integration and development were defined
together with the associated projects. The IIRSA initiative has been operating
for more than ten years and represents a positive experience of developing
planning capacity, institutional development, and coordination between
countries. The activities initiated within IIRSA are currently being carried out
by the south American Infrastructure and Planning Council (COSIPLAN in
Spanish), within the UNASUR framework.
42 |

In the current international scenario, both regions and countries assign

growing importance to the role of infrastructure, which is considered a key
element to differentiate development positions, improved competitiveness,
ensure inclusion, and support sustainable economic models. Among recent
experiences of interest for Latin America, it is useful to comment the following
three cases: the 2050 infrastructure development strategy of the European
Union; the (Asia Interconnected) process, led by the Asian Development Bank;
and the infrastructure strategy A New Beginning of Australia.
Other regions plan infrastructure as a key variable for development

The European Union, its transportation infrastructure development strategy
In 2011, the European Union published a White Paper which presented its Strategy
for the Transportation Sector through 205010. The document begins with a harsh
diagnosis: the European transportation system has allowed a period of great
economic growth and improved mobility and security, but it is reaching its limits.
The projections for 2030 show increases in costs and a deterioration in
the levels of mobility that would present a grave problem for European
competitiveness and welfare. The document points out that, The future
prosperity of our continent will depend on the ability of all its regions to full
integrate into the global economyEfficient transport connections will be
vital to achieve these objectives; limiting mobility is not an option.
These challenges open a great opportunity for 2050: structural changes
are proposed in the transportation system that allow simultaneously for
improvements in the quality of life and environmental quality, preservation
of the freedom of individuals to move, and strengthen the competitiveness
of the European industry. The White Paper proposes a vision for 2050: A
system of mobility that is integrated, sustainable, and efficient.
This vision is expressed in four strategic areas: i) a transportation system that
is integrated and efficient, ii) a European policy of research and innovation
in transportation, iii) modern infrastructure and intelligent financing, and
iv)the international dimension (included in the promotion of European
transportation technologies).
The Seamless Asia Program combines the regional,

sub-regional, and national levels
The Asian Development Bank has prepared a document outlining a vision
of a Seamless Asia that proposes the development of an integrated region,
IDeAL 2011
10 European Commission
(2011).
| 43
linked by world class networks, and of high environmental quality, that

connects national markets, promotes high and sustainable growth, satisfies
the basic needs of the population and, therefore, contributes to the reduction
of poverty.11
To achieve this vision, it will be necessary to develop both hard as well as
soft infrastructure, that must include the development of high quality and
low environmental impact transportation networks; the development of
multinational energy projects that promote an adequate supply of fuels and new
forms of energy; the provision of policies, systems, and processes that improve
the efficiency of regional transportation networks, and the development of stable
and efficient financial markets that channel Asian and international savings
toward productive investments, such as those in infrastructure.
The institutional development framework for Seamless Asia is made up of
three main components: i) the initiatives to develop networks at the Pan-Asian,
sub-regional, and national levels; ii) an Asian infrastructure fund that uses
resources from multilateral and bilateral, national governments, and private
sector resources; and finally, iii) institutional development initiatives, at the PanAsian level, with sub-regional programs, and between national organizations.
Australia and its New Beginning strategy

Starting in 2008, the Australian government organized an inter-state and
inter-ministerial working group to ensure that transportation, defined as the
engine room of the economy, would allow achieving the objective of keeping
the country in movement. Faced with growing demands for transportation
linked to the rapid growth of the country, the authorities recognized the
need to confront a new stage of reforms based on a comprehensive vision
of the transportation network, new forms of leadership, participation, and a
new policy design paradigm12. In this context, 10 priority areas were defined,
covering issues ranging from transportation market regulations, planning of
infrastructure and investment, the environment and energy, social inclusion,
and planning for human resources and worker training.
11 Asian Development
Bank Institute (2009).
12 Australia National
Transport Commission
(2011).
44 |
For each of the ten strategic priority areas, a diagnosis of the challenges
faced by the country was prepared, and the desired results were established.
For example, the strategy seeks to provide a safe transportation system
that contributes to the national mobility objectives without fatalities
or accidents to its users; that promotes social inclusion by connecting
remote or disadvantaged communities; and that improves access to the
transportation network to ensure an equitable enjoyment of the resources
by the community. At the same time, the strategy seeks to protect the
environment and improve health by investing in a transportation system that
minimizes emissions and the consumption of resources and energy, while

providing the greatest transparency in its funding and charges. To advance

in the implementation of this new strategy and strengthen the institutional
capacity, a national transportation vision was established, consistent with
the Australia National Vision, which provides for a unified policy framework
and includes an agreement between all the States and establishes inter-state
and inter-ministerial working groups in charge of implementing the vision.
Aspirations and scenarios for the region

The key issues: quality of the international environment
and of our societies
The countries in the region are mostly in the intermediate income range, which
provides the opportunity for advancing toward development in the coming 25
to 40 years. This aspiration can be expressed in indicators such as an income
per capita of over USD 25,000, income distribution with Gini indicators of
around 0.40, higher levels of access to education, universal access to health
and sanitation, and R&D expenditures of around 2%-4% of GDP.
In thinking about the possible evolution of Latin America, it is useful to work
with the technique of scenario construction, or alternative and plausible
futures. The scenarios combine variables linked to the evolution of the
international environment and those linked to the capacity of our societies to
construct competitive and inclusive models, which will allow them to perform
adequately in the face of international uncertainties. As a relevant example, it
should be mentioned that recently the WEF has carried out scenario creation
exercises for China and India that provide images of alternative futures for
these countries, and offers a framework and language that allow public and
private leaders to develop shared strategic agendas aimed at accelerating
development13.
The key variables for the proposed future scenarios for Latin America are
two: what will be the quality of the international environment, and what will be
the quality and competitiveness of societies in the region. The first involves
factors such as global growth or recession, the dynamism of trade and
international investment, trade opening or protectionisms, and the status
of peace and security. The second includes competitiveness, inclusion and
opportunities, and institutional quality.
The desirable scenario and the role of infrastructure

By combining these two elements, four possible scenarios have been
developed, which are illustrated in Graph 1.5. Scenario I is the preferred one.
IDeAL 2011
13 World Economic Forum

(2009).
| 45
It combines a favorable international environment with a continuous effort

to build inclusion and competitiveness in the region that will allow progress
toward competitive and quality societies. Scenario IV is an intermediate
one, which results from a less favorable international environment in which
the region takes advantage of the limited opportunities and protects itself
from an unstable external environment. These two scenarios should be seen
as a continuum for which we should be prepared. At the same time, they
constitute the basis on which a strong strategy regarding infrastructure is
proposed, taking into account the different ways in which infrastructure can
contribute to comprehensive development:
Favoring a better quality of life, social inclusion, and opening opportunities
for isolated communities.
Supporting economic growth and the competitiveness of enterprises.
Facilitating national and regional integration, decentralization, and internal
mobility.
Contributing to diversify the productive fabric through the promotion
of development and the internationalization of national or regional
enterprises that provide engineering and construction equipment,
together with their associated professional services.
Graph 1.5. Possible scenarios for Latin America
Quality, competitive society

Latin America manages to
capitalize the scarce opportunities
and defend itself from an
unfavorable environment
Latin America on the road

to sustainable development
IV
III
II
Unfavorable international environment
Favorable international environment
Latin America loses relevance

within a framework of strong
deterioration and fragmentation
Latin America loses

another opportunity
Weak, disintegrated society
Source: CAF.
46 |

| 47
Chapter2
The state
of the infrastructure sectors
and the challenges they face
Transportation
Ensure increasing mobility and control negative externalities
The region has experienced a strong and sustained increase in the demand
for transportation, boosted by the growth in the movement of cargo and
people. In the past twenty years, trade volumes in the countries of Latin
America grew at higher rates than economic activity as a whole. Between
1990 and 2011, the GDP of countries in the region grew at an annual average
rate of 3.3%, while the volume of exports and imports grew at rates of 6.6%
and 9%, respectively. This generated strong pressures on the foreign trade
nodes and on the road networks, as road transportation is the dominant
mode in domestic flows. The growth of intra-regional trade in recent years
has further increased the demands on roads and land border crossings.
An example is the exchange between the countries of the Latin American
Integration Association (ALADI in Spanish), which grew by close to 26%
between 2010 and 2011, with trade between countries such as Ecuador and
Peru growing at rates exceeding 40% (ALADI, 2011).
The movement of people has also increased rapidly, driven by the growth of
cities toward low dense suburban areas and by the increase in car ownership.
According to ECLAC data, between 2000 and 2006 the increase in the total
number of vehicles has been very high in Brazil (54%), Colombia (40%),
Mexico (60%), Peru (44%) and Venezuela (42%), with annual growth rates of
between 4% and 8% (ECLAC, 2007). The higher number of trips associated
to automobiles has had significant effects in terms of congestion, particularly
in large cities. The growth in the stock of motorcycles is also noteworthy: in
Colombia, between 2006 and 2007, 700,000 new units were incorporated,
more than during the whole of the 20th century. As a result, since 2006 the
total number of motorcycles exceeds that of automobiles in the national total
(Montezuma, 2007).
IDeAL 2011
| 49
Chapter 2. The state of the infrastructure sectors and the challenges they face
The regions modal matrix shows a notable distortion in favor of road

transportation, which presents significant challenges in terms of its
sustainability. With the exception of Brazil and Mexico, where railroad
transportation of cargo represents around 20%, in the other countries
of the region that have railroad infrastructure, its share does not exceed
5%. The high consumption of fossil fuels14 and the exponential growth of
negative externalities make this structure highly vulnerable. This allocation
of transportation modes leads to a number of negative consequences,
of which urban and road congestion, in areas of intensive circulation, is
the most visible. In addition, transportation is one of the sectors whose
contribution to emissions has grown the most in developing countries:
between 1990 and 2004 emissions from road transportation increased by
61%, twice the rate of developed countries (International Energy Agency,
IEA, 2006).
Regarding the impacts on the health of the population, the region registers
17 deaths from traffic accident for every 100,000 inhabitants, representing
almost twice the world average (Barbero, 2010).
Both cargo and passenger transportation are undergoing changes. With
respect to the first, since the 1980s transportation activity has become
integrated in the comprehensive management of supply chains, as part of
modern logistics. The importance of this change lies in the decisions adopted
by those who generate cargo: they no longer seek the lowest freight costs,
but rather the lowest logistic cost, which also involves storage, inventories,
losses, and other factors. This has led to the preeminence of smaller and
more frequent dispatches, in which the synchronization of operations is key.
These changes have placed strong pressure on the cargo transportation
operators, many of which have become logistic operators, strengthening the
demands on the sector both in terms of infrastructure as well as services.
14 Currently, transportation
explains 32% of energy
consumption in the region.
50 |
The area of mobility of people is undergoing change toward a paradigm of

sustainable transportation, particularly in large cities. The implementation
of this change appears to be very desirable, but presents significant
challenges. Although the main objective of transportation is to ensure the
mobility of people and goods, society assigns other objectives as well:
minimize emissions and other adverse environmental effects, reduce the
consumption of energy, reduce accidents, support regional and urban
development policies, and generate employment. On occasion these
multiple objectives may be conflicting. Therefore, it is necessary to achieve
an adequate balance between them, without losing sight of the most urgent
needs in each context. The countries of the region are still in debt regarding
the mobility of the poorest sectors, which limits their inclusion in society.
Therefore, development requires a broad and flexible vision regarding
sustainable transportation, which is not limited exclusively to the reduction
of emissions.

In a context of growing complexity, institutions of the transportation sector

are generally weak and with a strong tendency toward modal fragmentation.
The public sector segmentation by mode tends to reduce managerial
efficiency and hinder the design of adequate policies in the face of cross
cutting agendas, such as urban mobility or logistics. The scarcity of qualified
human resources should be added to these difficulties, explaining many of
the problems in the sector. These problems are expressed in the weaknesses
of policy formulation, the design and execution of investment projects, and
in the implementation of regulatory or organizational reforms. The lack of
data regarding the sector and of tools to organize them, are also weaknesses
that make planning difficult. Strengthening public capacities would allow
government organizations a more solid leadership, through the formulation
of comprehensive policies, especially necessary in a sector where the issues
of political economy are quite complex.
Roads: overcome the structural deficit,

increase capacity, and guarantee security
The Latin American road network has a relatively weak performance. In terms
of geographic coverage, its density is low: 156 km of roads for every 1,000
km2 compared with the world average of 240 km; the levels are lower in
South America than in Central America. The difference is wider with respect
to OECD countries, which have network densities in the order of 600 to
3,000 km per 1,000 km2. In terms of quality, the region has a low proportion
of paved roads, 16% on average, with a lower proportion in South America.
The world average is 57% and in developed countries paved roads represent
almost 100% of the network. The availability of indicators that would allow
comparisons regarding the state of the network in various countries is very
limited, as they are prepare don the basis of different methodologies which
produce results that are not comparable. However, the data available indicate
that the regional network presents a poor state of maintenance, lower than
developed and developing regions such as the Middle East and North Africa
(Barbero, 2010).
The improvements made to the road network in recent years have occurred
together with a strong growth in the demand for circulation, promoted by
increases in economic activity, trade, and the number of motor vehicles.
Thus, the challenge of overcoming structural deficits is superimposed with
the need to increase the capacity of the networks to satisfy growing traffic
demands and reduce congestion. These requirements affect not only the
trunk network but also the secondary and tertiary networks. The latter are
key for increasing access of rural communities and strengthen the value
chain of the primary and agro industrial sectors. The dominant role of road
transportation in the internal mobility of people and cargo make maintenance
a key management issue, which requires large amounts of investment.
IDeAL 2011
| 51
Starting in 1990, the region incorporated private participation in the sector

with varying results, but public sector investment continues to dominate.
Therefore, strengthening the technical capacity of state institutions is key
to the improvement of the sectors performance, and must be based on
comprehensive policies and financing mechanisms that are both solid and
stable.
Railroads: a strategic mode for cargo transportation

The share of railroads in the transportation of passenger and cargo is very
small in the region. Except for Brazil and Mexico, where railroads have a 20%
share in the movement of cargo, in the other countries of the region that have
railroad, this share does not exceed 5%. Cargo transportation is the most
relevant and growing activity in the railroad sector: between 1995 and 2008,
the number of tons transported doubled. The activity is mostly in the hands
of private operators that work on the basis of commercial criteria, and have
improved the efficiency and quality of operations. The transportation of urban
and suburban passengers is the second activity in terms of volumes, but it is
limited to only a few cities. Only three (So Paulo, Buenos Aires and Ro de
Janeiro) concentrate over 95% of this traffic. In this area, there are private and
public operators with significant differences in terms of performance. Long
distance passenger services were drastically reduced during the 19990s,
and currently represent less than 1% of inter-urban passenger movement
(Kohon, 2011.a) (See Table 2.1).
15 More than half of the

railroad concessionary
companies in the region
have revenues of under
USD 100 million per year.
16 Railroads in Mexico
are an exception, as they
have developed a massive
and efficient container
transportation operation.
52 |
Increasing the share of railroads in cargo transportation requires an active

role of the state in the sector, as well as changes in commercial and operating
practices of the concessionary companies. The cargo concessionaries made
important investments to improve services but, in general terms, they did
not make structural improvements to the railroad systems as this type of
investment, due to its size, is beyond their financial capacity and requires
public financing15. A greater state presence is also required to deal with the
impact of railroad operations in urban areas, such as the establishment of
rights-of-way, the construction of urban ring roads, and crossings with the
road system. At the same time, operators must capture mass traffic which
is still not serviced, and enter massively into the general cargo market. This
implies the development of an intermodal infrastructure that facilitates
the access of railroads to ports and storage centers, and a change in the
operating culture of these companies which have mostly focused in bulk
transportation16.
The development of suburban railroads in the region faces a number of
obstacles. The first of them is the lack of integration between transportation
planning and land use. The disorganized creation of new urban and suburban
development, scattered and of low density, promotes the use of private

Table 2.1. Railroad traffic (a) of cargo (main systems)

and (b) of suburban passengers in Latin America
(a)
1999
Country
2008
Tons
Tons/km
Tons
Tons/km
(Thousands) (Thousands) (Thousands) (Thousands)
Argentina
Variation
(Ton-km)
2008/1999
Average
distance
2008 (km)
17,488
9,102
23,619
12,025
32%
509
1,572
829
1,831
1,021
23%
558
Brazil
305,100
162,300
459,700
267,700
65%
582
Chile
4,810
1,032
10,804
1,967
91%
182
Colombia
5,869
1,434
25,537
4,869
240%
191
77,062
54,109
99,845
77,170
43%
773
Peru
1,963
546
3, 179
659
21%
207
Uruguay
1,321
239
1,393
304
27%
218
Bolivia
Mexico
(b)
Country
1999
2008
Variation(%)
Millions of passengers
Argentina
479.4
450.0
-6
Brazil
531.9
679.1
28
Chile
11.5
21.1
83
Mexico
-----
8.6
-----
Source: IADB (2011).
vehicles instead of mass transit systems, among which railroads have great
potential.
Financial factors have been an additional challenge. Railroad projects require
large initial investments and usually have difficulties in paying their operating
costs. The weaknesses in coordinating with other modes, especially with the
schedules of preexisting motorized public transportation that operate along
the railroad or near it, have also had negative effects. Long distance passenger
projects have high cost and low demand, so that decisions regarding their
implementation must ensure that the desired social objections are attained.
IDeAL 2011
| 53
Ports: key logistic nodes for

international insertion and competitiveness
The ports of the region are relatively small on a global scale and show good
levels of productivity. In terms of operating scale, in general cargo, only 10
ports in the region move more than 1,000,000 TEU annually (Twenty Foot
Equivalent Unit, the unit of movement of containers)17. This reflects the
importance of bulk in the regions exports. There a numerous terminals
specialized in this type of cargo, generally operated by the private sector.
The entry of private operators into the sector during the decade of the
1990s had a positive impact in terms of efficiency. Productivity, measured
on the basis of indicators of equipment and docking space use, shows
good levels in a comparative perspective. However, in terms of operational
efficiency, indicators are widely scattered with many cases of very poor
performance.
Trends in the shipping business, which is moving toward a significant
concentration, have a strong impact on the prospects for developing
ports. The use of ever bigger ships that stop in few places and concentrate
their operations in terminals able to receive them, with high levels of
efficiency, promotes the establishment of a trunk fed system. This scheme
has promoted cargo transfers (mostly containers) and has unleashed
competition among ports that seek to become hubs that receive larger ships
that offer shorter travel times and improved freight rates. This phenomenon
has an adverse impact on the relative logistic costs of smaller ports, forcing
traders to transfer goods. The coming expansion of the Panama Canal is
not only a large infrastructure work in the region, but will also have a strong
global and regional impact as it will change the dimensions of ships and the
configuration of maritime routes.
17 Santos, Brazil; Colon

and Balboa, Panama;
Kingston, Jamaica; Buenos
Aires, Argentina; Freeport,
Bahamas; Cartagena,
Colombia; Manzanillo,
Mexico; Callao, Peru;
and Caucedo, Dominican
Republic.
18 Global Container
Terminal Operators Annual
Review and Forecast 2011,
quoted in The Journal
of Commerce. Available
at: http://www.joc.com/
portsterminals/drewryseestightening-terminalcapacity.
54 |
The trend in global demand for primary products (such as minerals or soybean)
has promoted a proliferation of private initiatives to exploit the resource
and the infrastructure works to ensure their logistics. The developments
proposed typically consider the needs of the project, promoting initiatives
that are not always aligned with a strategic view (multiple ports close to each
other, railroads of exclusive use). The dynamism of the sector underlines the
need to reinforce the technical capacity of the public actors to ensure clear
guidelines for their development.
Recent analysis regarding the evolution of the sector indicates that the
regions terminals will experience strong pressures on their capacity during
the period through 2016, as a result of increasing demand18. The private
sector is able to carry out the necessary investments, and the public sector
must ensure adequate conditions in the waterfront, through dredging, and
on land it must lead in the organization of the city-port relationship, and in
coordinating the actors of the port community.

Air traffic infrastructure: the challenge of unprecedented growth

The demand for air transportation has registered strong growth, resulting in
a high use of the air traffic infrastructure and airplanes. In 2011, passenger
traffic in Latin America grew by 17%, twice the world average, while capacity
offered by the airlines grew by 12%, also above the world average. Given
that propensity to consume air travel by developing markets is considerably
higher than that of mature markets, it is expected that demand will continue
increasing rapidly in coming years as economies grow and the quality
of life improves. In this context, with the exception of Chile, Costa Rica,
Ecuador, Peru, and Uruguay, the levels of airports services are relatively low.
Regarding air transportation services, the region has experienced the same
consolidation process seen around the world and, within the region, it is
interconnected almost exclusively by local airlines: 73% of the interregional
traffic is operated by five airlines. The most successful of those are mostly
owned by the private sector and have reported positive results in recent
years. (see Graph 2.1).
Graph 2.1. Growth of passenger traffic in Latin America

(2006-2010, paying passengers-km)
20%
17.1%
15%
10.2%
10%
8.4%
8.2%
5%
0.3%
0%
-2.4%
-5%
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
(January-May)
Note: January-May 2011 is compared to the same period in 2010.
Source: IATA Air Transport Market Analysis.
The entry of the private sector into airport management had a generally
positive effect on the performance and quality of the infrastructure. It
should be noted, however, that rates charged to passengers and airlines
(that finance maintenance, operation, and investment in airports) have
increased significantly. In the future, the renegotiation of concession
IDeAL 2011
| 55
contracts will have to reach balances that without discouraging of the

private sector, harmonize the interest of the concessionaires with those of
the passengers, airlines, and the state. In this regard, one of the relevant
aspects for private sector participation in the management of airports
is the quality of the institutional and regulatory framework in the region
that, in general, is weak. The complexity of airports and their monopolistic
character require monitoring the concessionaire regarding compliance with
the terms of the contract, and a clear definition of economic regulations on
matters of tariffs and access charges.
Urban transportation: the need for a new paradigm

Transporting people constitutes one of the main challenges faced by the main
urban centers of developing countries. The growth of cities leads to a sustained
growth of the demand for mobility that, associated with rapidly increasing
stock of motor vehicles, generates growing congestion. In many cases, this
process is combined with the deterioration of public transportation, which
promotes individual trips in automobiles or motorcycles, further increasing
congestion. All of this has negative consequences for the economy of the city,
its environment, and the quality of life of its inhabitants, particularly those
with less resources and greater vulnerability.
In recent years, there has been a growing trend in Latin America
toward the reform and modernization of public transportation that
seeks to reorganize the conventional systems, characterized by their
fragmentation, for integrated systems that include mass modes in the
sections of greater density. Restructuring the mass transportation
networks has been one of the main formulas implemented in numerous
cities of the region, integrating trunk corridors which consolidate mass
flows of passengers with feeder routes increasing the links between
services, incorporating new transportation technologies, and coordinating
the payment systems.
The public transportation of passengers is key in this new sustainable urban
transportation model. Improving it requires a modernization of services
and implies very large projects in large cities (subways, BRT, streetcars).
As the systems are integrated, the new projects make important
demands on institutional capacity, regulatory frameworks, and financing
mechanisms that ensure their efficiency and efficacy. The objective of the
new designs is not limited to providing mobility, but also aim at establishing
a better environment in the cities, which implies achieving coordination
between jurisdictions and in urban development policies, the use of land,
and housing.
56 |

Electricity
Growing demand requires continuous expansion
Electricity services in Latin America have reached 93.4% of the population,
with an urban coverage of 98.8%, and in rural areas, of 74.0%. Although the
general situation does not compare unfavorably with the world average, and
particularly with other developing countries, a number of countries in the
region are lagging particularly behind.
The sector has experienced sustained growth in the demand for energy
and power, which between 2000 and 2010 increased by 36% and 25%,
respectively. This growth was more pronounced in the Andean countries
(50% and 29%, respectively)19. The dominant generation source is
hydroelectric, representing 56% of installed capacity, while thermal sources
explain 40%. The development potential for hydro generation is quite large,
and it is estimated that it could quadruple current capacity. However, the
projects must be designed and operated within a framework of sustainable
development, and may affect important ecosystems and displace vulnerable
groups (see Table 2.2).
Table 2.2. Electric service coverage (2009)
Region
Population
without service
(millions of
residents)
Latin America
Developing countries
OECD and transition
economies
World
Coverage
Total
Urban
Rural
31
93.4
98.8
74.0
1,438
73.0
90.7
60.1
99.8
100.0
99.5
1,441
78.9
93.6
65.1
Source: World Energy Outlook, IEA, 2010.
The balance between generation supply and demand shows that reserve
margins in the region range between 30%-60%, but during dry spells, the
effective reserve declines significantly, as many of the hydroelectric dams do
not have a significant reservoir capacity. In the case of the South Cone, the
generation reserve has declined considerably due to increased demand, and
it stands at minimum levels. The limitations are not in the availability of power
IDeAL 2011
19 The analysis of the

electricity sectors considers
three sub regions: Mercosur
(Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Chile, Paraguay, and
Uruguay); the Andean
region (Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru, and Venezuela); and
the Central, North, and
Caribbean (Costa Rica,
El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama; and
the Spanish speaking
Caribbean islands: Cuba,
Santo Domingo, Puerto
Rico, and others).
| 57
but rather on the energy generated. Energy integration in the sub regions,
which has been advancing, allows sharing of reserves that contributes to
improve the quality and availability of the service. Box 2.1 describes the case
of Central America, the most electrically integrated region in Latin America.
The provision of transmission infrastructure is particularly costly in Latin America,
as the region combines a low consumption density with a large geographic space.
In terms of kilometers of line relative to energy consumed, the length is three
to four times higher than in developed countries. This implies larger investment
requirements than in more developed regions, so that its regulation and planning
constitute an issue of the greatest importance (see Table 2.3).
Table 2.3. Supply-demand balance
MERCOSUR
Andean
C, N&C
92,310
34,920
49,254
119,238
31,287
15,839
1,560
Nuclear
3,025
1,365
Thermal
44,702
19,184
44,304
166,965
50,471
75,068
45%
31%
34%
Maximum demand
Hydroelectric
Geothermal
Total
Theoretical reserves
Source: CAF.
Coverage has reached high values in urban areas, but the rural population
that still lacks service is high, the coverage is costlier, and probably will require
the combined use of connection to networks and extra network solutions. In
general, projects are co-financed between the state, the private sector, and
consumers. There is a trend toward the creation of specific state institutions
to develop rural electrification projects in response to the demonstrated
lack of interest by distributors. Frequently, the creation of the institution is
accompanied by a fund allocated to rural electrification, which is managed
by the same institution or by a separate entity (see Box 2.1).
The trend toward renewable sources and the new network designs
In the region there is a strong trend to incorporate non-conventional
renewable sources to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and emissions of
greenhouse gasses, in particular, toward aeolic generation. Doing so has
58 |

Box 2.1. Central American electricity integration: a successful case

One of the most important electric interconnections in Latin America is the one in
Central America. It went through a complex integration process whose success was
possible due to the decision and attitude adopted by the countries. The presidents
of the six Central American nations agreed to give maximum priority to the project
named Electric Interconnection System of the Central American Countries
(SIEPAC in Spanish), and subscribed in December 1996, the Framework Treaty for
the Electric Market of Central America, which was ratified by the six countries and
became the basis for the creation of a regional electricity market (MER in Spanish).
Regional institutions were created: CRIE, the regional regulator; the EOR, responsible
for the regional operation; and EPR, the transmission company responsible for the
regional interconnection network. Currently, the six countries that make up the MER
are physically interconnected by the so-called Regional Transportation Network
(RTR in Spanish). Energy exchanges among the Central American countries took
place prior to the operation of MER in the year 2002. Until then, there were two
subsystems that operated independently as there was no link between them.
With the entry in operation of the interconnection of the electricity systems of
El Salvador and Honduras in 2002, together with the operation of the MER, the
technical and regulatory conditions were created to allow for energy exchanges of
imports and exports between the six countries. In addition, the region is connected
with Mexico through a Mxico-Guatemala interconnection and is advancing in the
interconnection between Colombia and Panama.
requires state support, which has created the conditions for development
that the dynamics of energy markets have not achieved. Promotion activities
have been more important the greater the gap between the market cost of
energy supply with traditional sources, and the cost of developing renewable
technologies. The high international prices of liquid fuels in recent years have
been an additional motivation for the development of renewable energies
as they have significantly reduced the price gap. In recent years, a number
of Latin American countries have begun to promote the development of
nontraditional renewable energy technologies in larger scale, for which the
region has abundant resources. The installed capacity of aeolic generation
in the region, although still marginal, has been doubling every year (see Table
2.4, page. 60).
The evolution of new technologies is reaching all sectors and now it appears to
be the term for an important change in the electricity sector of Latin America
and the Caribbean. The sector needs new models that will allow a more
efficient use of energy to respond to the challenges that the environment,
the new generators, and the new consumers present. The classical model of
transmission from generation to demand does not easily adjust to renewable
energy, as these, with their variability, generate changes in the directions
of the flows that require the development of an intelligent and integrated
IDeAL 2011
| 59
Table 2.4. Aeolic generation capacity in Latin America and the Caribbean
Country
Argentina
MW Early 2008
MW 2009
27
29
Brazil
247
600
Chile
20
58
Colombia
20
20
Costa Rica
70
98
12
Ecuador
2,4
Mexico
88
320
39
Peru
0,7
Uruguay
0,7
21
Caribbean
53
53,2
536
> 1250
Cuba
Nicaragua
Total
Source: LAWEA November 2009.
network (an important challenge for the region), where in each node, there
may be generation and demand, and in which the tariffs must be dynamic to
adapt to this environment.
Managing the sector: balancing planning and regulation

There are various management models for the electricity sector that combine
the participation of the public and private sector, and market mechanisms with
public planning. In most countries generation has been organized as a free
access market in which prices lead to the addition of new capacity, creating
a very efficient sector, even in those countries which have not organized the
area under a market scheme. In transmission, the role of planning has proved
to be critical for its expansion, more so in the face of the development of nonconventional sources. The growth of transmission shows a number of public
private association models that in many cases, has succeeded in attracting
investors and reducing costs. In general, distribution is the responsibility of
private companies, albeit with some important exceptions. The retribution
60 |

for its services linked to rate tables and social policies that deal with the
capacity to pay of consumers and the important externalities that justify
the universalization of the service is important to ensure quality and the
expansion of supply. The design of subsidies that includes consumers with
relatively high incomes may divert necessary resources for the development
of the system and increased coverage.
In several countries of Latin America, the non-technical losses of energy
constitute a very important problem, which must be faced and considered in the
strategic design of the sector because they may pose a threat to the sustainable
development of the electricity sector. Success in resolving this issue will depend
in the en don the conviction of the government regarding its importance and the
need to introduce a change in the payment culture of consumers.
The need for change in the production and consumption of electricity

The development of the energy sector in Latin America requires the
introduction of important changes in the way electricity is produced
and consumed, promoting sustainable modes, which naturally include
environmental conservation. The main objectives are: i) maximize access of
the population to electricity services under economically and environmentally
sustainable conditions so as to improve the quality of life and equity, and ii)
achieve quality of service, reliability of supply, and competitive prices that
support economic development.
The main obstacles to be overcome are the low coverage in a number of
regions, especially rural areas; the scarcity of economic resources relative to
investment needs (that may double the requirements of developed countries
per inhabitant); rates that are not representative of costs; high energy losses
and subsidies not targeted on low income consumers; an inefficient use
of capital resources; and weak institutions and regulations of the services
assigned to private companies.
The challenges faced by Latin America in the electricity sector may be
summarized as follows:
Generate strategic long term plans consistent with the rest of the energy
sector, and institutions to ensure that implementation will be coherent
with the regulatory regime to be adopted.
Improve the efficiency of public expenditure on certain key processes,
such as contracting, concessions, and risk management.
Establish rates that reflect costs and ensure that subsidies are assigned
and focused efficiently.
IDeAL 2011
| 61
Improve the efficiency in the use of existing and new infrastructure

through: i) the efficiency of public expenditure on infrastructure, the
award processes, the design of concessions, and the allocation and
management of risks; ii) the investments required to achieve an optimal
level of losses and improve the relationship between the suppliers of
service and consumers; iii) improving regional integration to allow a better
use of the generation infrastructure.
Ensure the necessary financing for the expansion of the required
infrastructure seeking the most efficient sources.
Establish environmental policies that allow the sustainable development
of the sector.
Ensure, at the same time, the Access of the lower income population to
the supply of electricity.
The annual investment needs will depend on the growth of demand. In a
scenario of sustained growth, these needs have been estimated at USD 60
billion a year on average, through the year 2020, equivalent to 1.2% of current
GDP. In a conservative scenario (implying a growth of GDP not greater than
3% per year), the necessary investment would approximately be cut in half.
Natural gas transportation

Growing demand and greater weight of gas in the regional energy matrix
The last two decades registered an increase in primary energy consumption
throughout the world, albeit lower than the growth of the gross domestic
product, which led to a drop in the intensity of energy at a global level. Within
this context, in Latin America energy consumption grows strongly, together
with energy reforms that could eventually lead to energy exchanges. Natural
gas emerges particularly strongly within the regions energy matrix, with its
per capita consumption increasing at a rate of 3.3% annually between 1990
and 2010, exceeding the growth rates observed in other regions such as
the European Union, the OECD, and the world total. The rapid expansion of
natural gas consumption in Latin America has resulted in a 25% share of the
consumption of energy in the primary matrix, seven percentage points over
the level registered in 1990. The market share of this hydrocarbon is similar to
that of the OECD, the European Union, and the world.
The distribution to consumers of natural gas in Latin America is uneven,
with Mexico being the largest consumer, representing almost one third
of the regions gas consumption, followed by Argentina, Venezuela, and
Brazil. At the same time, proven gas reserves in the region are found mostly
62 |

in Venezuela (69%), while the remaining 31% is scattered. Probable and

possible reserves continue generating attention in the light of the application
of new technology applications for the development of shale gas deposits,
and the recent discoveries in the pre-salt layer (underwater geological
formation) in Brazil (see Graph 2.2).
Graph 2.2. Distribution of consumption and proven natural gas reserves in
Latin America and the Caribbean
Consumption
Colombia 4%
Chile 2%
Rest 3%
Trinidad and
Tobago 10%
Venezuela 14%
Peru 3%
Mexico 32%
Argentina 20%
Brazil 12%
Proven reserves
Colombia 2%
Rest 1%
Bolivia 4%
Peru 4%
Argentina 4%
Trinidad and Tobago 5%
Brazil 5%
Venezuela 69%
Mexico 6%
Source: compilation based on British Petroleum data.
IDeAL 2011
| 63
Together with the growth in consumption, regional gas trade expanded

significantly. Intraregional gas flows grew by a multiple of eight in the past
twenty years. During the decade of the 1990s, trade took place only through
gas pipelines, with the South Cone as the main actor. Starting in 2005,
trade through gas pipelines began to decrease to be displaced by imports
of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Currently, a number of trends stand out: (i)
imports represent 20% of Latin Americas consumption; (ii) 50% of imports
come from intraregional trade; and (iii) almost 40% of the regions imports
are of LNG. Trinidad and Tobago and Peru (the only LNG exporters in Latin
America), supply 30% of the requirements, and the remaining 70% comes
from other regions in the world (see Graph 2.3).
Graph 2.3. Regional and extra-regional imports via gas pipeline and LNG
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
LNG-Extra
LNG-Regional
Pipelines Extra
Pipeline-Regional
Source: compilation based on BP and EIA.
20 Argentina, which has a

developed gas industry, will
become a net natural gas
importer through pipelines
and ships (LNG) as it has
shown a notable decline
in its production and
reserves of conventional
gas. The government
has implemented a
policy to stimulate the
exploration, development,
and production of nonconventional natural gas
(compact sand gas and
shale gas).
64 |
Growth of trade in liquefied gas modifies the infrastructure demands

Within this framework, it is expected that demand for natural gas in Latin
America will grow at rate of 3% annually through 2025. Growth will be led
by countries that are developing their gas transportation infrastructure and
that have a significant volume of hydrocarbon resources, such as Brazil,
Peru, and Venezuela. Countries with mature natural gas markets, such as
Mexico, Argentina20, and Colombia, will show a lower growth rate in demand,
and emerge as net importers of gas in the medium term, be it through gas
pipelines or LNG. It is expected that countries that export natural gas, such
as Trinidad and Tobago and Bolivia, will continue their efforts to find new
reserves and will increase their exports, as the performance of this group

of countries is subject to great uncertainty due to the level of gas resources

required for their own consumption as well as their interest in generating
higher exports.
In general terms, gas production in Latin America recently showed an
important growth cycle, which has stabilized in recent years, but which
could increase again as a result of more intense explorations. In this regard,
Venezuelas potential to grow in its regional role through its projects to
export LNG, which would become operational starting in 2015, stands out.
Both Brazil and Argentina may strongly increase their domestic supply of gas
as a result of the new discoveries in the pre-salt area and non-conventional
gas, respectively. Colombia and Mexico have a significant potential of gas
resources in the offshore platform, but their commercial potential must be
confirmed.
A sector with high potential for regional integration

and emission reductions
Natural gas is the best answer to climate change in the context of fossil fuels.
The new technologies that use natural gas, such as the combined cycle
thermal plants, have had an important expansion due to their efficiency. The
electricity sector will continue to be an important consumer of natural gas in
Latin America, and will be the engine for the creation of new transportation
infrastructure. In Mexico, for example, it is expected that 60% of the growth
of natural gas demand between 2011 and 2025 will be supplied by this type of
plants. The possibility of accessing LNG on the part of electricity generation
plants allows achieving the energy security objectives, while the supply of LNG
is flexible and allows its use mostly during generation peaks. In other sectors,
the situation is dissimilar. An increase in the consumption of gas is expected in
the petrochemical industry and refineries. Gas consumption in the residential
sector is relatively low in Latin America; only Argentina and Colombia show
an important market of residential consumption. The share of natural gas in
the transportation matrix depends mainly on relative prices between natural
gas and gasoline, and the conversion of public transportation from diesel to
Vehicular Natural Gas (VNG).
The expected growth in the supply and demand of natural gas in Latin America
will result in an important increase in the transportation infrastructure
requirement. However, it should be noted that with respect to the sectors
long term planning, the coordination among the institutions that participate
in the design of energy policies must be addressed, taking into account social,
environmental, and energy security objectives. This is already the practice
in almost all countries. Investments in the expansion of gas transportation
infrastructure in Mexico, Argentina, Colombia, Brazil and Peru, is estimated at
IDeAL 2011
| 65
around USD 15,000 million in coming years. This will enable the achievement
of the targets for internal demand and export commitments (Peru). Of
the total, Argentina and Peru represent 70%. None of the countries in Latin
America is planning the construction of integration pipelines, in the short or
medium term, except for the completion of the Argentinean Northeast Gas
Pipeline (GNEA in Spanish), to receive greater volumes of gas from Bolivia.
The trend that is taking shape today is the import-export of LNG. The virtual
transportation of LNG within regions through the use of trucks and barges
provides an additional opportunity to tend to smaller and eventual consumers.
These technologies, if they grow further, would enable an improved regional
distribution of gas without requiring large investments to build gas pipelines.
The trends outlined mean that the use of natural gas for different purposes
is no longer circumscribed to countries endowed with the resource and the
reserves to develop and produce it, and eventually export it to neighboring
countries. Technological advances in the transportation of natural gas have
expanded the boarders and the market, and currently natural gas may
be exported through ducts, ships, and trucks in different states until its
regasification for consumption. The region has participated in these changes
and is going through a rich experience regarding alternative business
structures, public and private collaboration, and the scope of planning, to
create or strengthen the natural gas industry in some of the countries.
The different experiences of countries in the development of the infrastructure
for natural gas markets allow the identification of three challenges faced by
the region:
This is a sector that requires substantial investment, which matures
slowly, and carries considerable risk. The case of Camisea, in Peru, is
illustrative, since the country had to deal with the introduction of a natural
gas consumption culture, the need to connect important consumers to
justify the construction of a pipeline and, in addition, develop the financial/
tariff structure that would reduce the risk of a substantial investment in
transportation and distribution.
The development of infrastructure must have the characteristics
of state policy. The commitment of governments through different
administrations is an element that strengthens sustained development
and provides confidence to consumers, operators, and investors in their
long term decisions.
Sustainable development and financing. This is a general term that brings
together technical and economic aspects with social and environmental
issues. The accumulated experience regarding the approval of the
required environmental and social studies through the life of this type
of project varies, pointing to problems related to processing time,
unnecessary bureaucratic delays, and political factors at times without
66 |

consideration for social realities. The presence of multilateral credit

institutions in infrastructure projects facilitates their implementation in a
number of ways, as it attracts private finance by requiring commitments
form governments, and requires approved environmental and social
studies for the disbursement of loans. Thus, transportation planning goes
through a first strategic phase, in line with the wider ranging objective
of sustainable development. Then it goes through a second stage in
which investment needs in infrastructure are established starting from
a business model that is adequately structured and sustainable in all its
aspects. Transportation is not only a nexus for developing the market, but
it must also allow, in the medium and long term, for the establishment of
competitive markets.
Telecommunications
Advances in mobile telephony, growing gap in broadband
During the past two decades, information and communication technologies
(ICT) have expanded significantly in Latin America. The first wave of
dissemination has been in fixed telephony: the number of fixed telephone
lines has increased by 79 million, so that coverage has gone from 6.3%
in 1990 to 18.4% in 2010. Subsequently, mobile telephony reached an
average coverage of 99% in 2010, only 20 years after its introduction. As a
result of this process of rapid adoption, the region is currently at a middle
level of development in fixed telephony, and at a level similar to that of
industrialized countries in the case of mobile telephony (sees Graph 2.4).
Graph 2.4. Comparative adoption of telecommunications (2010)

160%
140%
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
Fixed telephony
World
Middle East
Commonwealth
Asia
Africa
and Middle East
Latin America
Europe
0%
North America
20%
Mobile telephony
Sources: ITU; UN and Katz (2011); authors analysis.
IDeAL 2011
| 67
These developments have been based on public policies that concentrated

on the privatization of fixed line operators, on the promotion of mobile
telephony, and on the promotion of competitive structures for providing
these services. Investment levels in fixed telephony were in the order of
USD 224 billion between 1990 and 2007.
The second wave of ICT development was related to the adoption of personal
computers and the Internet. Computer use is reaching almost 17% of the
population, and the use of Internet reached 36% in 2010. The region finds
itself in an intermediate development stage regarding Internet and personal
computer use. The third wave consists in the adoption of broadband services,
both in homes as well as companies and public administration. In this area,
Latin America is growing more slowly. The average use of broadband in the
region is 6.8%, compared with levels of 24% to 30% in developed countries
(Graph 2.5). As broadband adoption grows faster in developed countries
than in the region, the utilization gap is growing with the consequent negative
effects on the competitiveness of our economies (see Graph 2.5).
At the same time, a within the region analysis shows significant gaps in
broadband use between countries and, within countries, between regions and
social groups. These gaps represent a significant obstacle for the development
of these regions and for the inclusion of the less privileged socioeconomic
groups. National and provincial capitals and primary urban centers show a
significant development of networks, while smaller urban centers and rural
areas are not yet efficiently served by the telecommunications networks. In the
specific case of broadband, the geographic duality must be added to the sociodemographic differences, owing to the high cost of adopting the technology.
The multiplier effect of the technology on the whole economy underlines
the need to unfold infrastructure that satisfies the needs for information
transmission of the different economic sectors. The greater the availability
of infrastructure, the more efficient will be the productive processes and the
generation of positive externalities. This implies stimulating the adoption in
companies and less supplied sectors, specially the micro and small MSMEs,
through entrepreneurial training, subsidies to microenterprises, and support
to this sector to allow the accumulation of intangible capital (organizational
changes and the adoption of business practices to take advantage of the
technologys potential).
In summary, the comparative analysis between Latin America and other
emerging or developed regions shows a mixed picture: a level of mobile
telephony comparable t that of its peers, but a more limited progress in the
development of broadband. The resulting gaps may be defined according to
two dimensions: supply gaps (that represent the relative importance of the
territories or populations not covered), and demand gaps (which measure
the cases in which there is inadequate use of the available infrastructure due
to restrictions on access, cultural limitations, or weak managerial practices).
68 |

Internet
8%
30 %
World
18 %
46 %
20 %
Middle
East
Commonwealth
2%
16 %
25 %
Internet PC
0%
10 %
Africa
Latin
America
Asia-Pacific
Europe
North
America
0%
4%
7%
36 %
17 %
6%
22 %
20%
10 %
24 %
40%
30 %
60%
9%
80%
65 %
100%
81 %
120%
65 %
109 %
Graph 2.5. Comparative adoption of Internet and broad band (1990-2010)
Broadband
Source: Euromonitor; International Telecommunication Union.
Table 2.5. Mobile phone adoption in companies (2010)
Country
Large and medium

sized enterprises
(%)
SMEs
(%)
Argentina
100
76,70
63,30
2007
Brazil
90
80
61
2009
Chile
100
43
2008
Peru
100
45
2006
Microenterprises
(%)
Year
Sources: Argentina (Prince & Cooke); Brazil (CETIC); Chile (Entel); Peru (Propyme).
The road toward universalization of services

Development policies should establish two types of objectives: initially,
cover the supply gap and, particularly relevant in the case of region, reduce
the demand gap; that is, increase coverage and use of ICT in households,
productive processes, and public administration. In the case of mobile
telephony, the supply gap must be covered by promoting the expansion of
networks. In the case of broadband, the challenge will be to cover a supply
gap in the order of 10% but, above all, to cover a demand gap of 80%, which
is concentrated mainly in the small and medium sized enterprises.
To overcome the current gaps, the key policy goals should be to achieve full
coverage, promoting demand from the least favored groups, and stimulate
IDeAL 2011
| 69
the incorporation and more generalized use of ICT in small enterprises by

assisting them in the development of their managerial practices.
In view of the growth aspirations of the region, presented in the previous chapter,
significant investment levels should be maintained. In the period through
the year 2016, the region must install approximately 17.4 million additional
broadband lines to achieve levels comparable to those of other emerging
countries. Furthermore, these lines should provide access speeds far superior
to those currently available. Achieving these objectives will require investments
of around USD 7.8 billion during the period 2011-2016, to achieve a modest
broadband coverage target of 9.6%. To attain the recommended target of 20%,
investment would have to reach USD 34.7 billion. To these investment levels, the
necessary acquisition of spectrum and the construction of mobile networks
should be added, which could reach up to USD 14 billion through 2016. These
figures are comparable to those which have been invested by private operators
in recent years. The private sector will need to continue investing at this rate to
address the development objectives, although there are opportunities to share
infrastructure between operators to optimize the investments.
At the same time, the public sector will have to act to resolve the potential
market failures and ensure universal coverage both in telephony as well as
broadband. The migration to third and fourth generation mobile networks (3G
and 4G), needed to satisfy the growing traffic, generates two important pressure
points on existing infrastructure: greater trunk capacity and greater allocation
of the radio electric spectrum. To respond to the growing network capacity
needs, the industry of mobile telecommunications will need to access more
of the radio electric spectrum21. The benefits of allocating a larger segment of
the radio electric spectrum include not only efficiently accommodating data
traffic, but also, in view of the greater band width required (700 MHz), will allow
the unfolding of broadband networks in rural areas of the continent, with the
consequent positive social impact, and will improve signal reception inside
buildings in urban areas. If the growing needs for spectrum are not satisfied,
the quality of mobile services will be subject to degradation, particularly in
large urban concentrations, which generate data traffic.
21 The Inter American

Telecommunications
Commission (CITEL in
Spanish) estimates that
Latin American mobile
operators will require an
additional 712 MHz by the
year 2020 in low demand
areas, and an additional
1161 MHz in high demand
areas (CCPII/Rec.70XXII-02).
70 |
Countries should advance in developing telecommunication national plans

and the construction of planning and regulatory institutions, which should
coordinate with the institutions needed for the whole infrastructure sector.
The challenge of integrating ICTs in productive

and administrative processes
There is a growing consensus in the region regarding the new role that
must be assumed by the state in the formulation and implementation of
policies for the telecommunications sector. Beyond the plans to develop the

broadband, there is a need for governments to adopt decisions and promote

framework programs to generate effects on education, on the adoption of
telecommunications, and the practical adoption of technology on the part of
MSMEs, so as to integrate them with the large enterprises and increase their
production by selling to the state and increasing their exports. To achieve
these objectives, access speeds are critical.

Water: an abundant resource with unequal distribution and inefficient use
Latin America is a region with an abundance of water, but it is unequally
distributed in space and time relative to the population and economic
activity (especially regarding urban demand), and with an extreme variability
of rainfall. For example, there is a large season variation: more than 50% of
the annual rainfall is concentrated in three months. At the same time, 23% of
the Latin American territory is arid or semi-arid, implying levels of rainfall of
under 500 mm. per year. In countries such as Mexico, Chile, and Argentina,
the proportion of arid or semi-arid territory exceeds 50%. Added to this, every
five to ten years there are big droughts and floods due to the La Nia/El Nio
phenomena. Moreover, catastrophic droughts and floods are becoming ever
more recurrent, with serious impacts on the quality of life including the loss
of life and property with highly negative consequences on economic flows.
In the past fifty years, coverage of water and sanitation networks in the
region have increased significantly. On average, coverage increased
from 40% of the urban population in 1950, to more than 80% in water in
2008 (CELADE 2009). Coverage with quality services did not include the
population in informal urban settlements, which represents 27% of the total.
In spite of the high levels of coverage of water and sanitation networks (see
Graph 2.6, p 72), the quality of services at the domicile level is low regarding
water sanitation and continuity. In addition, treatment of residual waters
is insufficient as less than 30% receive some type of treatment. Moreover,
there are significant deficiencies in the urban drainage infrastructure.
The difficulty in providing quality services in the face of informal land use
Currently, Latin America is the continent in which the greatest proportion
of the population lives in urban settlements (approximately 85%). The
urban population will grow from 460 million to 590 million inhabitants
between 2010 and 2030, especially in medium and small cities. To satisfy
the incremental domestic demand that arises from these projections, and
eliminate the deficit prevailing in 2010, it would be necessary to reduce
IDeAL 2011
| 71
Graph Venezuela
2.6. Improved sources of water (a) and sanitary installations (b) (2008)
Uruguay
ImprovedPeru
sources of water (a)
Paraguay
Venezuela
Panama
Uruguay
Nicaragua
Peru
Mexico
Paraguay
Honduras
Panama
Guatemala
Nicaragua
El Salvador
Mexico
Ecuador
Honduras
Dominican
Republic
Guatemala
Cuba
El Salvador
Costa Rica
Ecuador
DominicanColombia
Republic
Chile
Cuba
CostaBrazil
Rica
Bolivia
Colombia
Argentina
Chile
Brazil 0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Bolivia
%Poblacin urbana
Argentina
0
%Poblacin rural
20
40
Improved sanitary
installations
%Poblacin
urbana (b)
60
%Poblacin total
80
%Poblacin rural
100
120
%Poblacin total
Venezuela
Uruguay
Peru
Paraguay
Venezuela
Panama
Uruguay
Nicaragua
Peru
Mexico
Paraguay
Honduras
Panama
Guatemala
Nicaragua
El Salvador
Mexico
Ecuador
Honduras
Dominican
Republic
Guatemala
Cuba
El Salvador
Costa Rica
Ecuador
DominicanColombia
Republic
Chile
Cuba
CostaBrazil
Rica
Bolivia
Colombia
Argentina
Chile
Brazil
20
40
60
80
100
120
Bolivia
Argentina
% Urban Population
0
20
% Urban Population
72 |
% Rural Population
40
60
% Rural Population
% Total Population
80
100
120
% Total Population

consumption to less than 200 liters per day per person, reduce losses from
40% to 20%, and develop approximately 30 million m3/day in new water
sources. The key problems of the cities of the region and their relationship
to urban water management revolve around three issues that require
coordinated solutions within a comprehensive approach: i) the informal
occupation of urban land and the consequent precariousness of housing;
ii) the low quality of public services, especially water and sanitation; iii) the
degradation of the urban environment, especially air quality, the pollution
of water bodies, and the deficient management of solid residuals. Most
urban rivers have intolerable levels of pollution.
There are more than 1,000 water and sanitation companies in Latin America.
With the exception of some, whose performance indicators are comparable
to the best in the world, the rest is made up of a heterogeneous set of
companies with low levels of operational efficiency and a high dependency
on fiscal resources to finance their investments and, in some cases,
operational costs (World Water Council, 2003). On average, more than 40%
of treated water is lost in broken pipelines, poor functioning of equipment,
and waste in households due to a combination of the lack of meters,
defective operation, low tariffs that do not promote efficient consumption,
an measurement errors. In addition, many of these companies face serious
problems of overdue payment of water bills, and also have high indices of
excess employment (World Bank, WSP, 2011). The region uses less than 20%
of the available water, of which 75% goes to agriculture, 15% to domestic
uses, and the remaining 10% to industrial uses. Although the Millennium
Development Goals for water and sanitation have been reached, this coexists
with a deficient quality of access regarding potability and continuity. The
region also registers a high morbidity due to the poor water quality, resulting
in an estimated health cost equivalent to 1% of GDP.
In 2010, revenues from water charges and sanitation companies were
sufficient to cover operating costs, estimated at approximately USD 5.2
billion, but not investment that were mostly financed with fiscal resources.
The cost of inefficiency in the delivery of water services (water not invoiced,
overdue payments, and excess employment) is estimated at 30% of water
revenues, which is equivalent to 5.78 billion. This inefficiency in the supply of
water services is reflected on averages of 40% of water not invoiced, 20% in
overdue payments, and 50% of excess employment.
Industrial demand will grow even faster than urban demand and will require
more efficient use, a high rate of recycling, and the internalization of the cost
of new developments. Demand from the agricultural sector will increasingly
compete with urban uses and will have to be rationalized significantly by
increasing productivity, improving land management practices, reducing the
unitary water footprint, and through reutilization.
Extractive mining in Latin America is an activity of growing importance that
IDeAL 2011
| 73
consumes between 100-200 m3 of fresh water per ton of final product.

This consumption competes with agricultural and urban uses in areas of
low water availability, such as the North of Chile and the Peruvian Sierra. In
addition, waste materials and residual waters are sources of pollution with
heavy metals, toxics, and sediments with serious impacts on health and
ecosystems. The combination of these two problems, scarcity and pollution,
is a potential source of social conflict in some countries of the region.
The need for a comprehensive approach to water resources

Water scarcity is not only a physical phenomenon, there is also the lack of
infrastructure and of essential institutions and policies to satisfy demand
for water related services (FAO 2010). In this regard, by the year 2025 many
countries in Latin America will be unable to satisfy water demand and,
therefore, will face water shortages. If the current scenario prevails, Latin
America and the Caribbean will be a region with economic water scarcity
approximately by the year 2025, resulting from a deficit in infrastructure
and the weaknesses in sectorial governance. In this sense, the infrastructure
deficit in marginal urban areas (27% of the population) is the greatest drag
on the sustainable development of cities.
The estimated investment needs for the period 2010-2030, so as to close the
investment gap in urban services, reaches USD 249 billion, which include USD
30.5 billion in investment in household connections for water and sewage in
low income urban areas, which have to be integrated with the formal city. In
annual terms, the necessary investment to close the infrastructure gap in
urban services reaches USD 12.45 billion.
The necessary average annual resources to cover urban investment in
water could be obtained from various sources. These sources respond
to a number of criteria: the payment for services, fiscal contributions
with equity objectives and compensation for environmental and climate
externalities, and international donations to countries with a high incidence
of poverty. Investments in water and sanitation needed to cover this gap
appropriately, are equivalent to 0.25% to 0.30% of the GDP of countries in
the region in 2010, and could reasonably be managed with the economic
growth estimated by ECLAC for the region. These investments include the
rehabilitation and renovation of the existing network infrastructure and the
formalization of household connections to 20 million housing units between
2010 and 2030. They do not include rain drainage, waste water treatment,
or the development of new sources. Investment needs in rehabilitation and
renovation of infrastructure are lower.
Since the year 2000, there has been a substantial investment in the
expansion of networks but very little not following the logical sequence
in trunk, treatment, and drainage infrastructure, and the development of
sources to guarantee water security. Investments rarely follow long term
strategic plans, they utilize deficient information, and fiscal financing does
74 |

not generate strong incentives to adequately calculate the size of projects

or to promote the transparency of public bidding processes. In this regard,
scant attention is paid to the logical sequence that seeks to achieve a
balance between investment in water and sanitation infrastructure and
social and environment objectives. At the same time, low priority is assigned
to investments in improving operational efficiency, reducing losses, and
maintenance.
The main challenges to overcome the problems described, and reach the
sectorial goals are: i) the resistance to sectorial transformation processes
in each one of the activities regarding management of water and sanitation
services (operational, commercial, community relations, extension of
coverage, and control); ii) the weakness or absence of economic regulations
and mechanisms for controlling the quality of services in many countries
of the region; iii) the weaknesses of sectorial information systems to feed a
planning process that considers the hydrologic cycle, the environment, and
climate change, and to provide information for social monitoring and control
over the quality and effectiveness of water related services, iv) the absence
of public policies that consider the negative externalities of pollution and the
weaknesses for applying and controlling the application of those policies; and
v) the lack of a sustained commitment on the part of governments, to the
allocation of fiscal resources to the water sector, that ensures the efficiency
and transparency of investments.
IDeAL 2011
| 75
Chapter3
Key elements to ensure

the sustainable development
of infrastructure
Main requirements for responding to the challenges

The analysis of various infrastructure sectors summarized in the previous
chapter, allows the identification of the challenges faced by each one of them
to increase coverage, quality of services, and adapt to technological changes.
Responding to these challenges will be infrastructures contribution to the
transit toward comprehensive development with high, sustained, and quality
growth, in the terms proposed by Scenario I the one desirable for the
region as has been defined in Chapter 2. To cover Scenario II, so as to prepare
for a possible deterioration of the international environment, infrastructure
must also contribute to maximize the potential of Latin Americas domestic
market, by assigning priority to the facilitation of intraregional trade and the
integration of national spaces.
This implies developing a regional strategy for infrastructure that must
include a decisive thrust to regional integration projects. The sectorial
analysis presented in the previous chapter also enables the identification
of the principal issues it will be necessary to resolve or improve, to achieve
the expansion and improvement of infrastructure and its services. These
elements may be summarized in three dimensions:
The financing requirements to satisfy the investment needs, through the
different available sources and modalities.
The improvements in policies and institutions that regulate infrastructure
sectors in areas such as planning or inter-institutional coordination.
The adequate consideration of environmental and social aspects in
planning and implementing infrastructure projects, paying due attention
to the mechanisms for citizen participation.
IDeAL 2011
| 77
Chapter 3. Key elements to ensure the sustainable development of infrastructure
In the perspective of the past two decades, the lack of financing has
probably been the main constraint for the development of infrastructure,
but it is a constraint that has become less binding. The quality of policies
and institutions, on the contrary, is becoming the major weakness: currently
there are situations in which there are more financial resources available
(public and private) than capacity to use them. Managing social and
environmental issues, in turn, is increasingly becoming a critical factor for
the development of projects, and unless there is a change in the way the
infrastructure areas address them, it is likely they will become the main
problem in the medium term.
Graph 3.1 shows GDP growth in Latin America, investment in infrastructure
(public and private), and the ideas that dominate the agenda, which in general
terms, have responded to their context.
Graph 3.1. Evolution of GDP, investment and dominant issues on the

infrastructure agenda (1980-2010)
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1982
1981
1980
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
-2.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Public Investment
Scarce integrated
analysis of infrastructure
Sectorial perspective
Private Investment
The impact of infrastructure

How much infrastructure is needed? What gap needs to be covered?
Private participation
Regulation
Dominant issues
on the infrastructure
agenda
Fiscal space, adjustments, and

limits to public investment
Impact of APPs;
renegotiations,
contingent liabilities
Infrastructure for
sustainable development
Source: authors compilation based on CAF data (2009), Caldern and Servn (2010), and Databank.
78 |

Graph 3.2 presents a look into the future of the same variables, to offer a
view of the possible development of infrastructure in Latin America in
coming years. In the desired scenario, the graph shows a period of sustained
economic growth, increasing investment in infrastructure both public and
private, and a steady change in the topics that dominate the agenda. This
provides an aggregate perspective for the whole region, which undoubtedly
will present specificities in each country.
Graph 3.2. A view of growth, infrastructure investment, and dominant issues
on its agenda (2011-2020)
10%
Yearly variation of GDP
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
6%
5%
4%
3%
2%
1%
2019
2020
2017
2018
2015
2016
2013
2014
2011
2012
2010
2009
2007
2008
2005
Public Investment
2006
2003
2004
2001
2002
1999
2000
1997
1998
1995
1996
0%
Private Investment
The impact of infrastructure

How much infrastructure is needed?
What gap needs to be covered?
Possible dominant
issues on the
infrastructure agenda
Sustainable infrastructure:
in the environmental, social and economicfinancial perspective
Improvements to policy
and institutions
Social and environmental
framework, citizen
participation
Source: authors compilation.
IDeAL 2011
| 79
Financing: needs and sources
Required investment is at least 50% higher than today

A recent estimate prepared by ECLAC, based on a number of the available
analysis and models, concludes that expenditure on infrastructure through
the year 2020, to support a relatively modest growth of GDP (3% a year),
must be equivalent to 5.2% of regional GDP annually (Perrotti and Sanchez,
2011). The sectors with the highest requirements, according to this estimate,
are: telecommunications with 2.2%, electricity with 1.7%, transportation,
with 1.1%, and water and sanitation with 0.2%. The estimate is considered a
minimum that does not take into account the current deficit, replacement,
nor all infrastructure sectors, but includes expenditure on maintenance (of
2.5% compared with 2.7% for new investments). An aggressive strategy
aimed at improving infrastructure, according to the same source, could
require annual investment levels that exceed 7% of GDP. These projections
would lead to a change in the composition of the infrastructure stock in the
region; the main component, roads, would reduce its share from 55% to 39%,
while electricity would increase from 30% to 36%, and telecommunications
from 7% to 20%.
22 Considering a GDP
growth rate of 5% a year in
coming years, the studies
analyzed the most
complete on the subject
allow inferring that the
necessary investment to
achieve it and to recover the
structural deficit (known as
the vertical and horizontal
gaps, respectively) would
range between 3.5% and
4% of GDP. The inclusion
of infrastructure sectors
not included and the need
for rehabilitation could
add between 0.5% and
1%, so that the necessary
investments would be in
the range of 4% to 5%
of GDP per year, without
considering expenditures on
maintenance.
80 |
A World Bank study for Latin America and the Caribbean (Fay and Morrison,
2007), estimates that to achieve universal coverage in basic services and allow
for a moderate 3% annual growth of GDP, the required annual investment in
infrastructure has to be equivalent to at least 3% of GDP. If the objective is to
achieve a significant improvement in standards, the investment requirements
could be in the order of 4% to 6% annually, including maintenance (which
in this study is estimated at 1% of GDP per year), without considering
replacement. It should be noted that the infrastructure that came into service
in the decade of the 1980s will require replacement in the near future.
In a similar vein, estimates prepared by the Centennial group for CAF
(Centennial Group, 2010) conclude that investment needs in infrastructure
in Latin America may reach 5-6% of GDP, including maintenance and
rehabilitation, to support an annual growth rate in the order of 6% to 7%
annually.
The review of these studies allows an estimate that investment in
infrastructure to cover deficits and accompany expected growth, assuming
a 5% annual growth of GDP (which reflects the aspiration of sustained
growth), would be in the order of 4% to 5% of regional GDP. These figures are
equivalent to between USD 200 -250 billion per year22. In addition, growing
resources will be required for maintenance, as the stock of infrastructure
increases with investment. As a reference, toward the middle of the recent
decade investment in infrastructure in Latin America was in the order of
USD 60 billion annually, and increased to USD 130 billion in 2009 and 2010.
Thus, the estimated financing needs imply not only maintaining the growth

rate of investment achieved in recent years, but also increasing it by no less

than 50% over its current level. A detailed analysis carried out recently for
Peru, shows results consistent with these estimates (see Box 3.1).
Box 3.1. Estimating the infrastructure gap: the case of Peru

Considering the expected demands from economic growth (6% a year) and unit
costs, the vertical gap in infrastructure (the needs to accompany economic growth)
was estimated for Peru at around 3.5% of GDP annually, on average, between the
years 2011 and 2020, declining through time). The horizontal gap (the accumulated
deficit) averages 2% during the same period. Thus, reducing the deficit together with
the requirements from growth would need investments fora n amount equivalent to
5.5% of GDP, without including maintenance. Within these investment needs, the high
share of electricity and paved roads stand out. Source: Bonifaz (2011).
Similar analysis carried out for other developing regions, estimate investment
needs in infrastructure of similar size. Recent studies carried out by the
Asian Development Bank, which cover the whole Asian continent, estimate
amounts of USD 800 billion a year during the next ten years (ADBI 2009),
or approximately 7% of GDP. A study limited to developing countries of East
Asia indicates that they should invest the equivalent of 6.2% of their GDP
(4% for investment and 2.2% for maintenance) (Yepes 2010). For 2012,
this would imply USD 165 billion per year in infrastructure investment in
electricity, telecommunications, roads, railroads, and water and sanitation.
Of these, USD 132 billion correspond to China. According to this analysis, the
electricity, telecommunications, and roads sectors will demand the highest
share of the investments (3.4%, 0.9% and 1.3% of GDP, respectively). Finally,
railroads will require an estimated 0.1% of GDP, while water and sanitation
will demand 0.6%.
The private sector has had a very limited participation, basically because the
regulatory framework has not been attractive. There is a reasonable expectation
that the situation will change, and that private investment will become a relevant
opportunity (Tahilyani, 2011). It is likely that the models to be considered will
propose investments for sectors larger than those considered in the sectorial
studies. However, the differences tend to compensate, as the former do not
consider many sectors of infrastructure (such as irrigation works, urban
drainage, flood control), nor do they consider changes in sectorial strategies
and technologies. The minimal investments proposed by these models for the
railroad systems are an example in this regard.
In summary: it will be necessary to increase the level of investment in
infrastructure in no less than 50% over the current level. This level is, in turn,
considerably greater than the one observed at the beginning of the 2000-
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| 81
2009 decade. The investment policy in infrastructure necessary to make

possible the growth aspirations of the region, will require ensuring sources
of finance that are both sufficient and stable. To achieve the required levels
of investments, countries must review the role of private investors, national
governments, and local governments in the supply of infrastructure.
Optimize public and private financing

Neither the public nor the private sector could by themselves ensure access,
quality, and the resources needed to cover infrastructure requirements. The
necessary investments should adequately combine both sources of financing,
and the roles of both sectors should be evaluated according to clear definitions
of the externalities and risks associated to the projects. For example, investment
projects financed by Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) schemes may offer
the opportunity to introduce market mechanisms that appropriately assign
resources and risks among investors, consumers, and the government. The
wide ranging experiences of private participation in infrastructure in the region
with mixed results provides ample data to guide private participation toward
those sectors that have greater probabilities of achieving satisfactory results.
Within the wide spectrum of infrastructure projects, there are cases in
which inevitably financing will be public, even though the private sector
may be involved in the execution and operation. Rural roads, urban mass
transportation systems, and the expansion of sanitation works constitute
clear examples where public financing is required. At the other extreme, there
are areas in which the private sector has demonstrated its ability to respond
by providing financing and management. Telecommunications is probably
the emblematic area of private investment in infrastructure. It should be
noted that even in this highly dynamic sector, some responsibilities will
require public investment, such as providing mobile telephony or broadband
services to remote populations. Other infrastructure sectors which have
shown capacity to attract private financing are the electricity generation
plants, container port terminals, gas pipelines, and urban road accesses.
Between the two extremes of the spectrum, there is a grey area in which
the advantages of one or other form of financing are not obvious, which is
normally associated to the provision and operation of the services. There
is a wide range of projects in which the private sector may contribute only
partially to their financing, which lends itself to the use of PPPs. It should be
noted that the advantage or not of private participation is not limited to
the viability of financing, but also to the possible addition of efficiency into
the life cycle of the projects, and of the externalities positive or negative
that they may generate.
Therefore, progress should be made in the design of planning mechanisms
and institutional evaluations that guarantee that the available resources will
82 |

not only be channeled to the projects with greater social returns, but also
that allocate the available financing sources and modalities in the most
convenient way, both in the public-private dimension as well as among the
different levels of the public sector.
Address the inevitable role of public financing rationally and efficiently

Currently, the potential for public investment is favored by a relatively
comfortable fiscal position, at least compared with previous decades. Average
inflation in Latin America stands at 4.7%, the average fiscal deficit is 2.5% of
GDP, and no country in the region has levels of public debt that exceed 50% of
GDP. While a fiscal context that facilitates an increase in public investment may
be expected, it should be noted that the proposed development model will
generate multiple demands on public finances, particularly aimed toward social
and education policies. Thus, the use of public resources for infrastructure will
have an opportunity cost that should be carefully considered.
The decentralization of infrastructure services management (and the
associated funds) is quite extensive in the region, as a result of the
greater demand for local participation. Peru is an example that illustrates
the relevance of this trend: the share of subnational governments in total
public investment has increased significantly, going from 26% in 2004 to
58.5% in 2010.
Attract the private sector to the infrastructure sectors

where it adds the most value
Currently, the main challenges regarding financing of infrastructure have
two main dimensions: i) regulatory frameworks that are deficient regarding
juridical security or the risk of returns on investment, which partially explains
the low rate of participation of the private sector in infrastructure investment;
and ii) little developed financial systems in the region, with the exception of
a few countries. This situation is explained mainly by the macroeconomic
history of the region, the lack of long term savings instruments, and the
limitations of capital markets
The challenge for Latin American governments will be to transform the
macroeconomic and demographic strengths into an effective force for the
attraction of private investment in infrastructure. To this end, it is necessary
to advance in the following areas:
Strengthen planning, evaluation, and analysis of financing capacities
to ensure the rationality of investments to avoid duplication or external
IDeAL 2011
| 83
diseconomies that may arise from concentrating exclusively on private

returns;
Improve the regulatory frameworks, and promote transparency and
respect for the law;
Provide effective and efficient guarantees for the reduction of political risks
associated with the supply of infrastructure and long term contracts; and
Deepen local financial markets making use of the demographic dividend
to promote medium and long term savings mechanisms that enable
financing productive and infrastructure investments.
Latin America has a vast experience regarding private participation in the
construction and provision of infrastructure services, which constitutes a source
of knowledge to learn about the circumstances in which it adds value. Box 3.2
shows a number of successful experiences of private participation in various
sectors and countries of the region, together with their institutional arrangements.
Box 3.2. Examples of best practices of private participation in the supply of

infrastructure services. Securitization of roads in Mexico
In August 2004, the company Carreteras de Cuotas Puebla (Puebla Toll Roads, CCP in
Spanish) of the State of Puebla in Mexico, issued a municipal bond backed by the future
flows from toll collections of the state road Via Atlixcayotl. The revenues financed the
construction of a new road in the same state. The agreement was structured by creating
a special vehicle (SPV), which was used to issue the municipal bonds and to manage
the cash flows of the structure. Under the agreement approved by CCP, the SPV has the
right to collect and receive the revenues from tolls. Thus, the operation was structured as
a sale of assets from the trust fund. The bonds issued by Via Atlixcyotl were the first toll
road securitization executed in Mexico, with a partial loan participation by a local agent.
It was also the first occasion in which development banks participated in the issue of
guarantee bonds. The project was securitized and was awarded a AAA local rating by
both Fitch Ratings and Standard & Poors.
Maritime container terminals

The growth of container movements in ports has led financial and maritime
transportation markets to structure transactions under a hybrid model of Project
finance (as loans have as only collateral the assets and shares of the terminals)
and leveraged finance (as it seeks the highest multiples over the EBITDA financial
indicator). Some recent cases include a 33 year contract for USD 992 million with the
government of Costa Rica top design, finance, build, operate, and maintain the new
Moin Container Terminal (MCT) in the Caribbean coast, and a loan for USD 679 million
from the International Finance Corporation to build a terminal in Santos, one of the
fastest growing ports in Brazil.
84 |

Water in Guayaquil
In October 2000, the government of Ecuador called for public bids through which
it granted to Cantonal de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de Guayaquil (ECAPAG) the
administration, operation, rehabilitation, and expansion of the water distribution,
sewage, and drainage systems for the Canton of Guayaquil, which corresponds to
the area under concession. In December 2000, ECAPAG ceded the concession to
Empresa Internacional de Servicios de Agua. The concession contract will allow this
company to improve services and the quality of water, as well as to expand water and
sewage pipelines by approximately 30% and 40%, respectively. During the 30 years
of the concession, the capital expenditure program includes investments for USD 500
million.
Aeolic energy generation in Brazil

In September 2011, it was announced that, in the energy auction in Brazil, a
company obtained supply contracts with three aeolic projects that total 193 MW
of installed capacity. The aeolic parks will be built in the Brazilian State of Bahia
and, due to their location in semi-arid areas, will benefit from incentives aimed at
infrastructure development. The Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) constitute
purchase agreements in which the investor builds a generation plant, and an energy
distributor pays a pre-established and indexed rate, for a period of 15 to 20 years.
The promotion of aeolic generation using competitive mechanisms for establishing
the sale price of electricity is a regulatory experience that has accelerated
investments i this type of electricity generation since 2009. The resulting auction
prices per KW have declined drastically.
A fund to finance mass transportation in Mexico

The Program in Support of Mass Transportation (Protram in Spanish), which is
part of the National Infrastructure Fund (Fonadin in Spanish), provides financial
support for mass urban transportation projects with a high social return,
complementing investments by local governments and maximizing investment
by the private sector. The program provides support to public entities or
private concessionaires through nonrefundable contributions for studies and
project preparation (up to 70%); non reimbursable contributions or subsidies
for investment (up to 50% of the projects investment) or refundable support
(subordinated debt, guarantees, and capital). In parallel, the Program for the
Transformation of Urban Transportation was established with Funds from the
Clean Technology Fund and multilateral banks, to provide loans for sustainable
urban transportation projects of local authorities and concessionaires. Thus,
national public resources are combined with local resources, support from
multilateral banks, and carbon financing projects in the framework of PPPs that
incorporate the private sector.
continue
IDeAL 2011
| 85
Transmission lines in Brazil

An example of financing for electricity projects is the case of the IE Madeira
transmission line in Brazil, granted to a consortium made up of Colombian and
Brazilian enterprises. The National Electricity Agency (ANEEL) held a public
bidding, and the regulatory institutions becomes offtaker, or long term payer, and
becomes the buyer for a period of 20 years, significantly reducing the risk of the
project. The consortium was awarded two concessions in 2008, committing to
a total investment of R$ 320 million: the transmission line was 70% financed by
BNDES, and 30% by private parties with long term loans of between 5% and 6% in
local currency. The same scheme of public bids and guarantees to reduce the cost
of financing and attract capital and investors is used in Chile, Guatemala, and Peru.
The variety of financing sources that are currently available makes it

necessary to carefully analyze the allocation of projects according to the
financing modalities. Some of the critical aspects that should be considered
in this evaluation include the following:
The appropriate allocation of risks between the public and private sector;
not doing so may generate considerable obligations and contingent
liabilities to the States.
The pressure of private initiatives: these have increased together with
the availability of private resources, the lack of public projects, and the
requirements of large productive projects (mining, agricultural, etc.). As a
result of these pressures, the State runs the risk of losing its planning role,
or end up arbitrating among private initiatives.
To the extent that PPPs increase their participation in projects that
public financing and originate from private initiatives, their acceptance
increasingly compromises budgetary resources and reduces the ability
of the State to plan investment priorities according to its own strategies.
Exploit the potential derived from the numerous sources of financing

To obtain the necessary funds, it will be necessary to increase the adoption of
mechanisms that include the private sector. These resources may originate
in private foreign investment or in domestic savings, making it necessary to
development financial markets and institutional investors. Latin America
must develop financial strategies that take advantage of the seven sources
of available resources:
i. The domestic market. Generate domestic sources through the
expansion of the financial system and by stimulating the growth of
86 |

the banking system in the economy. Countries which have reformed

their pension systems toward defined contribution structures are in
a better relative position. Countries in the region will have a period
of approximately 20 years of increasing domestic savings as a result
of their demographic dividend. To this end, they require long term
savings mechanisms and institutional investors that can manage
these savings and allocate them to the sector.
ii. The securitization (issue of titles backed by assets) of infrastructure is
an efficient way to obtain resources: it can be done by creating a specific
purpose vehicle (SPV) that is used to issue bonds (national, state,
municipal) and manage the infrastructures cash flow. In the case of
road projects, the SPV has the right to collect and receive the revenues
from tolls.
iii. International banks are another relevant channel for financing
infrastructure with foreign resources. However, experience with their
operations in Latin America demonstrates that, until now, foreign banks
have not channeled enough resources toward domestic investments.
iv. Multilateral organizations. Between 2000 and 2010, CAF was the main
source of financing for infrastructure in Latin America, with approvals
that exceed USD 28 billion; this strategic sector represents 54% of
its project portfolio. Other multilateral organizations, particularly the
IDB, have decided to allocate massive resources to the development
of infrastructure. While these are important resources, they should be
combined with those coming from other sources. Regarding physical
integration, in the past decade CAF has approved operations for USD
7.3 billion for the execution of 57 projects that involve a total investment
in excess USD 23 billion. Annex 2 (see p. 122) shows a map and a list of
these projects.
v. The climate finance vehicles. Under the financing scheme aimed
at reducing the emissions of GHG, developed countries provide
resources to developing countries for infrastructure projects to
reduce emissions. The market mechanisms, represented by carbon
bonds, have been successful in financing energy projects but not
transportation projects. Starting in 2012, new financing modalities
are expected to be implemented, for which developed countries have
committed massive resources (in the COP 15 held in Copenhagen),
and developing countries should be prepared to use them.
vi. Natural resource companies and transportation and logistics
operators, which will be interested in investing in existing facilities or in
the creation of new ones, under concession regimes or for private use.
It will be necessary to coordinate these investments and decide on the
regulatory frameworks so as to avoid external diseconomies
IDeAL 2011
| 87
vii. Sovereign funds or state owned companies, especially interested in

developing natural resources and logistics chains. In this instance, it
will also be necessary to make compatible national interests with those
of these new actors.
Institutions for infrastructure development
Ensure capacities through the project cycle

Institutions include both the rules of the game formal and informal as
well as the organizations (the entities and their procedures) of a particular
sector of activity. Numerous analyses have concluded that good institutions
promote efficiency in achieving the objectives of public policy. In the case of
the supply of infrastructure and its services, institutions play a key role. In fact,
the development of infrastructure may be seen as a process, a sequence of
tasks in which public institutions are responsible for carrying out the multiple
functions necessary to achieve the objectives.
The diagram presented in Graph 3.3 represents the typical institutional cycle
for promoting the development of infrastructure. It enables a review for each
of the components of the process and thus locate the main institutional
shortcomings faced by the infrastructure development in Latin America,
starting from the sectorial analysis presented in the previous chapter.
Graph 3.3. Conceptual outline of infrastructures institutional cycle
PRIVATE
INITIATIVES
PROJECTS
ORIGINATING
IN PARLIAMENT
All Projects
POLICIES
PLANNING
ALLOCATION
BUDGET
PROGRAMMING
PUBLIC INVESTMENT SYSTEM
Projects with public financing

PROJECT
HIRING
SUPERVISION
OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE
Projects with private or mixed financing

STRUCTURE
CALL FOR BIDS
AWARD
,
SUPERVISION
INSPECTION
REGULATION
EX-POST EVALUATION
From the perspective of the institutional cycle, the starting point is the
formulation of policies, a stage at which the guidelines to follow in each
subsector are established. The nature of the infrastructure requires that these
policies are reflected not only in regulations but also in physical plans that
give rise to investment projects. Private initiatives must be added to the plans,
programs, and projects established by the public entities: projects originated
88 |

in the private sector and proposed to governments, generally under an ad hoc

regulatory framework. The portfolio of selected projects may be financed in
different ways by combining public resources form different jurisdictions with
private resources. The financing mechanism adopted is generally linked to
the contractual modalities and the subsequent management of the services.
After going through the organizations in charge of analysis and project registry,
the projects are integrated in to the budgeting process and are validated in
Congress, where some projects are excluded and others are added on.
From this point on, projects follow different processes, depending on whether
they are conventional public Works, concessions, or some other form of
public-private partnerships (PPPs). The projects with public financing go
through different stages: the design of the project, contracting, supervision
of the works, and responsibility for its maintenance during the operational
stage. In the case of projects with private participation (total or partial) a
complicated process of design, structuring, call for bids, and awards must
be carried out, followed by the supervision of works and, finally, control or
regulation of services according to the management model adopted. The
ex post analysis of projects is the tool of choice to close the cycle: obtain
lessons from the process, monitor its results, and provide feedback for policy
definitions, plans, and projects.
Key areas of action to expand and improve the use of infrastructure

The diagram presented in Graph 3.3 allows identifying the institutional
requirements faced by sectors in developing their infrastructure. In
summary, four groups have been established: policies and plans (that cover
all projects whatever their financing mechanism), the capacity to formulate,
evaluate, execute, and maintain projects (particularly those financed with
public resources), structuring of projects and coordination between actors
(in particular those carried out with private participation or that require the
interaction of various jurisdictions, and the capacities to promote the best
use of infrastructure. The most critical aspects of each of these groups are
identified in the following paragraphs.
i) Good policies and plans, the basis for adequate provision of infrastructure.
The main areas in which deficiencies have been found (which, in general
terms usually worsen with decentralization) are the following:
The alignment of infrastructure policies and plans with the governments
general objectives, by establishing state policies and strategic plans for
the development of large projects.
IDeAL 2011
| 89
The availability of basic data necessary to prepare plans, particularly for

some modes of transportation and in water and sanitation.
The availability of geographic information systems, which are basic
instruments for planning and managing infrastructure. Examples in the
region such as GeoSur (implemented by CAF) or the territorial information
system developed in Chile shows that it is an extremely useful tool.
The coordination of policies between different areas of governments and
between jurisdictions, particularly between the areas responsible for the
supply of infrastructure and those responsible for environmental and
urban development policies.
The selection of projects that do not comply with criteria that ensures
their technical, economic, or environmental viability.
The scarcity of duly trained and motivated human resources in the
public sector.
ii) Capacity to formulate, evaluate, and execute projects

The rush to initiate projects that are not sufficiently prepared, and the
weakness of the technical teams that prepare them, usually generates
problems in the execution stage and is the source of cost overruns.
Project management is generally sequential, with different entities
in charge of each stage, which are not always coordinated. The
experiences of the Ministry of Public Works in Chile in the integrated
management of projects, is showing the way toward a more efficient
management model.
The lack of human and material resources to supervise and inspect works.
The scant attention generally granted to maintenance, by concentrating
all efforts on new Works. This shortcoming is worse in public projects; the
PPP designs may facilitate management with a view of the project cycle
that ensures appropriate maintenance
iii) Structuring of projects and coordination between actors

The mistakes in planning, designing, and evaluating PPP projects are one
of the most common causes of complications during the subsequent
implementation. These mistakes produce, for example, unexpected
90 |

engineering problems, construction cost overruns, underestimation of

risks, renegotiations, and even project cancellations.
The adequate financial structuring and balance in the distribution of risks are
key to the performance of PPP projects. The complexity and long duration
of these projects multiply risks, increase costs, and keep investors away.
Guarantees are one of the most important instruments to minimize and
distribute risks in a PPP project, and may take the form of cross guarantees
between the parties to a contract, or may be granted by third parties such
as insurance entities or international organizations.
Budgetary responsibility is another crucial issue. The risk of generating
financial charges to the State for future obligations and contingent liabilities
of PPPs, requires accounting responsibility and transparency, which implies
that they must be adequately valued and reported, independently of the
specific accounting criteria in use.
iv) Improving the use of infrastructure

Infrastructure policies do not concentrate exclusively on increasing supply,
but also seek to increasingly act on demand to reduce investment needs
and operation and maintenance costs. For this purpose, there are a number of
instruments such as:
Internalize the externalities in the prices of the services.
Establish differential rates or tax incentives.
Impose quotas or restrictions.
Increase awareness among users and consumers, and in society at large.
The importance of knowledge management and continuous improvement

The practice of ex post analysis of the impacts of projects is not well established
in the region. A detailed CAF report (2009) highlights this shortcoming as one
of the main problems faced by infrastructure. The document emphasizes the
importance of this type of analysis to feed the decision making process.
Monitoring, as a means of control and evaluation is also not sufficiently
established in Latin America and should be the object of priority attention
in the area of infrastructure. The indicators to be used should not be limited
to reflecting progress in infrastructure endowment (output), but should also
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reflect, in the best possible way, the impact they generate on the quality of life
of the population (outcome).
A social, environmental, and participatory framework, a

condition for infrastructure projects
Integrate environmental factors and social actors in policies and projects
The analysis of the sectors shows that project execution frequently runs into
environmental and social difficulties. Advances toward the interior of the
continent and environmentally sensitive areas, the growing relevance of high
impact urban projects, and the increasing participation of the community,
are trends that provide greater relevance to this dimension of infrastructure
policies and projects.
Many infrastructure agencies in Latin America perceive environmental
elements and social actors as an obstacle, an impediment for the
implementation of projects that are expected to contribute to the
achievement of their sectorial objectives. Infrastructure projects may
generate negative impacts on ecosystems and neighboring communities
during their construction and operation. Sometimes projects require land
purchases and may cause involuntary displacement and the loss of means
of subsistence of the affected population. There are abundant examples of
this sort in the region, such as the laying of gas pipelines, the construction
of roads, the construction of dams, or high tension lines. The prospects of
expanding infrastructure and advancing toward environmentally sensitive
geographic areas suggest that tensions will increase. It should be noted that
the negative impacts are not only of a local character: global environmental
issues have an increasingly greater weight in the infrastructure agenda,
particularly those related to climate change.
In the areas responsible for the supply of infrastructure services it will be
necessary to carry out a profound restatement of the way their development
is conceived, seeking to establish a criteria of sustainability in the project
cycles from their beginning. Rather than considering the environmental
and social issues as an obstacle, the policies should balance the different
objectives, including those of sustainability. The concept of sustainability has
expanded significantly in the past decade toward a triple balance: economic
and financial, environmental and social.
Strategic environmental evaluations and the instruments of environmental
territorial planning are increasingly used to support sustainability by
strengthening technology selection and location of infrastructure
investments. These are evaluated on the basis of the capacity of the natural
92 |

resources, the vulnerability of social groups and ecosystems that influence

investment policies and projects of all sectors of infrastructure. CAF has
adopted an environmental policy for projects of national scope and for those
related to regional integration.
Box 3.3. CAFs environmental policy

CAF understands that the main contribution of managing sustainable development
points to the recognition of the need for conservation and the sustainable use of the
regions nature and the environment, as the basis for improving the quality of life of
societies, overcoming poverty, achieving economic development, and improving the
welfare of individuals in the long term. In the framework of regional integration, CAF
includes the environmental perspective and focuses it on:
The responsible management of ecosystems and shared natural resources
of regional and international importance, as well as the harmonization of
environmental policies in the region.
Capitalizing on opportunities and managing risks and the impacts generated by
physical integration.
The conservation of the natural endowment and the permanence of functional
relationships among ecosystems that guarantee life.
The promotion of a greater regional environmental awareness that leads to the
strategic appreciation of the regions natural capital.
At the same time, CAF recognizes that the environmental component is critical in
the productive transformation of the region. Aware of the importance of the regions
insertion in the global economy, CAF promotes and supports the international
environmental agreements that its shareholder countries have subscribed. CAF also
promotes and supports the generation and augmentation of the productive value
of natural capital, as well as the development of emerging environmental markets,
and the improvement of environmental management by entrepreneurs and the
productive sectors so that together, these groups promote a sustainable insertion.
Citizen participation in the planning and implementation of infrastructure

projects is a distinctive trend in society that ensures the integration of the
development model to which it aspires. Infrastructure agencies must make an
effort to communicate with the interested parties, and to collaborate with critical
and supportive social actors equally. The lack of adequate communication
increases the risk that projects will be blocked. Communication with the
community must be an integral part of the project cycle.
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Balance a responsible role regarding climate change with development

objectives
Climate change has special relevance for infrastructure sectors. Some of
them, such as energy generation or transportation, have significant weight in
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the trends indicate that with progress
toward development, emissions will increase. Transportation, for example, is
responsible for about 14% of the GHG emissions and more than 30% of all
emissions in Latin America.
As members of the international community, Latin American countries
participate in the fora that seek to find answers to global warming, particularly
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The agenda
established in these fora includes both mitigations actions, which may have a
significant impact in the structure of some of the infrastructure sectors, (for
example, in urban transportation or electricity generation) as well as those
referred to adaptation. The latter have the most relevance for countries in the
region: changes in rainfall patterns that are attributed to climate change come
on top of the various natural disasters that periodically cause heavy damage
to Latin American infrastructure, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and floods. Nonetheless, an adaptation agenda that identifies the
actions to be implemented so as to minimize the impact of these changes is
clearly less advanced than the mitigation agenda.
Countries in the region face the challenge of responsibly joining the global
effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but without neglecting the social
and economic development needs of their peoples.
Good environmental management is key in the competitive

differentiation of Latin America
Environmental management is a relevant factor in the competitiveness in the
regions economies, in addition to contributing to global responsibility. For
Latin America, environmental management is one of the keys of competitive
differentiation by generating a supply of products aimed at consumers
that discriminate according to the environmental and social aspects of the
value chain of the goods they purchase. The developed countries, which
will have to implement important changes in their productive structure
to reduce GHG emissions, most probably will impose import restrictions
according to the carbon footprint (green trade restrictions). There are a
number of private initiatives leading to the publication of the footprint in the
products offered to consumers (carbon labeling) so that they may use their
purchasing power and avoid products that have a larger GHG footprint (Lay,
2008). Infrastructure services weigh heavily on the total carbon footprint
94 |

of goods; logistics and transportation on average account for between 5%

and 15% of carbon emissions (WEF 2010), but these percentages may be
higher in some products.
In conclusion, the environmental and social management of infrastructure
services will also become a factor in competitiveness, thus adding an
important incentive for it to be included in policies and projects.
| 95
Chapter4
Toward a strategic
infrastructure agenda
in Latin American
Priority issues in the short term

Link infrastructure plans with the development plan
In order for Latin America to reach a more relevant position in the global
economy and provide for a substantial improvement in the quality of life of its
citizens, it should maintain a high rate of sustained growth. This growth should
be quality, efficient, inclusive, and environmentally sustainable, and respect
cultural diversity. Infrastructure should be part of this development model,
together with other key public policies, such as the orderly management of
public finance, innovation, inclusion and regional integration.
The globalization of the production of goods and services offers great
opportunities for the developing countries, as long as they have the
infrastructure that is necessary to compete. The rapid urbanization process
has stimulated growth, but it has also come with growing spatial disparities
and changes in the location and the nature of the demand for infrastructure
services.
Facing climate change is fundamental for development and for the reduction
of poverty and has important implications for the planning, management
and provision of infrastructure services.
The performance analysis of the infrastructure sectors and their challenges,
together with the recognition of the key conditioning factors for their
expansion and improvement, makes it possible to identify a set of themes
that make up the strategic infrastructure agenda that is proposed for the
region. Furthermore, the analysis has also made it possible to recognize
some themes that appear as short-term priorities, which require special
attention by the governments due to relative deficit situations or due to their
direct impact on the social inclusion and quality of life of the population.
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Chapter 4. Toward a strategic infrastructure agenda in Latin American
These themes are identified below, and afterwards, a medium- and longterm strategic agenda, oriented toward systematically addressing the
improvement of the necessary infrastructure is proposed to be able to
make the transition toward the proposed integral development model in the
desirable scenarios.
Themes requiring priority attention

Investment efforts in infrastructure should be primarily directed to the
most critical sectors: drinking water and sanitation services, roads and
their conservation, urban transport, the expansion of broadband services
and the main regional infrastructure links.
Expanding the coverage and the quality of the provision of drinking
water and sanitation should constitute the first priority: they have
a direct impact on health, inclusion and the quality of life of people,
and demand moderate financial resources when compared to other
sectors.
Stimulating urban public transport, to which priority should be
given versus the use of private vehicles, to preserve productivity and
the quality of life in large Latin American cities. Subsidies to public
transport could be necessary and justifiable to reduce the negative
externalities of individual transport (congestion, emissions, and
accidents) as well as for reasons of equity, in order to ensure mobility
of the underprivileged sectors of the population.
Traffic safety policies in cities and roads. Traffic related accidents are
the first cause of death of Latin American youth and adults in their
productive years.
Conservation of roads is as important as the construction of new
works. For this reason, the region must overcome the low priority that,
in general terms has been given to the traffic conservation programs
that ensure maintenance no matter what the traffic management
model may be.
Broadband expansion has a strong multiplying effect, since it influences
the quality of life and the economys productivity, promoting integration
in the productive processes and in the States administrative processes.
Infrastructure development for regional integration, a critical factor so
that economic development will be less dependent on the changing
conditions of the international environment. This constitutes a key
element to strengthen the political, social and economic dimensions
98 |

of the multiple regional and international integration and insertion

processes that are under way in Latin America.
The development of new housing, particularly social housing, should be
accompanied by an integrated urban development and mobility plan,
in a way to avoid the need for simultaneous displacements that are
typical in dormitory towns. For this reason, residential land use should be
combined with job locations, services, supply centers and public spaces,
as well as the availability of public transport. The informal occupation of
urban land and the precariousness of housing and land use make the
provision of quality infrastructure services difficult. Urban development
and infrastructure provision strategies should be joined together.
The adoption of an energy efficiency policy, focused on actions that tend
to bring the most expenditure efficiency, reduction of losses and regional
integration, together with the development of renewable sources of
generation, constitute the immediate challenges of the energy agenda in
Latin America.
The development of river and maritime (cabotage) transport, can
contribute to improve the regions transport matrix, making use of the
extensive inland waterways, particularly in South America. This requires
an active support of the States to guarantee the navigability of the
waterways, the security of the operations and the compliance with the
environmental regulations.
Infrastructure investments must be planned and executed on territorial
axes, displaying basic service packages, in order to take advantage of
synergies, particularly in rural areas. The old practice of isolated sectoral
sector planning should be abandoned.
There should be greater rationality in the use of infrastructure, by
generating policies that control the demand, as in the use of water, in
the consumption of electrical energy, or in urban displacements. The
governments have at their disposal different policy instruments to achieve
this, such as the prices for the services or circulation restrictions.
Adapting to climate change and giving special attention to the
management of natural disasters, because of their social impacts, they
deserve urgent attention.
Creating and developing capacities

In order to meet the challenge of improving infrastructure in the region, it
is crucial to reinforce in the short term the capacity of the Latin American
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countries in the preparation of infrastructure projects. The creation

of a Latin American pre-investment program with the participation of
the development banks of the countries, their planning and economy
and finance ministries, with the support of CAF and other multilateral
organizations, will generate new ways to guarantee quality projects.
It is necessary to urgently review the infrastructure planning and
construction standards in order to adapt them to the challenges of
climate change. CAF proposes to create a network of professionals and
institutions from the whole continent to exchange the best practices and
generate new proposals.
The continent has good experience in planning, coordination and execution
of infrastructure integration projects. This effort should continue through
regional work groups that identify and design the best integration axes for
the next decade.
The six main action axes for implementing

the strategic agenda
In order to advance in the implementation of a medium- and long-term
agenda, the plan is to organize it around six fundamental action axes, whose
main activities are described below. This agenda constitutes a proposal to
help the countries of the region to verify that they are considering the multiple
factors that make it possible for infrastructure development to be done in a
systemic manner.
1. Significantly increase investment in infrastructure.
2. Incorporate the policies and projects into a sustainable development
paradigm and in a territorial perspective.
3. Strengthen institutions, especially in planning, in coordinating sectoral
policies and articulation among the different levels of government.
4. Articulate the different financing sources in order to maximize benefits.
5. Promote the development of world-class companies in the wide range
of businesses associated with infrastructure.
6. Promote development and the exchange of knowledge as well as the
best practices among governments, regions and cities.
100 |

1. Significantly increase investment in infrastructure

In order to make its expectations viable, Latin America should continue
to increase its investment in infrastructure: investments on the order of
an annual 5% of the GDP will be necessary to cover the existing gap and
support the continued growth that is expected to access development
(without considering maintenance).
This goal means an annual amount on the order of from 200 to 250 billion
USD, which represents a strong increase with respect to the average
amount investment during the last decade (estimated at 2% of the GDP),
and 50% above the current levels (estimated at 3%).
The growth of the infrastructure stock will generate a greater need for
resources for maintenance, which at the same time, will require stable
financing modalities.
2. Frame policies and projects in a sustainable development paradigm

and in a territorial vision
Investments should be made within the framework of a vision that
integrates the productive, social and environmental aspects and a territorial
perspective, not only sectoral. This focus should be applied at the national,
supra-national (for large integration projects) and sub-national level.
It will be necessary to adopt an infrastructure definition that is broader than
the current one, when emphasizing the expansion of telecommunication
services, integral management of water and high social impact infrastructure.
The infrastructure policies and projects must consider climate change, in
order to contribute in its mitigation as well as adapting to its effects, and
improve the preparation to face natural disasters.
The new paradigm should not be limited to increasing the provision
of infrastructure, but also contemplate managing the demand and
promoting the responsible use of the related services.
3. Strengthen institution in their different dimensions

The infrastructure planning process should be clearly established in the
national environment, within a framework that ensures compliance with
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public strategies and makes private initiatives possible. It should include

the supporting information systems; ensure the necessary data for
planning and developing indicators for monitoring.
It is necessary for the States to promote the coordination of infrastructure
policies with other policies, to overcome the silos culture that has
been predominant in governmental organization, and thus facilitate
coordination among jurisdictions, taking into account that sub-nationals
will have a growing responsibility in the provision of infrastructure.
In order to increase activities in the sector it will be necessary to
strengthen capacities for the development of projects, their assessment
and execution, in the different levels of government.
It will be of the utmost convenience to advance in the regional coordination
of integration projects, continuing with the efforts made in programs such
as IIRSA or the Mesoamerica Project.
Infrastructure expansion will require increasing the capacities to regulate
and control the services rendered by the private sector and ensure
transparency for the sectors managed by the State.
Infrastructure sectors must assume an active participation in the national
policies definition processes regarding climate change since they will have
a strong influence on their plans and projects.
4. Optimize the use of multiple financing sources and modalities

The region will have a great need for infrastructure investment funds.
With the appearance of new financing sources such as: specialized
institutions, natural resource agents, sovereign wealth funds, funds
associated with climate change, pension funds, etc. the countries must
develop capacities to manage and orient these multiple resources, in
order to ensure effective management by optimizing their use in the
different cases of projects or institutional situations.
There is already an interesting experience in the region in the participation
of the private sector in infrastructure provision and operations: progress
should be made in the design of regulatory frameworks and mechanisms
that make it possible for private stakeholders to adequately participate in
the activity.
The countries of the region will have an increasing availability of domestic
savings over the next two decades: progress should be made in the
102 |

development of the local and regional financial markets to make their

orientation viable toward projects such as infrastructure.
5. Promote the development of companies in businesses associated with

infrastructure
Giving a strong boost to investment generates the opportunity to promote
the development of world-class businesses in a wide range of businesses
associated with infrastructure.
The industries of construction, equipment and services, logistic and
services associated with the construction and operation of the different
infrastructure sectors, are currently dominated by advanced countries.
Plans such as those of the European Union place special emphasis on
defending their leadership in these sectors.
Some recently developed countries (such as Korea and Spain) and
emerging countries such China, India, Brazil and Turkey, are building
promising positions in these sectors.
With its growing investment in infrastructure, Latin America offers an
interesting market for businesses of the sector. It should take advantage
of this opportunity to consolidate viable and competitive Latin American
businesses in sectors such as equipment production, logistic and
transport services operations, engineering and construction or TIC
services.
The States will be able to promote incentives for the development of
firms who participate in the value chain of the provision of infrastructure
services in a reasonably competitive environment in order to promote the
development of truly viable and not profit driven businesses.
6. Promote exchange among governments, regions and cities

Permanently follow up on the best practices in comparable advanced
and emerging countries, especially oriented toward studying how these
countries develop their infrastructure to improve their competitiveness
and their social and regional inclusion.
Promote study mechanisms, the exchange of the best practices and
institutional development, which contemplate the different aspects of
planning, operations and regulation of infrastructure by stimulating actions
such as creating task forces, human resources education, the Exchange
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of the best practices, and harmonizing information systems. Bilateral and

multilateral forums of the region, such as IIRSA and COSIPLAN (within
UNASUR) and the Mesoamerica Project, constitute valuable initiatives in
that direction.
An interesting example of a systemic focus for integral development of
infrastructure is the one that Spain has followed over the last 20 years (see
Box 4.1); its orientation, adjusted to the countrys conditions, coincides with
the one established by the six action axes proposed above.
Box 4.1. The successful Spanish experience in the development of

infrastructure under public-private collaboration schemes
One of the fundamental bases of Spains economic and social development over
the last 20 years has been the infrastructure sector. The country has invested
important resources through innovative financing and management schemes
that have resulted in a remarkable evolution. From being one of the less developed
countries in Europe, it has gone to be in the first places in the world in construction
and efficient management of transport systems, ports, airports, railroads, urban
transport, energy, telecommunications and broadband.
Spain has become an essential reference for themes dealing with infrastructure
management and finance, primarily based on a public-private collaboration
scheme. Its model has been exported to various countries of Latin America, the
United States, Canada and the rest of Europe. Out of 11 businesses dealing with
the worlds largest transport project concessions, six are Spanish (Public Works
Financing, Ranking Oct. 2006). Fifteen years ago, the financing of public works
through budget appropriations was the model that was applied in the majority
of projects. In those days the country had an important deficit in infrastructure
compared with the most advanced European countries and, at the same time,
felt great pressure to comply with the convergence criteria established by the
European Union as an essential condition to incorporate Spain to the Monetary
Union. The countries had to adopt a strict budget discipline and, at the same
time, create a model that makes the expansion and improvement of the countrys
infrastructure possible in order to achieve economic growth and social benefits.
Under this pressure, Spain adopted a model based on public-private collaboration
for which it initiated an ambitious process of policy and institutional change that
created new business agencies charged with the execution of projects based on
private enterprise. The legal framework was adapted for private participation
in public works. Public sector institutions in charge of the administration,
management and execution of the works and of the development of studies and
designs for the preparation of projects that would be attractive to the concession
system, were strengthened. New institutions were prepared to plan and negotiate
with the European Union, the use of Structural and Cohesion Funds and
104 |

multilateral financing of the European Investment Bank, in the development of the

new infrastructure with the new management model.
For this purpose, the Spanish government developed, in addition to the reform
and initial plan that implemented the model, a transport Infrastructure Plan for
the period 2000-2007 with a 2010 horizon that included investments estimated in
114 billion Euros, financed 50% with public administration contributions, 30% with
European Funds and 20% with private financing.
These ambitious plans have given Spain one of Europes most modern transport
networks and have met the goal of economic and social development for which it
was conceived, with the support of key stakeholders of society: public agencies,
private businesses, and the financial sector and faculty members.
A visit to any of its regions makes it possible to see the presence of a modern
railroad, the development of a strategic network of high speed trains in order to
dramatically reduce the travel time between the main regions of the country, the
impact in the productivity and quality of life of the urban integrated transport
systems in the large cities, managed by ingenious consortiums where national,
regional and municipal authorities participate, as well as the private stakeholders
who directly operate the transport services. Counting on a thermal and nuclear
energy base, Spain launched an aggressive program of renewable energies,
especially eolic, which shows its presence in the whole territory. Likewise, data
transmission services through broadband installed in the whole country, but
especially in the most remote regions, have made it possible for communities
located in the most remote zones, to connect to the network and have access
to a great variety and high quality of content, bringing these communities close
to the information society. If there is a country that has been able to develop its
infrastructure following the six action axes that we propose in this work, that
country is Spain.
The text adapted from the Report of the Economy and Development 2009 on
Infrastructure, CAF. The themes addressed in this box are broadly documented
in: Vassallo, J. and Rafael Izquierdo Bartolom (2010). Infraestructura Pblica
y Participacin Privada: Conceptos y experiencias en Amrica y Espaa. CAF.
Available at: www.caf.com/publicaciones
A Call to action
In an environment that favors accelerated growth, Latin America can
aspire to decidedly advance on the road to an integral, sustained
and quality development model, during the years to come. The next
decade can be decisive in this sense, and one of the great challenges
to consolidate the advance is to substantially improve the funding and
performance of the infrastructure and related services. Infrastructure
is one of the necessary conditions to advance toward a more inclusive
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and equitable society; it is also the support to competitiveness of the

economy and of the development of the internal market and constitutes the
fundamental vehicle of regional integration.
The key factors to meet this challenge depend on public policies that the
countries may adopt: to assign public resources and make an excellent use
of the multiple options for financing, to generate the institutional capacities
that makes it possible to manage an agenda that is increasingly more
complex, and to insert the infrastructure policies and projects in a paradigm
of sustainable development with the integration of environmental aspects
and social stakeholders. It is the time to make decisions to implement an
aggressive infrastructure development agenda.
CAF, which over a span of over 40 years has offered strong support to the
development of infrastructure in Latin America, and constitutes its main
multilateral source of funding, is willing to closely collaborate with the
governments and the private sector of the countries of the region in order
to face these challenges, by offering financing support as well as promoting
the management of knowledge and the dissemination of the best practices.
106 |

| 107
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Diagnostico y Propuestas El sector de agua y saneamiento. Report
Montezuma, R. (2007). La moto como modo masivo de transporte: contexto
indito para muchos Countryes, ciudades y ciudadanos. Bogot.
IDeAL 2011
| 111
Bibliography
World Health Organization (WHO). (2011). World Health Statistics 2011.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OCDE). (2010).
The Emerging Middle Classes in Developing Countries. Paris: OCDE.
Perrotti, D. and Ricardo Snchez (2011). La Brecha de Infraestructura en
Amrica Latina y el Caribe. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL.
Prudhomme, R. (2004). Infraestructura y Desarrollo. Published en
Bourguignon, Franois & Boris Pleskovic, ed. 2005. Lessons of Experience.
Washington DC: World Bank and Oxford University Press, pp. 153-181.
Sanz, R. (2011). Situacin actual y perspectivas de la energa elctrica en
Amrica Latina. Report commissioned for the development of this study.
Caracas: CAF.
Tahilyani, N. et al. (2011). Asias $1 Trillion Infrastructure Opportunity.
McKinsey Quartely, March 2011.
Timilsina, G. y Ashish Shresth (2005). The Growth of Transport Sector CO2
Emissions and Underlying Factors in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Washington DC: World Bank. Available at: http://www.wds.worldbank.org/
servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/29/000158349_200809
29114913/Rendered/PDF/WPS4734.pdf
Unin Internacional de Telecomunicaciones (UIT, by its French acronym).
(2010). World Telecommunications ICT Indicators. Geneva: UIT.
Vassallo, J. and Rafael Izquierdo Bartolom (2010). Infraestructura Pblica y
Participacin Privada: Conceptos y experiencias en Amrica y Espaa.CAF.
Available at: www.caf.com/publicaciones
World Water Council (WWC) (2003). Financing Water for All. Camdessus
Report. Paris: WWC.
Yepes, T. (2010). Expenditure on Infrastructure in East Asia Region, 20062010. Report commissioned by ADB-JBIC-World Bank for a study on
infrastructure in East Asia and the Pacific.
112 |

Attachments
Attachment 1. Infrastructure indicators in Latin America
Transportation
Country
Quality of port
infrastructure
(2009)1
Maritime
transportation
connectivity index
(2010)2
Paved road network

v total network3 (%)
Argentina
3.8
27.6
30.0
Bolivia
2.9
7.0
Brazil
2.9
31.7
n/d
Chile
5.5
22.1
20.2
Colombia
3.5
26.1
n/d
Costa Rica
2.7
12.8
25.3
Cuba
n/d
6.6
49.0
Dominican Rep.
4.3
22.2
49.4
Ecuador
3.7
18.7
14.8
El Salvador
4.1
9.6
26.0
Guatemala
4.5
13.3
34.5
Honduras
5.3
9.1
20.4
Mexico
3.7
36.3
35.3
Nicaragua
2.9
8.7
12.0
Panama
6.0
41.1
38.1
Paraguay
3.4
0.0
50.8
Peru
3.3
21.8
n/d
Uruguay
5.2
24.5
10.0
Venezuela
2.4
18.6
33.6
n/d = n/a
1:
World Economic Forum (WEF), Global Competitiveness Report 2010-11
2:
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
3:
4:
114 |
International Road Federation (IRF)

International Union of Railways (UIC, in French)

Transportation
Deaths/100,000
inhabitants (2008)3
Energy
consumption (road
transportation/
total economy)
(2008)3 (%)
RAILROAD Length
of the lines (in km)
(2009)4
RAILROAD tons-km
(millions) (2009)4
10.3
18.1
25,023.0
12,025.0
11.3
25.3
2,866.0
1,060.0
18.6
23.0
29,817.0
267,700.0
10.6
18.4
5,352.0
4,032.0
12.6
25.1
1,672.0
11,884.0
7.9
29.5
12.5
2.7
5,075.6
1,351.0
14.5
17.6
13.9
37.6
21.8
16.5
4.7
22.7
13.7
21.3
5.1
27.8
26,704.0
71,136.0
9.2
12.8
n/d
17.3
13.8
25.9
12.3
29.1
2,020.0
900.5
4.4
20.7
284.0
22.6
24.1
continues
IDeAL 2011
| 115
Attachments
continuation
Transportation
Country
Transported
passengers
Air travel (2010)5
Vehicles/1,000
inhabitants (2007)3
Argentina
5,694,547
111.7
314
Bolivia
1,537,032
6.9
68
Brazil
67,945,578
1,782.3
198
Chile
8,097,314
1,179.0
172
12,115,330
2,419.9
58
Costa Rica
932,581
9.1
163
Cuba
780,484
26.8
38
n/d
n/d
123
Ecuador
2,896,528
3.2
63
El Salvador
1,996,982
15.3
84
Guatemala
n/d
n/d
117
Honduras
n/d
n/d
97
15,728,171
714.1
264
n/d
n/d
57
6,348,000
38.5
120
428,493
0.0
82
5,843,195
256.9
55
563,632
3.8
194
5,121,009
1.9
147
Colombia
Dominican Rep.
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Uruguay
Venezuela
116 |
Cargo
(millions of tons/km)
Air freight (2010)5
5:
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
6:
German Technical Cooperation (GTZ, in German)
7:
International Energy Agency (IEA)
8:
Latin American Energy Organization (OLADE, in Spanish)
9:
World Bank, Databank

Transportation
Electrical Energy
Price of Super fuel

(USD cents/liter)
(2008)6
CO2 emissions
(millions of tons)
Total transportation
sector (2008)7
Total electric
coverage (%)
(2008)8
78
42.7
95.0
2,788.5
68
4.6
69.0
560.8
126
149.5
97.9
2,232.1
95
25.6
99.0
3,319.3
104
23.1
94.0
973.7
124
4.3
99.0
1,865.8
167
0.9
95.5
1,327.5
104
5.7
95.7
1,376.8
51
12.7
90.4
1,137.5
78
2.4
95.5
953.2
86
5.4
83.5
542.9
80
2.9
76.4
707.6
74
151.4
96.6
2,019.7
87
1.5
63.4
456.7
67
3.1
83.0
1,646.2
117
3.4
96.7
1,001.9
142
13.2
78.1
1,032.4
118
2.6
98.0
2,393.5
45.2
97.0
3,074.5
electricity
consumption (kWh
per capital) (2008)9
Continue
IDeAL 2011
| 117
Attachments
Electrical Energy
Electricity lost in
distribution (trillion
Kilowatt/hour)
(2008)10
Total installed
capacity (millions of
Kilowatts) (2008)10
Exports of ICT goods

(% of total exported
goods) (2009)9
Argentina
16.18
30.97
0.4
Bolivia
0.80
1.45
0.0
Brazil
77.08
103.96
1.8
Chile
5.08
13.15
0.2
Colombia
10.80
13.40
0.3
Costa Rica
0.97
2.37
18.7
Cuba
2.79
5.40
n/d
Dominican Rep.
1.71
5.52
3.6
Ecuador
3.77
4.19
0.2
El Salvador
0.11
1.53
2.9
Guatemala
1.22
2.29
0.7
Honduras
1.35
1.59
0.2
Mexico
43.01
57.23
22.9
Nicaragua
0.80
0.95
0.4
Panama
0.91
1.65
n/d
Paraguay
2.91
8.14
0.2
Peru
2.66
7.16
0.1
Uruguay
1.72
2.24
0.1
32.95
23.12
0.1
Country
Venezuela
10:
118 |
Telecommunications
United States Energy Information Administration (U.S. EIA)
11:
World Bank, World Development Indicators
12:
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

Telecommunications
Imports of ICT
goods (% of total
imported goods)
(2009)9
ICT spending (% of
GDP) (2008)11
ICT per capita

spending (current
dollars) (2008) 11
Broadband Internet
subscriptions/100
residents (2010) 12
11.2
4.83
397.60
9.56
4.6
4.86
83.61
0.97
11.4
5.28
433.25
7.23
6.8
5.11
515.22
10.45
9.9
4.70
254.39
5.66
17.9
6.17
404.86
6.19
n/d
n/d
n/d
0.03
5.4
n/d
n/d
3.64
7.5
5.26
213.46
1.36
5.5
n/d
n/d
2.83
6.3
n/d
n/d
1.80
6.6
8.60
156.78
1.00
20.9
4.55
465.71
9.98
4.4
n/d
n/d
0.82
7.3
5.47
371.43
7.84
21.6
n/d
n/d
0.61
8.3
3.43
153.55
3.14
7.0
4.30
415.24
11.37
9.3
3.53
396.81
5.37
Continue
IDeAL 2011
| 119
Attachments
Telecommunications
Internet users/100
inhabitats (2010)12
Fixed telephony
lines/100
inhabitants (2010) 12
Mobile
telephony/100
inhabitants (2009) 12
Argentina
36.00
24.74
141.79
Bolivia
20.00
8.54
72.30
Brazil
40.65
21.62
104.10
Chile
45.00
20.20
116.00
Colombia
36.50
14.71
93.76
Costa Rica
36.50
31.80
65.14
Cuba
15.12
10.34
8.91
Dominican Rep.
39.53
10.17
89.58
Ecuador
24.00
14.42
102.18
El Salvador
15.00
16.16
124.34
Guatemala
10.50
10.41
125.57
Honduras
11.09
8.81
125.06
Mexico
31.00
17.54
80.55
Nicaragua
10.00
4.46
65.14
Panama
42.75
15.73
184.72
Paraguay
23.60
6.27
91.64
Peru
34.30
10.87
100.13
Uruguay
43.35
28.56
131.71
Venezuela
35.63
24.44
96.20
Country
12:
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
13:
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), The World Factbook
14:
World Health Organization (WHO)
15:
World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF)
120 |

Gas transportation
Gas pipes (km)13
IDeAL 2011

Improved sanitation
installations (% of
the population with
access) (2008)14
Improved water
sources (% of the
population with
access) (2008)14
29,401
90
97
5,330
25
86
13,514
80
97
3,064
96
96
4,801
74
92
95
97
41
91
94
83
86
92
94
87
87
81
94
71
86
16,594
85
94
52
85
69
93
70
86
1,526
68
82
226
100
100
5,347
94
93
| 121
Attachments
Attachment 2. Physical integration projects financed by CAF
P. Fijo
Coro
Riohacha
Barranquilla
Maracaibo
Cabimas
Co s t a Ric a
San Jos
Cartagena
Pto. Cabello
Maracay
Barcelona
Cuman
Caracas
Maturn
Barquisimeto
Pa n a m
Trujillo
Ciudad Guayana
San Fernando
de Apure
Mrida
Ccuta
San Cristbal
Arauca
Tumeremo
Bartica
Ven ez u el a
Linden
Tunja
Manizales
Ibagu
SURINAME
Villavicencio
Co l o mbia
Cali
Albina
GUYANA
Bogot
Buenaventura
Georgetown
New
Nickerie Paramaribo
Pto. Pez
Pto. Carreo
Medelln
Tucupita
El Tigre
Calabozo
Boa Vista
Cayenne
Gu aya n a
Fr a n c es a
Lethem
Popayn
Tumaco
Pasto
Mocoa
La Bonita
Ibarra
Esmeraldas
Macap
Quito
Belm
Tena
Manta
Ambato
ECUADOR
Salinas
Guayaquil
Santarm
Altamira
Manaus
Iquitos
Cuenca
Machala
Itaituba
Fortaleza
Loja
PER
Talara
Paita
Yurimaguas
Tarapoto
Jaen
Piura
Olmos
Teresina
Natal
Humait
Sousa
Cruzeiro do Sul
Chiclayo
Campina Grande
Porto Velho
Trujillo
Pucallpa
Tingo Mara
Chimbote
Recife
BRASIL
Rio Branco
Huaraz
Iapari
Riberalta
Lima
Aracaju
Huancayo
Callao
Ayacucho
Pto. Maldonado
Cusco
Feria de Sanana
Cuiab
Puno
Desaguadero
Arequipa
Matarani
BOLIVIA
La Paz
Colchane
Iquique
Itabuna
Brasilia
Cochamba
Moquegua
Oruro
Ilo
Toledo
Arica
Goinia
Sta. Cruz
Sucre
Corumb
Pto. Surez
Gral. Eugenio
A.Garay
Potos
Pisiga
Ubert
Inf. Rivarola
Mcal Estigarribia
Yacuiba
Bermejo Pa r a g u ay
Tupiz
La Quiaca
Mejillones
Belo Horizonte
Campo Grande
Vallem
Tarija
Ro de Janeiro
P. J. Caballero
Concepcin
Santos
Antofagasta
San Salvador
del Jujuy
Salta
Asuncin
Ciudad del Este
Formosa
San Miguel
de Tucumn
Copiapo
Resistencia
Santiago
del Estero
CHILE
Po. de
Los Libres
La Rioja
La Serena
ARGENTINA
Santiago
Palhoa
Laguna
Caxias do Sul
Uruguaina
Porto Alegre
Rivera
Salto
Paysandu
Villa Mara
Mendoza
Posadas
Artigas
Crdoba
Valparaso
San Antonio
Curitiba
Encarnacin
Rosario
San Luis
Mercedes
Colonia
San Rafael
URUGUAY
Osr
Ro Grande
Ro Branco
Treinta y Tres
Montevideo
Junn
Talca
Santa
Rosa
Concepcin
Mar del Plata

Victoria
Neuqun
San Carlos de Bariloche
Existing Road System

CAF Road Project
Baha Blanca
CAF Gas Pipeline Project
Viedma
CAF Railroad Project
Pto. Montt
Pto. Madryn
CAF Electric Interconnection Project
Esquel
CAF Border Crossing Project

Bridge
Comodoro Rivadavia
Waterways
This map has been created by CAF for illustrative
Hydroelectric Plant
purposes only. Therefore, the borders, colors,

denominations, and any other information shown, do not
Thermal Power Station

Islas Malvinas
Nations Capital
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
Other Cities
part of CAF concerning the legal status of any territory or
Ports
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Panama Canal
122 |

CAFs Contribution
(Million USDs)
Total Investment
(Million USDs)
447,0
1,116,6
2. Ecuador: Amazon Connection with Colombia and Peru

(Eastern Amazonia Trunk Highway)
93,8
152,7
3. Ecuador: Segmental Bridge Project over the Babahoyo

River
123,0
133,9
14,9
18,8
360,0
1,932,0
10,0
14,3
7. Brazil: Venezuela-Brazil Road Interconnection
86,0
168,0
8. Brazil: Venezuela-Brazil Electric Grid Interconnection
86,0
210,9
2,6
2,6
0,8
0,8
11. Ecuador: Central Trans-Andean Connection
33,7
54,5
12. Ecuador: South Trans-Andean Corridor
70,0
110,2
13. Ecuador: International Cargo Transfer Terminal in Port

of Manta, Ecuador
35,0
525,0
110,0
328,0
15. Peru: Pre-Investment in the Border Region with Ecuador
5,3
8,7
16. Peru: Central Amazon Corridor

(Tingo Maria-Aguaytia-Pucallpa section)
3,5
13,6
Physical Integration Projects Financed by CAF

Andean Axis
1. Colombia: Bogota-Buenaventura Road Corridor
4. Peru: Rehabilitation of the Huancayo-Huancavelica

Railroad
5. Venezuela: Railroad Connection between Caracas and
the National Network
6. Venezuela: Support for Commercial Navigation in the
Orinoco-Apure River Axis
Guyana Shield Axis
9. Venezuela: Studies for a Railroad Connecting Guayana

City-Maturin-Sucre State
10. Venezuela: Studies for a Highway Connecting Guayana
City (Venezuela)-Georgetown (Guyana)
Amazonian Axis
14. Peru: Northern Amazon Road Corridor
IDeAL 2011
| 123
Attachments
Peru-Brazil-Bolivia Axis
17. Bolivia: Guayaramerin-Riberalta Highway
42,0
45,5
18. Brazil: Highway Integration Program in Rondonia State
56,4
134,2
19. Peru: Southern Inter-Oceanic Road Corridor (sections

2, 3 and 4) and Guarantees for Private Structuring
1.004,5
2.091,0
20. Bolivia: Bolivia-Chile Integration Road Corridor
138,9
246,0
21. Bolivia: La Paz-Oruro Two-Lane Highway
250,0
265,1
22. Bolivia: Road Corridor Integrating Santa Cruz-Puerto

Suarez (sections 3, 4, and 5)
280,0
585,5
23. Bolivia: Road Corridor Integrating Bolivia-Argentina
314,0
642,0
24. Bolivia: Road Corridor Integrating Bolivia-Paraguay
135,0
285,6
25. Bolivia: The Y Integration Road Program
97,3
141,3
26. Bolivia: La Guardia-Comarapa Highway Rehabilitation
21,0
34,7
215,0
2.055,0
28. Bolivia: Support Program for the PAST IV Transport Sector
22,4
32,3
29. Bolivia: Transredes Gas Pipeline
88,0
262,8
30. Bolivia: Complementary Road Works
70,0
73,0
31. Bolivia: Sectoral Transport Program
150,0
221,2
48,9
176,6
Central Inter-Oceanic Axis
27. Bolivia/Brazil: Bolivia-Brazil Gas Pipeline
32. Peru: Bolivia-Peru Integration Road Corridor
124 |

Mercosur-Chile Axis
33. Argentina/Brazil Paso de los Libres Uruguaiana

Border Center
10,0
10,0
34. Argentina: Buenos Aires-Santiago Corridor (Laguna La

Picasa Alternative roadway)
10,0
10,0
35. Argentina: Buenos Aires-Santiago Corridor (Laguna La

Picasa Alternative Railroad Route)
35,0
50,0
36. Argentina: Buenos Aires-Santiago Corridor (Access to

Paso Pehuenche, RN 40 and RN 145)
106,7
188,1
37. Argentina: Electric Grid Interconnection Rincon Santa

Maria-Rodriguez
400,0
635,0
38. Argentina: Comahue-Cuyo Electric Grid Interconnection
200,0
414,0
39. Argentina: Road Works Program Integrating Argentina

and Paraguay
110,0
40. Argentina: Useful Life Extension of Embalse Nuclear

Plant
240,0
1.026,7
41. Brazil: Integration Road Program- Phase One. State of

Santa Catarina
32,6
65,5
42. Uruguay: Mega-Concession of the Main Road

Connections to Argentina and Brazil
25,0
136,5
43. Uruguay: Road Infrastructure Programs
240,0
757,1
44. Uruguay: Program to Strengthen the National

Electricity System
150,0
45. Uruguay: Punta del Tigre Thermal Power Station Project
IDeAL 2011
28,0
182,0
621,0
165,4
| 125
Attachments
Capricorn Axis
46. Argentina: Paving of RN81
90,2
126,2
47. Argentina: Access to the Jama Pass (Argentina-Chile)
54,0
54,0
48. Argentina: Studies for the Rehabilitation of the JujuyLa Quiaca Railroad
1,0
1,0
49.Argentina: Recovery and Improvement of the General

Belgrano Railroad
326,0
408,0
50. Bolivia: Tarija-Bermejo Road Program
74,8
200,0
51. Paraguay: Rehabilitation and Paving of the Integration

Corridors RN10 and RN11 and Complementary Works
19,5
41,9
0,9
1,1
100,0
166,0
54. Costa Rica: Investment Program in the Atlantic

Corridor
60,0
80,2
55. Panama: Highway Rehabilitation and Improvement

Program
80,0
125,6
5,5
13,4
57. Panama: Panama Canal Authority, Expansion Program
300,0
5.250,0
Others
210,0
812,0
7.324,2
23.623,1
Paraguay-Parana Waterway Axis
52. Studies to Improve Navigation, Institutional

Management and the Financial Scheme for the
Operation of the Waterway (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, and Uruguay)
53. Argentina: Railroad Works Program for the Integration
of Argentina and Paraguay
Mesoamerica
56. Panama: Binational Bridge Over the Sixaola River
Total
126 |

| 127
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Infrastructure in

Title: Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Organization and scope of the document

Chapter 1. Infrastructure: key for taking advantage

A favorable international environment

Social inclusion, equity, and quality of life

The relative backwardnessof Latin America

How much infrastructure is necessary?

Key issues: quality of the international environment

Ensure increasing mobility and control negative externalities

Growing demands requires continuous expansion

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Natural gas transportation

Growing demand and greater weight

Advances in mobile telephony, growing gap in wideband

Water: an abundant resource with unequal

Main requirements for responding to the challenges

Financing: needs and sources

Required investment is at least 50% higher than today

Exploit the potential derived from the

Ensure capacities through the project cycle

Integrate environmental factors

Priority issues in the short term

Link infrastructure plans with the development plan

Significantly increase investment in infrastructure

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Promote the development of companies in businesses

Annex 1. Infrastructure indicators in Latin America

Annex 2. Physical integration projects financed by CAF

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Infrastructure: key variable in a model of comprehensive development

diverse by sector (more positive in telecommunications, electricity, and

Current situation of the main infrastructure sectors

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

implementation presents numerous challenges. The countries of the region

Transportation of natural gas

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

application of new technologies for the development of deposits. Intraregional

Water and sanitation

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Elements that make infrastructure development viable

assigning the role to be played by national governments, local governments,

Institutions and policies for infrastructure development

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

negative impact generated by initiating projects that are not sufficiently

Integrating environmental factors

Infrastructure plans and their link to the development model

Issues that require priority attention

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Strengthening road maintenance, which is as important as building

Six lines of action for implementing a strategic agenda

Significantly increase investment in infrastructure

Frame policies and projects in a paradigm of sustainable development

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Strengthen institutions in their various dimensions

Optimize the use of multiple financing sources and modalities

Promote the development of enterprises in businesses linked to

Promote the exchange between governments, regions, and cities.

A call for action

Infrastructure in the Comprehensive Development of Latin America

Organization and scope of the document

it offers, and recognizes infrastructure as one of the key factors to achieve a

1 The base documents