Garden City Development

Garden City Development
Contents
1
Central place theory
1.1
Building the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Predictions of the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
K = 3 Marketing principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
K = 4 Transport/Trac principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
K = 7 Administrative principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Criticism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
Newer developments: a dynamic concept for CPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
The importance of a City and other Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
Making Central Place Theory operational
1.8.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unied settlement planning
2.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Recent developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Central Place Theory and Spatial Interaction Models
Circular economy
11
3.1
Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.2
Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.3
Moving away from the linear model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.4
Creating the circular framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
ii
CONTENTS
3.5
Emergence of the idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.6
Founding principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.6.1
Waste is Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.6.2
Diversity is strength
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.6.3
Energy must come from renewable sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.6.4
Systems thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
The circular economy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.7.1
Biomimicry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.7.2
Industrial Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.7.3
Cradle to Cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.7.4
Blue Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.8
Towards the Circular Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.9
Impact in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.10 Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
Regenerative design
15
4.1
History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.2
Regenerative versus sustainable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.3
Preservation versus conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.4
Food systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.5
Size of regenerative systems
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.6
Quantifying regenerativity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
4.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.7
Systems ecology
18
5.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
5.2
Summary of relationships in systems ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.3
Closely related elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.3.1
Deep ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.3.2
Earth systems engineering and management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.3.3
Ecological economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.3.4
Ecological energetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.3.5
Ecological humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.3.6
Ecosystem ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
5.3.7
Industrial ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
5.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
5.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
5.6
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
CONTENTS
iii
5.7
21
The Blue Economy
22
6.1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
6.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
6.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
6.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Permaculture
24
7.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
7.2
Core tenets and principles of design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
7.3
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
7.3.1
Twelve design principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
7.3.2
Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
7.3.3
Guilds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
7.3.4
Edge eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
7.3.5
Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
7.3.6
People and permaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
7.3.7
Domesticated animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Common practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
7.4.1
Agroforestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
7.4.2
Hgelkultur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
7.4.3
Natural building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
7.4.4
Rainwater harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
7.4.5
Sheet mulching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
7.4.6
Intensive rotational grazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
7.4.7
Keyline design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
7.4.8
Fruit tree management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
7.4.9
Mollison and Holmgren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.5
Trademark and copyright issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.6
Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.6.1
General criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.6.2
Agroforestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.8
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.8.1
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7.8.2
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
7.4
7.9
8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Green economy
34
8.1
Green economists and economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
8.2
Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
iv
CONTENTS
8.3
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.4
Green Energy Issues
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.5
Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
8.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
8.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Passive solar building design
40
9.1
Passive energy gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
9.2
As a science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9.3
The solar path in passive design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
9.4
Passive solar thermodynamic principles
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.4.1
Convective heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.4.2
Radiative heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
9.5
Site specic considerations during design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
9.6
Design elements for residential buildings in temperate climates
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
9.7
Eciency and economics of passive solar heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
9.8
Key passive solar building design concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
9.8.1
Direct solar gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
9.8.2
Indirect solar gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
9.8.3
Isolated solar gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
9.8.4
Heat storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
9.8.5
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
9.8.6
Special glazing systems and window coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
9.8.7
Glazing selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
9.8.8
Operable shading and insulation devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
9.8.9
Exterior colors reecting - absorbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
Landscaping and gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
9.10 Other passive solar principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
9.10.1 Passive solar lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
9.10.2 Passive solar water heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
9.11 Comparison to the Passive House standard in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
9.12 Design tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
9.13 Levels of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
9.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
9.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
9.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
9.9
10 Agroforestry
50
10.1 As a science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
10.2 Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
CONTENTS
10.2.1 Adaptation to climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
10.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
10.3.1 Parkland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
10.3.2 Shade systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
10.3.3 Crop-over-tree systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
10.3.4 Alley cropping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
10.3.5 Strip cropping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
10.3.6 Fauna-based systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
10.3.7 Boundary systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
10.3.8 Taungya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
10.3.9 Physical support systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
10.3.10 Agroforests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
10.4 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
10.5.1 Permaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
10.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
10.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
10.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
11 Agroecology
56
11.1 Ecological strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
11.2 Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
11.2.1 Agro-population ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
11.2.2 Inclusive agroecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
11.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
11.3.1 Views on organic and non-organic milk production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
11.3.2 Views on no-till farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
11.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
11.4.1 Pre-WWII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
11.4.2 Post-WWII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
11.4.3 Fusion with ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
11.5 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
11.6 By region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
11.6.1 Latin America
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
11.6.2 Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
11.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
11.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
11.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
11.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
12 Agroecological restoration
12.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
63
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CONTENTS
12.2 Reintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
12.2.1 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
12.2.2 Increasing heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
12.2.3 Monoculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
12.2.4 Organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
12.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
12.4 References
64
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 Community-supported agriculture
66
13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
13.2 The CSA system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
13.2.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
13.2.2 Ideology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
13.2.3 Distribution and marketing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
13.3 CSAs around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
13.3.1 Orti Solidali (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
13.5 References
69
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6 Additional reading
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
13.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
14 Forest gardening
71
14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
14.2 In tropical climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
14.2.1 Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
14.2.2 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
14.2.3 Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
14.3 In temperate climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
14.3.1 Seven-layer system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
14.3.2 Further development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
14.3.3 Permaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
14.4 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
14.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
14.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
14.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
14.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
15 Food desert
15.1 Denitions
77
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
15.2 Origin and theories for development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
15.3 Access to quality food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
15.4 Aordability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
CONTENTS
vii
15.5 Rural food deserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
15.6 Racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
15.7 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
15.8 Barriers and proposed solutions in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
15.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
15.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
15.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
16 Polyculture
85
16.1 Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
16.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
16.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
16.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
17 Urban forest
86
17.1 Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
17.1.1 Social, psychological, recreational, wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
17.1.2 Economic benets
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
17.1.3 Air pollution reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
17.2 Biogenic volatile organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
17.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
17.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
17.4.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
17.4.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
17.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
18 Green roof
91
18.1 Environmental benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
18.2 Costs and nancial benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
18.3 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
18.4 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
18.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
18.6 Brown roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
18.7 Examples by country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
18.7.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
18.7.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
18.7.3 Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
18.7.4 Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
18.7.5 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
18.7.6 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
18.7.7 Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
18.7.8 Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
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CONTENTS
18.7.9 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
18.7.10 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
18.7.11 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
18.7.12 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
18.7.13 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
18.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

18.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
18.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
18.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
19 Earthship
104
19.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

19.2 Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
19.3 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
19.3.1 Collection
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
19.3.2 Greywater
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
19.3.3 Black water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

19.4 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
19.5 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
19.5.1 Natural ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
19.6 Heating problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
19.7 Europe
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
19.8 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

19.9 Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
19.10Documentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
19.11Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
19.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
19.13Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
19.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
19.15Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
19.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
20 Transit-oriented development
111
20.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

20.2 TOD in cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
20.2.1 Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
20.2.2 North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
20.2.3 Asia and Oceania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
20.2.4 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
20.3 Equity and housing cost concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
20.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
20.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
CONTENTS
ix
20.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

20.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
20.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
20.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
20.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Chapter 1

perfect competition and all sellers are economic
people maximizing their prots
consumers are of the same income level and same
shopping behaviour
all consumers have a similar purchasing power and
demand for goods and services
Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand.They minimize the distance to be travelled
no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess prot(each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)
Therefore the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal size
Central place theory is a geographical theory that seeks
to explain the number, size and location of human settlements in an urban system.[1] The theory was created by
the German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted
that settlements simply functioned as 'central places providing services to surrounding areas.[1]
there is only one type of transport and this would be

equally easy in all directions
transport cost is proportional to distance traveled in
example, the longer the distance traveled, the higher
the transport cost
The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and
range.
1.1 Building the theory
Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service.
To develop the theory, Christaller made the following

simplifying assumptions:[2]
All areas have
Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods - at some point the
cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the
good.
an unbounded isotropic (all at), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)

an evenly distributed population
all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangu- The result of these consumer preferences is that a system
of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will
lar lattice pattern
supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be
evenly distributed resources
made regarding the spacing, size and function of settle distance decay mechanism
ments.
1
CHAPTER 1. CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

1. The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in
number they will be, i.e. there are many small villages, but few large cities.
2. The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater
the distance between them, i.e. villages are usually
found close together, while cities are spaced much
further apart.
3. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase .
4. As a settlement increases in size, the number of
higher-order services will also increase, i.e. a
greater degree of specialization occurs in the services.
The higher the order of the goods and services (more

durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of
the goods and services, the longer the distance people are
K = 3 Principle
willing to travel to acquire them.
At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These
centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres
selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper
stalls, groceries, bakeries and post oces. Examples for
high order goods and services are: jewellery, large shopping arcades and malls. They are supported by a much
larger threshold population and demand.
1.2 Predictions of the theory
nodes(6 in numbers and 2nd larger circles) are located at

the corner of a largest hexagon around the high-order settlement. Each high-order settlement gets 1/3rd of each
satellite settlement (which are 6 in total), thus K = 1 +
61/3 = 3.
However, although in this K = 3 marketing network the
distance traveled is minimized, the transport network is
not the most ecient, because there is no intermediate transport links (network) between the larger places
(nodes).
From this he deduced that settlements would tend to form 1.2.2

in a triangular/hexagonal lattice, this being the most ecient pattern to serve areas without any overlap.[1]
K = 4 Transport/Trac principle
In the orderly arrangement of an urban hierarchy, seven

dierent principal orders of settlement have been identied by Christaller, providing dierent groups of goods
and services. Settlement are regularly spaced - equidistant spacing between same order centers, with larger centers farther apart than smaller centers. Settlements have
hexagonal market areas, and are most ecient in number
and functions.
The dierent layouts predicted by Christaller have Kvalues which show how much the Sphere of Inuence
of the central places takes in the central place itself
counts as 1 and each portion of a satellite counts as its
portion:
1.2.1
K = 3 Marketing principle
According to the marketing principle K = 3, the market area of a higher-order place(node) occupies 1/3rd of K = 4 Principle
the market area of each of the consecutive lower size
place(node) which lies on its neighbor; the lower size According to K = 4 transport principle, the market area
1.4. EXAMPLES
of a higher-order place includes a half of the market area
of each of the six neighbouring lower-order places, as
they are located on the edges of hexagons around the
high-order settlements. This generates a hierarchy of
central places which results in the most ecient transport network. There are maximum central places possible located on the main transport routes connecting the
higher order center.The transportation principle involves
the minimization of the length of roads connecting central places at all hierarchy levels. In this system of nesting, the lower order centres are all located along the roads
linking the higher order centres. This alignment of places
along a road leads to minimization of road length. However, for each higher order centre, there are now four centres of immediate lower order,as opposed to three centres
under the marketing principle.
1.2.3
K = 7 Administrative principle
3
Economic status of consumers in an area is also important. Consumers of higher economic status tend to be
more mobile and therefore bypass centers providing only
lower order goods. The application of central place theory must be tempered by an awareness of such factors
when planning shopping center space location.
Purchasing power and density aect the spacing of centers and hierarchical arrangements. Sucient densities
will allow, for example, a grocery store, a lower order
function, to survive in an isolated location.
Factors shaping the extent of market areas:
Land use: industrial areas can provide little in the
way of a consuming population
Poor accessibility: this can limit the extent of a centers market area
Competition: this limits the extent of market areas
in all directions
Technology: high mobility aorded by the automobile allows overlapping of market areas
Market area studies provide another technique for using central place theory as a retail location planning tool.
The hierarchy of shopping centers has been widely used
within the planning of "new towns". In this new town,
the hierarchy of business centers is evident. One main
shopping center provides mostly durable goods (higher
order); district and local shopping centers supply, increasingly, convenience (lower order) goods. These centers
provided for in the new town plan are not free from outside competition. The impacts of surrounding existing
centers on the new town centers cannot be ignored.
1.4 Examples
K = 7 Principle
According to K = 7 administrative principle (or politicalsocial principle), settlements are nested according to sevens. The market areas of the smaller settlements are completely enclosed within the market area of the larger settlement. Since tributary areas cannot be split administratively, they must be allocated exclusively to a single
higher-order place. Ecient administration is the control principle in this hierarchy.
1.3 Evaluation
The validity of the central place theory may vary with local factors, such as climate, topography, history of development, technological improvement and personal preference of consumers and suppliers.
The newly reclaimed polders of the Netherlands provide

an isotropic plane on which settlements have developed
and in certain areas 6 small towns can be seen surrounding a larger town, especially in the Noord-Oostpolder and
Flevoland. The Fens of East Anglia in the UK also provide a large expanse of at land with no natural barriers
to settlement development. Cambridge is a good example of a K=4 Transport Model Central Place, although
it is surrounded by 7, rather than 6, settlements. Each
satellite is 1015 miles from Cambridge and each lies on
a major road leading out of Cambridge:
Ely - A10 north
Newmarket - A1303 (now bypassed by A14/A11)
northeast
Haverhill - A1307 southeast
Saron Walden - A1301 south

Royston - A10 southwest
and number of telephones in determining the importance

of a city. Smith recognized that although population size
St Neots - A428 west
was important to the area served by a city, the number
of kinds of services oered there was more important
St Ives - A14 northwest
as a measure of the importance of a city in attracting
consumers. In applying CPT to describe the delivery of
As all of the satellite settlements are on transport links, medical care in California, Smith counted the number
this is a good example of a K=4 CPT model (although in of physician specialties to determine the importance of
this case it is K=4.5 due to 7 rather than 6 settlements). a city in the delivery of medical care.
Another example of the use of CPT was in the delin- Christaller also erred in the assumption that cities
eation of Medical Care Regions in California. A hier- emerge. In California and much of the United States,
archy of primary, secondary and tertiary care cities was many cities were situated by the railroads at the time the
described, and the population size and income needed to tracks were laid. In California, towns founded by the railsupport each medical care specialty in California deter- roads were 12 miles apart, the amount of track a section
mined.
crew could maintain in the 1850s; larger towns were 60
miles apart, the distance a steam engine could travel before needing water. Older towns were founded a days
horse ride apart by the Spanish priests who founded early
1.5 Criticism
missions.
The Central Place Theory has been criticized for being
static; it does not incorporate the temporal aspect in the
development of central places. Furthermore, the theory
holds up well when it comes to agricultural areas, but not
industrial or postindustrial areas due to their diversied
nature of various services or their varied distribution of
natural resources.
1.6 Newer developments: a dynamic concept for CPT

Newer theoretical developments have shown that it is
possible to overcome the static aspect of CPT. Veneris
(1984) developed a theoretical model which starts with
(a) a system of evenly distributed (medieval) towns;
(b) new economic activities are located in some towns
thus causing dierentiation and evolution into an hierarchical (industrial)city system; (c) further dierentiation leads into a post-hierarchical (postindustrial) city
system. This evolution can be modelled by means of
the three major CPT theories: stage (a) is a system of
von Thunen isolated states"; stage (b) is a Christallerian hierarchical system; stage (c) is a Lschian posthierarchical system. Furthermore, stage (b) corresponds
to Chris Alexanders tree city, while (c) is similar to his
lattice system (following his dictum the city is not a
tree).
In medical care regions described by Smith, there is a hierarchy of services, with primary care ideally distributed
throughout an area, middle sized cities oering secondary
care, and metropolitan areas with tertiary care. Income,
size of population, population demographics, distance to
the next service center, all had an inuence on the number and kind of specialists located in a population center.
(Smith, 1977, 1979)
For example, orthopedic surgeons are found in ski areas,
obstetricians in the suburbs, and boutique specialties such
as hypnosis, plastic surgery, psychiatry are more likely to
be found in high income areas. It was possible to estimate the size of population (threshold) needed to support
a specialty, and also to link specialties that needed to cooperate and locate near each other, such as hematology,
oncology, and pathology, or cardiology, thoracic surgery
and pulmonology.
Her work is important for the study of physician
locationwhere physicians choose to practice and where
their practices will have a sucient population size to
support them. The income level of the population determines whether sucient physicians will practice in an
area and whether public subsidy is needed to maintain the
health of the population.
The distribution of medical care in California followed

patterns having to do with the settlement of cities. Cities
and their hinterlands having characteristics of the Trafc Principle (See K=4 above) usually have six thoroughfares through themthe thoroughfares including highways, rivers, railroads, and canals. They are most ecient
1.7 The importance of a City and and can deliver the lowest cost services because transportation is cheaper. Those having settled on the market
other Theoretical Considera- principle (K=3 above) have more expensive services and
goods, as they were founded at times when transportations
tion was more primitive. In Appalachia, for example, the
market principle still prevails and rural medical care is
According to Smith, Walter Christaller erred in his demuch more expensive.
velopment of CPT in 1930 by using size of population
1.9. SEE ALSO
1.8 Making Central Place Theory

operational
CPT is often criticized as being unrealistic. However,
several studies show that it can describe existing urban
systems. An important issue is that Christallers original
formulation is incorrect in several ways (Smith). These
errors become apparent if we try to make CPT operational, that is if we try to derive numerical data out of the
theoretical schemata. These problems have been identied for by Veneris (1984) and subsequently by Openshaw and Veneris (2003), who provided also theoretically
sound and consistent solutions, based on a K=3, 37-centre
CP system:
1. Closure problem. Christallers original scheme implies an innite landscape. Although each market has nite size, the total system has no boundaries to it. Neither Christaller, nor the early related literature provide
any guidance as to how the system can be contained.
Openshaw and Veneris (2003) identied three dierent
types of closure, namely (a) isolated state, (b) territorial
closure and (c) functional closure. Each closure type implies dierent population patterns.
2. Generating trips. Following the basic Christallerian logic and the closure types identied, Openshaw and
Veneris (2003) calculate trip patterns between the 27 centres.
3. Calculating inter- and intra-zonal costs/distances.
Christaller assumed freedom of movement in all directions, which would imply airline distances between centres. At the same time, he provided specic road networks for the CP system, which do not allow for airline
distances. This is a major aw which neither Christaller,
nor early related literature have identied. Openshaw and
Veneris (2003) calculate costs/distances which are consistent with the Christallerian principles.
1.8.1
Central Place Theory and Spatial Interaction Models
For more details on this topic, see Spatial Interaction

Models.
It was once thought that central place theory is not compatible with spatial interaction models (SIM). It is paradoxical however that some times towns or shopping centres are planned with CPT, and subsequently evaluated
with SIM.
Openshaw and Veneris (2003) succeeded in linking these
two major regional theories in a clear and theoretically
consistent way: using the data they derived from the operationalization of CPT, they experimented with several
SIM. Following a thorough investigation via computer
simulation, they reached important theoretical and prac-
5
tical conclusions.
Smith was able to delineate medical care regions (the
range), describe the hierarchy of medical services,
the population base required of each medical specialty
(threshold), the eciency of regions, and the importance
of how an area was settled to the delivery of medical care,
that is, according to trac, market or administrative principles.
1.9 See also

Demographic gravitation
Fractal
Penrose tiling
Zipfs law
Boundary problem (in spatial analysis)
1.10 Notes
[1] Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human
Geography. London: Penguin.
[2] http://uprav.ff.cuni.cz/?q=system/files/christaller.pdf
1.11 References
Openshaw S, Veneris Y, 2003, Numerical experiments with central place theory and spatial interaction modelling Environment and Planning A 35(8)
13891403 ()
Smith, Margot W. Physicians Specialties and Medical Trade Areas: An Application of Central Place
Theory. Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences, Vol. 9, West Point NY 1986.
Smith, Margot W. A Guide to the Delineation of
Medical Care Regions, Medical Trade Areas and
Hospital Service Areas. Public Health Reports,
94:3:247 May 1979
Smith, Margot W. The Economics of Physician
Location, Western Regional Conference, American
Association of Geographers, Chicago, Illinois, 1979
Smith, Margot W. The Distribution of Medical Care
in Central California: a Social and Economic Analysis, Thesis, School of Public Health, University of
California, Berkeley, 1977 - 1004 pages
Veneris, Y, 1984, Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis, University
of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
1.12 External links

Walter Christallers Theory of Central Places
Walter Christaller: Hierarchical Patterns of Urbanization
Christallers Central Place Theory
Christaller - Course notes
Central Places Theory
Chapter 2

Unied settlement planning (USP) is the component of culties caused by the dense network of roads and villages,
regional planning where a unied approach is applied for all over the regions. Unied settlement planning allows
a regions overall development.
holistic regional development without signicantly disturbing existing villages, farmland, bodies of water, and
forests.[1]
2.1 Overview
2.2 History
Regions use their land in for various purposes, including agriculture, manufacturing, and public administration. For society to develop, it has to amalgamate and
develop settlements; their coexistence is the basis for a
holistic development of any society.
The Walter Christaller concept
Sir Ebenezer Howard (29 January 1850[2] May 1,

1928[3] ) is known for his publication Garden Cities of
To-morrow (1898), the description of a utopian city
The original Garden City concept by Ebenezer Howard, 1902. in which people live harmoniously together with nature,which forms the basis for unied settlement planUnied settlement planning is a contemporary approach ning. The publication resulted in the founding of the garfor the bulk requirement of urban amenities, for the vast den city movement, that realized several Garden Cities in
regions of the developing countries with uniformly dis- Great Britain at the beginning of the 20th century.
tributed human settlement patterns. The approach is
gaining importance in India, primarily due to the di- Walter Christaller (April 21, 1893 March 9, 1969)
culties posed by the high density of existing rural set- who was a German geographer, developed the idea of
tlements, in implementing the conventional plans with Central Place Theory. It stated that settlements simply
places providing services to surcontiguous urban zones, around preexisting cities. The functioned as 'central
[4]
rounding
areas.
approach utilizes the advantages of the uniformly distributed human settlement patterns and avoids the di- August Lsch (October 15, 1906 in hringen-) a German
7
8
economist,is regarded as the founder of Regional Science
.[5] August Lsch expanded on Christallers work in his
book 'The Spatial Organization of the Economy'(1940).
Unlike Christaller, whose system of central places began with the highest-order, Lsch began with a system
of lowest-order (self-sucient) farms, which were regularly distributed in a triangular-hexagonal pattern.[6] He
thought that Christallers model led to patterns where
the distribution of goods and the accumulation of prots
were based entirely on location. He instead focused on
maximizing consumer welfare and creating an ideal consumer landscape where the need to travel for any good
was minimized and prots were held level, not maximized to accrue extra.[7]
CHAPTER 2. UNIFIED SETTLEMENT PLANNING
2.3 Recent developments
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi visioned for a free country governed by their own people;he penned down his
visions in a book Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule
in 1909.[8] Swaraj stated that every village should be
its own republic, independent of its neighbours for its
own vital wants and yet interdependent for many others in which dependence is necessary. A decentralized, unexploited,co-operative, self reliant and peace loving development of a region is must for development of
India.[9]
These ideas of swaraj was developed in light of contemporary scenario in India as Providing Urban Amenities to
Rural Areas (PURA), envisioned by former president of
India and an eminent scientist Dr A. P. J. Abdul Kalam The regional modules in Chhattisgarh(India)
and framed by Prof.Emerson.
PURA proposes that urban infrastructure and services
be provided in rural hubs to create economic opportunities outside of cities.These ideas will be possible
through physical connectivity by providing roads, electronic connectivity by providing communication network
and knowledge connectivity by establishing professional
and Technical institutions. The mentioned programs will
have to be done in an integrated way so that economic
connectivity will emanate. The Indian central government has been running pilot PURA programs in several
states since 2004.[10]
The regional modules in Madhya Pradesh(India)
Chhattisgarh, one of the fastest growing states of India,

has initiated deliberations on the subject, for its development strategies. The process has started with some useful studies and research on the area by Dr. Devendra K.
Sharma.[11]
The Regional Module of Rajnandgaon,Chhattisgarh,India
Based on a comprehensive scheme on the Unied settlement Plan for India (USP for India), targeted to serve
the whole nation in future, the Chhattisgarh government
is contemplating a project for the holistic development
of a regional module of about 700 km2 . area, enclosed
between the highways connecting Durg, Ragnandgaon &
Khairagarh.[12]
2.6. REFERENCES
Institute of Town Planners, India (ITPI) organised a national seminar on the subject of Urban Dynamics and
Planning - 2032, on 18 & 19 April 2012. The seminar
has strongly recommended that the development of rural and urban settlements in India should not be planned
separately.[13]
2.4 Principles
The fundamental objective for a unied settlement plan
includes:[14]
Low cost of living with basic requirements.
Ample work opportunities, near the residences .
Viability of institutions along with ample options for
the clientele.
Eciency of the infrastructure, without any prejudice to the density of the settlements.
Fool-proof security, especially for the areas with
large population concentration.
Each region to be self reliant and interdependent
wherever necessary.
The strategies for achieving the objectives include:[13]
Denition of the regional modules.
Minimizing the expenditure on land for urban
amenities.
Avoiding expenditure on the new residences for the
population with existing houses.
Development of ecient and economical transportation systems from origin to destination.
Comparable generation and utilisation of energy in
the module.
Self suciency in water utilization .
Cooperative ownership of the urban land and its key
facilities.
2.5 See also

Transport planning
Ruralurban fringe
Regional planning
Spatial planning
Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas (PURA)
2.6 References
[1] ISPC, . uspforindia. architect and planner. www.
godaddy.com. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
[2] Penguin Pocket On This Day. Penguin Reference Library.
2006. ISBN 0-14-102715-0.
[3] (1933) Enciklopedio de Esperanto
[4] Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human
Geography. London: Penguin.
[5] Losch, August. August Lsch. wikipedia. Retrieved 7
June 2012.
[6] losch, August. August Lsch. brittanica. Retrieved 7
June 2012.
[7] losch, August. The gravity model. Retrieved 7 June
2012.
[8] Gandhi, Mohandas K. (1908). Hind Swaraj. Navajivan
Publishing House. ISBN 81-7229-070-5.
[9] . Verma, S. L (1990). Panchayati raj, gram swaraj, and
federal polity. the University of Michigan: Rawat Publications. p. 1. ISBN 8170330890.
[10] KALAM, A.P.J. ABDUL. Providing Urban Amenities
to Rural Areas. scientist and former president. Ministry
of Rural Development, Government of India. Retrieved
27 April 2012.
[11] Sharma, Dr. Devendra K. The Uncut Diamond. Chhatisgarh: Satpura Integrated Rural Development Institute.
pp. 120.
[12] Samvadata, Nagar (16 March 2012). Village Metro ka
blue print taiyar. Navbharat, Durg Bhilai: 1&2. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
[13] Seminar, National (2012). Urban Dynamics and Planning. Lucknow: Institute of Town Planners. pp. 1195.
[14] pallot, judith (1981). planning for soviet union. british
library. pp. the whole book. ISBN 0-85664-571-0.
2.7 Further reading

Peter Calthorpe & William Fulton, The Regional
City: Planning for the End of Sprawl, ISBN 155963-784-6
Planning for Soviet Union,Judith pallot & Denis J.B.
Shaw,1981,ISBN- 0-85664-571-0
Openshaw S, Veneris Y, 2003, Numerical experiments with central place theory and spatial interaction modelling Environment and Planning A 35(8)
13891403 ()
Veneris, Y, 1984, Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis, University
of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
10
Smith, Margot W. Physicians Specialties and Medical Trade Areas: An Application of Central Place
Theory. Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences, Vol. 9, West Point NY 1986.
2.8 External links

www.uspforindia.com
www.uspforindia.org
Countryside Agency of Englands online research library of urban rural fringe
'Case Studies of the Urban Rural fringe for students
CHAPTER 2. UNIFIED SETTLEMENT PLANNING
Chapter 3
Circular economy
The circular economy is a generic term for an industrial
economy that is, by design or intention, restorative and in
which material ows are of two types, biological nutrients, designed to reenter the biosphere safely, and technical nutrients, which are designed to circulate at high
quality without entering the biosphere.
3.1 Scope
The term encompasses more than the production and
consumption of goods and services, including a shift from
fossil fuels to the use of renewable energy, and the role
of diversity as a characteristic of resilient and productive
systems. It includes discussion of the role of money and
nance as part of the wider debate, and some of its pioneers have called for a revamp of economic performance
measurement tools.[1]
3.2 Origins
The circular economy is grounded in the study of
feedback rich (non-linear) systems, particularly living
systems.[2] A major outcome of this is the notion of optimising systems rather than components, or the notion of
design for t. As a generic notion it draws from a number
of more specic approaches including cradle to cradle,
biomimicry, industrial ecology, and the blue economy.
Most frequently described as a framework for thinking,
its supporters claim it is a coherent model that has value
as part of a response to the end of the era of cheap oil and
materials.
3.3 Moving away from the linear

model
tect, economist, and a founding father of industrial sustainability. Credited with having coined the expression
Cradle to Cradle (in contrast with Cradle to Grave,
illustrating our Resource to Waste way of functioning)
in the late 1970s, Stahel worked on developing a closed
loop approach to production processes, co-founding the
Product-Life Institute in Geneva more than 25 years ago.
3.4 Creating the circular framework

In their 1976 Hannah Reekman research report to the
European Commission, The Potential for Substituting
Manpower for Energy, Walter Stahel and Genevieve Reday sketched the vision of an economy in loops (or circular economy) and its impact on job creation, economic
competitiveness, resource savings, and waste prevention.
The report was published in 1982 as the book Jobs for
Tomorrow: The Potential for Substituting Manpower for
Energy.[3]
Considered as one of the rst pragmatic and credible sustainability think tanks, the main goals of Stahels institute are product-life extension, long-life goods, reconditioning activities, and waste prevention. It also insists on
the importance of selling services rather than products,
an idea referred to as the functional service economy
and sometimes put under the wider notion of performance economy which also advocates more localisation
of economic activity.[4]
In broader terms, the circular approach is a framework
that takes insights from living systems. It considers that
our systems should work like organisms, processing nutrients that can be fed back into the cyclewhether biological or technicalhence the closed loop or regenerative terms usually associated with it.
Linear Take, Make, Dispose industrial processes and 3.5 Emergence of the idea
the lifestyles that feed on them deplete nite reserves to
create products that end up in landlls or in incinerators. The generic Circular Economy label can be applied to,
This realisation triggered the thought process of a few sci- and claimed by, several dierent schools of thought, that
entists and thinkers, including Walter R. Stahel, an archi- all gravitate around the same basic principles which they
11
12
CHAPTER 3. CIRCULAR ECONOMY
have rened in dierent ways. The idea itself, which is

centred on taking insights from living systems, is hardly a
new one and hence cannot be traced back to one precise
date or author, yet its practical applications to modern
economic systems and industrial processes have gained
momentum since the late 1970s, giving birth to four
prominent movements, detailed below. The idea of circular material ows as a model for the economy was presented in 1966 by Kenneth E. Boulding in his paper, The
Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth.[5] Promoting a circular economy was identied as national policy
in Chinas 11th ve-year plan starting in 2006.[6] The
Ellen MacArthur Foundation, an independent charity established in 2010, has more recently outlined the economic opportunity of a circular economy. As part of its
educational mission, the Foundation has worked to bring
together complementary schools of thought and create a
coherent framework, thus giving the concept a wide exposure and appeal.[7]
3.6 Founding principles

3.6.1
feedback and imprecise starting conditions the outcome

is not necessarily proportional to the input and where evolution of the system is possible : the system can display
emergent properties. Examples of these systems are all
living systems and any open system such as meteorological systems or ocean currents, even the orbits of the planets have non linear characteristics.
Understanding a system is crucial when trying to decide
and plan (corrections) in a system. Missing or misinterpreting the trends, ows, functions of, and human inuences on, our socio-ecological systems could result in disastrous results. In order to prevent errors in planning or
design an understanding of the system should be applied
to the whole and to the details of the plan or design. The
Natural Step created a set of systems conditions (or sustainability principles) that can be applied when designing
for (parts of) a circular economy to ensure alignment with
functions of the socio-ecological system.
3.7 The circular economy framework
Waste is Food
The circular economy is a framework that draws upon and

[8]
Waste does not exist the biological and technical com- encompasses principles from:
ponents (nutrients) of a product are designed by intention
to t within a materials cycle, designed for disassembly
and re-purposing. The biological nutrients are non-toxic 3.7.1 Biomimicry
and can be simply composted. Technical nutrients polymers, alloys and other man-made materials are designed Main article: Biomimicry
to be used again with minimal energy.
Janine Benyus, author of Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature, denes her approach as a new dis3.6.2 Diversity is strength
cipline that studies natures best ideas and then imitates
these designs and processes to solve human problems.
Modularity, versatility and adaptiveness are to be priori- Studying a leaf to invent a better solar cell is an examtised in an uncertain and fast evolving world. Diverse sys- ple. I think of it as innovation inspired by nature.[9]
tems, with many connections and scales are more resilient Biomimicry relies on three key principles:
in the face of external shocks, than systems built simply
for eciency.
Nature as model: Biomimicry studies natures models and emulates these forms, processes, systems,
and strategies to solve human problems.
3.6.3 Energy must come from renewable
sources
As in life, any system should ultimately aim to run on
current sunshine and generate energy through renewable
sources.
3.6.4
Systems thinking
Nature as measure: Biomimicry uses an ecological

standard to judge the sustainability of our innovations.
Nature as mentor: Biomimicry is a way of viewing
and valuing nature. It introduces an era based not
on what we can extract from the natural world, but
what we can learn from it.
The ability to understand how things inuence one another within a whole. Elements are considered as tting 3.7.2 Industrial Ecology
in their infrastructure, environment and social context.
Whilst a machine is also a system, systems thinking usu- Main article: Industrial Ecology
ally refers to non linear systems: systems where through
3.8. TOWARDS THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY

Industrial Ecology is the study of material and energy
ows through industrial systems. Focusing on connections between operators within the industrial ecosystem, this approach aims at creating closed loop processes
in which waste is seen as input, thus eliminating the notion of undesirable by-product. Industrial ecology adopts
a systemic - or holistic - point of view, designing production processes according to local ecological constraints
whilst looking at their global impact from the outset, and
attempting to shape them so they perform as close to living systems as possible. This framework is sometimes referred to as the science of sustainability, given its interdisciplinary nature, and its principles can also be applied
in the services sector. With an emphasis on natural capital restoration, Industrial Ecology also focuses on social
wellbeing.[10]
3.7.3
Cradle to Cradle
Main article: Cradle to Cradle Design

Created by German chemist Michael Braungart and
American architect Bill McDonough, the Cradle to Cradle Design model considers that all material involved in
industrial and commercial processes can be seen as nutrients, of which there are two main categories: technical
and biological.[11] Technical nutrients should include only
materials that do not have a negative impact on the environment (so non-harmful synthetic ones are accepted),
while Biological nutrients are organic and can be returned
to the soil without specic treatment to decompose and
eventually become food for the ecosystem. What we need
are completely healthy products that are either returned
to the soil or ow back to industry forever, say McDonough and Braungart.
13
example of winning South-South collaborative projects,
another original feature of this approach intent on promoting its hands-on focus.
3.8 Towards the Circular Economy

In January 2012, a report was released entitled Towards
the Circular Economy: Economic and business rationale
for an accelerated transition. The report, commissioned
by the Ellen MacArthur Foundation and developed by
McKinsey & Company, was the rst of its kind to consider the economic and business opportunity for the transition to a restorative, circular model. Using product case
studies and economy-wide analysis, the report details the
potential for signicant benets across the EU. It argues
that a subset of the EU manufacturing sector could realise net materials cost savings worth up to $630 billion
p.a. towards 2025stimulating economic activity in the
areas of product development, remanufacturing and refurbishment. Towards the Circular Economy also identied the key building blocks in making the transition to
a circular economy, namely in skills in circular design
and production, new business models, skills in building
cascades and reverse cycles, and cross-cycle/cross-sector
collaboration.[14]
3.9 Impact in Europe
On 17 December 2012, the European Commission published a document entitled Manifesto for a Resource Efcient Europe. This manifesto clearly stated that In a
world with growing pressures on resources and the environment, the EU has no choice but to go for the transition to a resource-ecient and ultimately regenerative
circular economy.[15] Furthermore, the document highlighted the importance of a systemic change in the use
3.7.4 Blue Economy
and recovery of resources in the economy in ensuring
future jobs and competitiveness, and outlined potential
Main article: The Blue Economy
pathways to a circular economy, in innovation and investment, regulation, tackling harmful subsidies, increasing
Initiated by former Ecover CEO and Belgian businessopportunities for new business models, and setting clear
man Gunter Pauli, the Blue Economy is an open-source
targets.
movement bringing together concrete case studies, initially compiled in an eponymous report handed over to
the Club of Rome. As the ocial manifesto states, using the resources available in cascading systems, (...) the 3.10 Resource
waste of one product becomes the input to create a new
cash ow.[12] Based on 21 founding principles, the Blue In March 2014 the rst large scale event for the circuEconomy insists on solutions being determined by their lar economy was held with over 11,000 attendees from
local environment and physical / ecological character- across the globe and all the major stakeholders in attenistics, putting the emphasis on gravity as the primary dance. The launch of such an event signals the rise of
source of energy - a point that dierentiates this school of the topic and it will act as an enabler for business to tranthought from the others within the Circular Economy.[13] sition towards more circular business models. This anThe report - which doubles as the movements manifesto nual large scale event is now growing to represent the
- describes 100 innovations which can create 100 mil- uptake of circular economy principles. (see http://www.
lion jobs within the next 10 years, and provides many resource-event.com).
14
3.11 See also

Algorithmic Regulation
Appropriate technology
Cradle to Cradle
Downcycling
Huangbaiyu
Life cycle assessment
CHAPTER 3. CIRCULAR ECONOMY
[11] Seven Steps to Doing Good Business, Pricing Article.

Inc.com. 1993-11-01. Retrieved 2013-11-20.
[12] Blue Economy : Green Economy 2.0. Blueeconomy.de.
Retrieved 2013-11-20.
[13]
[14] Towards the Circular Economy: an economic and business
rationale for an accelerated transition. Ellen MacArthur
Foundation. 2012. p. 60.
[15] Manifesto for a Resource Ecient Europe. European
Commission. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
List of environment topics

Regenerative Design
Sustainability
Sustainable Development
The Blue Economy
The Natural Step
Upcycling
Waste & Resources Action Programme
Sharing economy
Resource eciency
3.12 References
3.13 External links

The Product Life Institute
The Resource Event
The Circle Economy
McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry website
Biomimicry Institute
Blue Economy website
Towards the Circular Economy report
WRAP supports a circular economy
turntoo website
On the New Economy website
[1] Walter Stahel, How to Measure it, The Performance

Economy second edition - Palgrave MacMillan, page 84
Foundation. 2012. p. 24.
[3] Cradle to Cradle | The Product-Life Institute. Productlife.org. 2012-11-14. Retrieved 2013-11-20.
[4] Clift & Allwood, Rethinking the economy, The Chemical Engineer, March 2011
[5] The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth.
Eoearth.org. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
[6] Zhijun F, Nailing, Y (2007) Putting a circular economy
into practice in China Sustain Sci 2:95101
[7] The Ellen MacArthur Foundation website. Ellenmacarthurfoundation.org. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
Foundation. 2012.
[9] What is Biomimicry?". Biomimicry Institute. Retrieved
2013-11-20.
[10] International Society for Industrial Ecology - Home.
Is4ie.org. Retrieved 2013-11-20.
Chapter 4
Regenerative design
Regenerative design is a process-oriented systems theory based approach to design. The term regenerative
describes processes that restore, renew or revitalize their
own sources of energy and materials, creating sustainable
systems that integrate the needs of society with the integrity of nature. The basis is derived from systems ecology with a closed loop inputoutput model or a model in
which the output is greater than or equal to the input with
all outputs viable and all inputs accounted for. Regenerative design is the biomimicry of ecosystems that provide for all human systems to function as a closed viable
ecological economics system for all industry. It parallels
ecosystems in that organic (biotic) and synthetic (abiotic)
material is not just metabolized but metamorphosed into
new viable materials. Ecosystems and regeneratively designed systems are holistic frameworks that seek to create systems that are absolutely waste free. The model is
meant to be applied to many dierent aspects of human
habitation such as urban environments, buildings, economics, industry and social systems. Simply put, it is the
design of ecosystems and human behavior, or culture that
function as human habitats.
generative Design for Sustainable Development was published by Wiley. In 1995 Lyle worked with William McDonough at Oberlin College for the Adam Joseph Lewis
Center for Environmental Studies completed in 2000. In
2002 McDonoughs book, the more popular and successful, Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things
was published reiterating the concepts developed by Lyle.
Lyle saw the connection between concepts developed by
Bob Rodale of the Rodale Institute for regenerative agriculture and the opportunity to develop regenerative systems for all other aspects of the world. While regenerative agriculture focused solely on agriculture, Lyle expanded its concepts and use to all systems. With regenerative agriculture, the concepts are very straight forward
and simple but Lyle understood that when developing for
other types of systems, more complicated ideas such as
entropy and emergy must be taken into consideration.
Swiss architect Walter R. Stahel developed approaches
entirely similar to Lyles also in the late 1970s but instead
coined the term cradle-to-cradle design made popular by
McDonough and Michael Braungart
Whereas the highest aim of sustainable development is

to satisfy fundamental human needs today without compromising the possibility of future generations to satisfy 4.2 Regenerative versus sustaintheirs, the end-goal of regenerative design is to redevelop
able
systems with absolute eectiveness, that allows for the
co-evolution of the human species along with other thrivRegenerative and sustainable are essentially the same
ing species.
thing except for one key point: in a sustainable system,
lost ecological systems are not returned to existence. In
a regenerative system, those lost systems can ultimately
begin regenerating back into existence. Put more sim4.1 History
ply, regenerative systems create a better world than we
During the late 1970s, John T. Lyle (19341998), a (humans) found it, now and into the future.
landscape architecture professor, challenged graduate
students to envision a community in which daily activities were based on the value of living within the limits
of available renewable resources without environmental
degradation. Over the next few decades an eclectic group
of students, professors and experts from around the world
and crossing many disciplines developed designs for an
institute to be built at Cal Poly Pomona. In 1992 the Lyle
Center for Regenerative Studies was built over two years
and opened in 1994. In that same year Lyles book Re-
There is also a linguistic problem with the word sustainable. The use of the word sustainable, by experts in the
eld, is meant to mean self-sustaining. However, an attempt to change this denition to mean self-sustaining is
not faring well with the general public. Because the root
word sustain means only last or endure, the general
public and even many non-experts in the industry dene
the word only as able to last or the capacity to endure.
In popular usage by designers and product manufacturers, sustainable has become a relative term referring to
15
16
CHAPTER 4. REGENERATIVE DESIGN
any material, process or product (including a building)

which is less toxic or environmental harmful than those
conventionally used. A product that contains 75% recycled material is often considered sustainable, but is in
fact merely MORE sustainable than a comparable product that contains no recycled material. A truly sustainable
material would be one made of 100% recycled material
that can, in turn, be completely recycled into a comparable new material or product. This is rarely the case.
food is regenerative. Organic food is not regenerative if

the byproduct of the food crop is not a resource for the
next seasons crops and if other inputs for the crop did
not come from other resources within the farm which it
is grown in.
Regenerative also has a linguistic problem, however a

very dierent one, the term is still competing with the biological community in terms of its use for the re-growth
of limbs. However once the word itself gains wide usage, it may become a non-specialized word and thus be
applicable to all elds, much like the term sustainable
has experienced. When this occurs it may not suer the
same fate as the term sustainable because a system or
item must be renewable in order to be regenerated. Regeneratives root words are re and generate respectively meaning again and to bring into existence. Thus
the base meaning of regenerative means the capacity to
bring into existence again. So if an item or system is regenerative the item or system has the capacity to bring
itself into existence again. Using the example above, a
truly regenerative product would not only be 100% recycled and recyclable, but it would also improve the environmental conditions at the factory where it was made,
the business where it was used and so on throughout
its life-cycle (creating habitat, ltering water, catalyzing
nitrogen-xing processes in the soil, etc.).
The size of the regenerative system eects its regenerativity. The smaller a system is designed the more likely it
is to be stable and regenerative. Multiple small regenerative systems that are put together to create larger regenerative systems help to create supplies for multiple humaninclusive-ecological systems.
4.3 Preservation versus conservation

Regenerists place more importance on conservation than
on preservation. It is recognized in regenerative design
that humans are a part of natural ecosystems. To exclude
people is to create dense areas that destroy pockets of existing ecosystems while preserving pockets of ecosystems
without allowing them to change naturally over time. By
incorporating people into ecosystems all inputs are pulled
from local areas and all outputs are accounted for creating
a waste-less system. When human systems cease to create
waste, what would once have been considered waste becomes a resource for the input in which the output comes
from.
4.5 Size of regenerative systems
4.6 Quantifying regenerativity

No system can be absolutely regenerative, in other words
there can be no system that is 100% regenerative. Due
to evolution and the continuing and largely unpredictable
changes that occur over the lifetime of Earth, it is impossible to create a 100% regenerative system. One can
only reach 99.999% eciency, the ultimate goal. However, with the energy material interchange, it is possible
to create enough energy to potentially create the equivalent amount of material used to create the system in the
rst instance. See example below.
A completed object (an object with emergy, or embodied
energy) can however create more energy than was used to
create it. I.e. a solar panel outputting more energy than
its given embodied energy. However the system used to
make up the solar panel: the inputs such as the materials
for the object (silicone) and the solar radiation can only
be regenerated if enough energy is produced to generate
the materials used to make up the solar panel. However,
the solar energy absorbed by the solar panels is still lost
or at the very least converted into something else.
4.7 See also

Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental Studies
Booker T. Whatley
4.4 Food systems
Cradle to cradle
Landscape urbanism
Regenerists call for the creation of demand on agricultural systems to produce regenerative foods. This is often compared to the creation of the demand for organic
food. Organic foods have a relation to regenerative foods
in that regenerative food is all organic, but not all organic
Permaculture
Regenerative agriculture
Sustainability
4.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

Walter R. Stahel
4.8 External links

Design for Human Ecosystems
John T. Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies
Regenesis Collaborative
Soil Symbiotics
Harmonic Ecological Design
Regenerative Design Group
Regenerative Design Institute
Regenerative Architecture
Center for Maximum Potential Building Systems
Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development
17
Chapter 5
Systems ecology
niques and philosophy of systems analysis: that is, the
methods and tools developed, largely in engineering,
for studying, characteriszing and making predictions
about complex entities, that is, systems..
In any study of an ecological system, an essential

early procedure is to draw a diagram of the system
of interest ... diagrams indicate the systems boundaries by a solid line. Within these boundaries, series
of components are isolated which have been chosen
to represent that portion of the world in which the
systems analyst is interested ... If there are no connections across the systems boundaries with the surrounding systems environments, the systems are described as closed. Ecological work, however, deals
almost exclusively with open systems.[2]
Ecological analysis of CO2 in an ecosystem
Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary eld of ecology,

taking a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems. Systems ecology can be
seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the
idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting
emergent properties. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological
and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with
the way the functioning of ecosystems can be inuenced
by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts
from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic
descriptions of complex systems.
5.1 Overview
Systems ecology seeks a holistic view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and
ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the
function of any ecosystem can be inuenced by human
economics in fundamental ways. They have therefore
taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including
economics in the consideration of ecological-economic
systems. In the words of R.L. Kitching:[1]
Systems ecology can be dened as the approach to
the study of ecology of organisms using the tech-
As a mode of scientic enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general application of the principles
of energetics to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most
notable proponent of this view was Howard T. Odum sometimes considered the father of ecosystems ecology.
In this approach the principles of energetics constitute
ecosystem principles. Reasoning by formal analogy from
one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to
see principles functioning in an analogous manner across
system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used the
Energy Systems Language as a tool for making systems
diagrams and ow charts.
The fourth of these principles, the principle of maximum
power eciency, takes central place in the analysis and
synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most evolutionarily advantageous system
function occurs when the environmental load matches the
internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal resistance,
the further the system is away from its sustainable steady
state. Therefore the systems ecologist engages in a task
of resistance and impedance matching in ecological engineering, just as the electronic engineer would do.
18
5.3. CLOSELY RELATED FIELDS
5.2 Summary of relationships in

systems ecology
19
Earth systems engineering and management (ESEM) is
a discipline used to analyze, design, engineer and manage complex environmental systems. It entails a wide
range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering, environmental science, ethics and philosophy. At
its core, ESEM looks to rationally design and manage
coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated and
ethical fashion
5.3.3 Ecological economics

Main article: Ecological economics
summary of relationships
The image to the right is a summary of relationships between the storage quantity Q, the forces X, N, and the
outows J, resistance R, conductivity L, time constants T,
and transfer coecients k of ecosystem metabolism. The
transfer coecient "k", is also known as the metabolic
constant.
All these relationships are automatically implied by the energy circuit symbol ".[3]
Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary eld of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial
interdependence between human economies and natural
ecosystems. Ecological economics brings together and
connects dierent disciplines, within the natural and social sciences but especially between these broad areas. As
the name suggests, the eld is made up of researchers with
a background in economics and ecology. An important
motivation for the emergence of ecological economics
has been criticism on the assumptions and approaches
of traditional (mainstream) environmental and resource
economics.
5.3 Closely related elds

5.3.1
Deep ecology
5.3.4 Ecological energetics
Main article: Deep ecology
Main article: Ecological energetics
Deep ecology is an ecological theory dened by Arne

Naess, a Norwegian philosopher, Gandhian scholar, and
environmental activist. He argues that the prevailing approach to environmental management is anthropocentric,
and that the natural environment is not only more complex than we imagine, it is more complex than we can
imagine.[4] Naess formulated deep ecology in 1973 at
an environmental conference in Budapest.
Ecological energetics is the quantitative study of the ow

of energy through ecological systems. It aims to uncover
the principles which describe the propensity of such energy ows through the trophic, or 'energy availing' levels
of ecological networks. In systems ecology the principles
of ecosystem energy ows or ecosystem laws (i.e. principles of ecological energetics) are considered formally
analogous to the principles of energetics.
Joanna Macy, John Seed, and others developed Naess

thesis into a branch they called experiential deep ecology.
Their eorts were motivated by a need they perceived for
5.3.5 Ecological humanities
the development of an "ecological self", which views the
human ego as an integrated part of a living system that
encompasses the individual. They sought to transcend Main article: Ecological humanities
altruism with a deeper self-interest based on biospherical
equality beyond human chauvinism.
Ecological humanities aims to bridge the divides between
the sciences and the humanities, and between Western,
Eastern and Indigenous ways of knowing nature. Like
5.3.2 Earth systems engineering and man- ecocentric political theory, the ecological humanities are
agement
characterised by a connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to
Main article: Earth systems engineering and management submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of
a larger living system.
20
CHAPTER 5. SYSTEMS ECOLOGY

Emergy
Energetics
Energy Systems Language
Holism in science
Holon (philosophy)
Holistic management
Landscape ecology
Antireductionism
A riparian forest in the White Mountains, New Hampshire (USA)
Biosemiotics
Ecosemiotics
5.3.6
Ecosystem ecology
Main article: Ecosystem ecology

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and
abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions
within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and
animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.
The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem
ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be
considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem
ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with
the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external inuences
such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds
of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can
be dened as the scientic study of ecosystems, systems
ecology is more of a particular approach to the study
of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with
these systems.
5.3.7
Industrial ecology
Main article: Industrial ecology

Industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as
linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital
investments move through the system to become waste,
to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for
new processes.
5.5 References
[1] R.L. Kitching 1983, p.9.
[2] (Kitching 1983, p.11)
[3] H.T.Odum 1994, p. 26.
[4] A statement attributed to British biologist J.B.S. Haldane
5.6 Literature
Gregory Bateson, Steps to an Ecology of Mind, 2000.
Kenneth Edmund Ferguson, Systems Analysis in
Ecology, WATT, 1966, 276 pp.
Efraim Halfon, Theoretical Systems Ecology: Advances and Case Studies, 1979.
J. W. Haefner, Modeling Biological Systems: Principles and Applications, London., UK, Chapman and
Hall 1996, 473 pp.
Richard F Johnston, Peter W Frank, Charles Duncan Michener, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 1976, 307 pp.
R.L. Kitching, Systems ecology, University of
Queensland Press, 1983.
Howard T. Odum, Systems Ecology: An Introduction, Wiley-Interscience, 1983.
Howard T. Odum, Ecological and General Systems:
An Introduction to Systems Ecology. University Press
of Colorado, Niwot, CO, 1994.
Friedrich Recknagel, Applied Systems Ecology: Approach and Case Studies in Aquatic Ecology, 1989.
5.4 See also

Agroecology
Ecological literacy
James. Sanderson & Larry D. Harris, Landscape

Ecology: A Top-down Approach, 2000, 246 pp.
Sheldon Smith, Human Systems Ecology: Studies in
the Integration of Political Economy, 1989.
5.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
5.7 External links

Organisations
Systems Ecology Department at the Stockholm University.
Systems Ecology Department at the University of
Amsterdam.
Systems ecology Lab at SUNY-ESF.
Systems Ecology program at the University of
Florida
Systems Ecology program at the University of Montana
Terrestrial Systems Ecology of ETH Zurich.
21
Chapter 6
The Blue Economy

For the design theory, see The Blue Economy: Design sic human needs - potable water, food, jobs, and habitTheory.
able shelter. Starting with 2,231 peer review articles Dr.
Pauli and his team found 340 innovations that could be
bundled into systems that function the way ecosystems
The Blue Economy: 10 years - 100 innovations - 100
million jobs is a book by Gunter Pauli. The book ex- do. These were then additionally reviewed by a group of
corporate strategists, expert nanciers, and public policy
presses the ultimate aim that a Blue Economy business
model will shift society from scarcity to abundance with makers. Further meetings with entrepreneurs, nancial
analysts, business reporters, and corporate strategy acawhat is locally available, by tackling issues that cause
These are listed
environmental and related problems in new ways. The demics reduced the list to one hundred.
[1]
in
an
appendix
of
The
Blue
Economy.
book highlights potential benets in connecting and combining seemingly disparate environmental problems with
open-source scientic solutions based upon physical processes common in the natural world, to create solutions
that are both environmentally benecial and which have
nancial and wider social benets. The book suggests that
we can alter the way in which we run our industrial processes and tackle resultant environmental problems, refocusing from the use of rare and high-energy cost resources to instead seek solutions based upon simpler and
cleaner technologies. The book proposes to focus on the
generation of more value, instead of blindly cutting costs.
The book aims to inspire entrepreneurs to adopt its insights, by demonstrating ways in which this can create
economic benets via job creation, reduced energy use,
and more revenue streams from each step of the process,
at the same time beneting the communities involved.
'The Blue Economy' is presented in 14 chapters, each of
which investigates an aspect of the worlds economies and
oers a series of innovations capable of making aspects
of those economies sustainable. By 2014, the book has
been translated into +30 languages worldwide. [1] [2]
6.2 See also

Permaculture
Circular Economy
Cradle-to-cradle design
Downcycling
Ellen MacArthur Foundation
Green economy
Huangbaiyu
Life cycle assessment
List of environment topics
Regenerative Design
Sustainability
6.1 Background
The Blue Economy: Design Theory
The book was written by Gunter Pauli as Founder and Director of Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives. Pauli
cites 20 years of experiences and nearly 200 successful
projects all over the world as the basis for the ideas presented in his book.[3]
Upcycling
6.3 References
The Blue Economy began as a project to nd 100 of

the best nature-inspired technologies that could aect the
economies of the world, while sustainably providing ba22
[1] The Blue Economy on Paradigm Publications

http://www.paradigm-pubs.com/catalog/detail/BluEco".
Paradigm Publications. April 2010.
6.4. EXTERNAL LINKS
[2] The Blue Economy on Google Books http:

//books.google.de/books?id=aJ3HZD1H7ZsC&
printsec=frontcover&dq=the+blue+economy&
source=bl&ots=nWyn5bba5t&sig=xIxSq9R5_
o9wKFSYdEdPcHdTSCA&hl=de&ei=
W2xuTfbyB43QsgbVx_SFDw&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAjgK#
v=onepage&q&f=false". Paradigm Publications. April
2010.
[3] Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives http://zeri.org/".
ZERI.
6.4 External links

Video, speech of Gunter Pauli at next! Conference
Cartoon video presenting the Blue Economy
Publisher Paradigm Publications
The Blue Economy is the ZERI Philosophy in Action
The Ocial Website
23
Chapter 7
Permaculture
Permaculture is a branch of ecological design,
ecological
engineering,
environmental
design,
construction and integrated water resources management
that develops sustainable architecture, regenerative and
self-maintained habitat and agricultural systems modeled
from natural ecosystems.[1][2] The term permaculture
(as a systematic method) was rst coined by Australians
Bill Mollison and David Holmgren in 1978. The word
permaculture originally referred to permanent agriculture [3] but was expanded to stand also for permanent
culture, as it was seen that social aspects were integral
to a truly sustainable system as inspired by Masanobu
Fukuoka's natural farming philosophy.
Permaculture is a philosophy of working
with, rather than against nature; of protracted
and thoughtful observation rather than protracted and thoughtless labor; and of looking
at plants and animals in all their functions,
rather than treating any area as a single product
system.
Bill Mollison, [4]
Stewart Brands works were an early inuence noted by

Holmgren.[7] Other early inuences include Ruth Stout
and Esther Deans, who pioneered no-dig gardening
methods, and Masanobu Fukuoka who, in the late 1930s
in Japan, began advocating no-till orchards, gardens and
natural farming.[8]
The rst recorded modern application of permaculture
concepts as a systematic method was possibly by Austrian
farmer Sepp Holzer in the 1960s.
7.2 Core tenets and principles of

design
The three core tenets of permaculture are:[9][10][11]
Care for the earth: Provision for all life systems to
continue and multiply. This is the rst principle, because without a healthy earth, humans cannot ourish.
Care for the people: Provision for people to access
those resources necessary for their existence.
Return of surplus: Reinvesting surpluses back into
the system to provide for the rst two ethics. This
includes returning waste back into the system to recycle into usefulness.[12]
7.1 History
In 1929, Joseph Russell Smith took up an antecedent
term as the subtitle for Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture, a book in which he summed up his long experience
experimenting with fruits and nuts as crops for human
food and animal feed.[5] Smith saw the world as an interrelated whole and suggested mixed systems of trees and
crops underneath. This book inspired many individuals
intent on making agriculture more sustainable, such as
Toyohiko Kagawa who pioneered forest farming in Japan
in the 1930s.[6]
The denition of permanent agriculture as that which can
be sustained indenitely was supported by Australian P.
A. Yeomans in his 1964 book Water for Every Farm.
Yeomans introduced an observation-based approach to
land use in Australia in the 1940s; and the keyline design as a way of managing the supply and distribution of
water in the 1950s.
Permaculture design emphasizes patterns of landscape,

function, and species assemblies. It determines where
these elements should be placed so they can provide maximum benet to the local environment. The central concept of permaculture is maximizing useful connections
between components and synergy of the nal design. The
focus of permaculture, therefore, is not on each separate
element, but rather on the relationships created among
elements by the way they are placed together; the whole
becoming greater than the sum of its parts. Permaculture
design therefore seeks to minimize waste, human labor,
and energy input by building systems with maximal benets between design elements to achieve a high level of
synergy. Permaculture designs evolve over time by taking into account these relationships and elements and can
24
7.3. THEORY
become extremely complex systems that produce a high
density of food and materials with minimal input.[13]
The design principles which are the conceptual foundation of permaculture were derived from the science
of systems ecology and study of pre-industrial examples
of sustainable land use. Permaculture draws from several disciplines including organic farming, agroforestry,
integrated farming, sustainable development, and applied
ecology.[14] Permaculture has been applied most commonly to the design of housing and landscaping, integrating techniques such as agroforestry, natural building, and
rainwater harvesting within the context of permaculture
design principles and theory.
25
10. Use and value diversity: Diversity reduces vulnerability to a variety of threats and takes advantage of
the unique nature of the environment in which it resides.
11. Use edges and value the marginal: The interface between things is where the most interesting events
take place. These are often the most valuable, diverse and productive elements in the system.
12. Creatively use and respond to change: We can have
a positive impact on inevitable change by carefully
observing, and then intervening at the right time.
7.3.2 Layers
7.3 Theory
7.3.1
Twelve design principles
Twelve Permaculture design principles articulated by

David Holmgren in his Permaculture: Principles and
Pathways Beyond Sustainability:[15]
1. Observe and interact: By taking time to engage with
nature we can design solutions that suit our particular
situation.
2. Catch and store energy: By developing systems that
collect resources at peak abundance, we can use
them in times of need.
3. Obtain a yield: Ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the work that you are doing.
Suburban permaculture garden in Sheeld, UK with dierent

layers of vegetation
4. Apply self-regulation and accept feedback: We need Layers are one of the tools used to design functional
to discourage inappropriate activity to ensure that ecosystems that are both sustainable and of direct benet to humans. A mature ecosystem has a huge numsystems can continue to function well.
ber of relationships between its component parts: trees,
5. Use and value renewable resources and services: understory, ground cover, soil, fungi, insects, and aniMake the best use of natures abundance to reduce mals. Because plants grow to dierent heights, a diverse
our consumptive behavior and dependence on non- community of life is able to grow in a relatively small
renewable resources.
space, as each layer is stacked one on top of another.
6. Produce no waste: By valuing and making use of all There are generally seven recognized layers in a food forsome practitioners also include fungi as an
the resources that are available to us, nothing goes est, although[16]
eighth
layer.
to waste.
7. Design from patterns to details: By stepping back,
we can observe patterns in nature and society. These
can form the backbone of our designs, with the details lled in as we go.
8. Integrate rather than segregate: By putting the right
things in the right place, relationships develop between those things and they work together to support
each other.
9. Use small and slow solutions: Small and slow systems are easier to maintain than big ones, making
better use of local resources and producing more
sustainable outcomes.
1. The canopy: the tallest trees in the system. Large

trees dominate but typically do not saturate the area,
i.e. there exist patches barren of trees.
2. Understory layer: trees that revel in the dappled light
under the canopy.
3. Shrubs: a diverse layer of woody perennials of limited height. includes most berry bushes.
4. Herbaceous: Plants in this layer die back to the
ground every winter (if winters are cold enough, that
is). They do not produce woody stems as the Shrub
layer does. Many culinary and medicinal herbs are
26
CHAPTER 7. PERMACULTURE
in this layer. A large variety of benecial plants fall 7.3.5
into this layer. May be annuals, biennials or perennials
Zones
5. Soil surface/Groundcover: There is some overlap

with the Herbaceous layer and the Groundcover
layer; however plants in this layer grow much closer
to the ground, grow densely to ll bare patches of
soil, and often can tolerate some foot trac. cover
crops retain soil and lessen erosion, along with green
manures that add nutrients and organic matter to the
soil, especially nitrogen
6. Rhizosphere: Root layers within the soil. The major
components of this layer are the soil and the organisms that live within it such as plant roots (including
root crops such as potatoes and other edible tubers),
fungi, insects, nematodes, worms, etc.
7. Vertical layer: climbers or vines, such as runner
beans and lima beans (vine varieties)
Permaculture Zones 0-5.
[16][17]
7.3.3
Guilds
Zones are a way of intelligently organizing design elements in a human environment on the basis of the frequency of human use and plant or animal needs. Frequently manipulated or harvested elements of the design
are located close to the house in zones 1 and 2. Less frequently used or manipulated elements, and elements that
benet from isolation (such as wild species) are farther
away. Zones are about positioning things appropriately.
Zones are numbered from 0 to 5.[21]
There are many forms of guilds, including guilds of plants

with similar functions (that could interchange within an
ecosystem), but the most common perception is that of a
mutual support guild. Such a guild is a group of species
where each provides a unique set of diverse functions that
work in conjunction, or harmony. Mutual support guilds
are groups of plants, animals, insects, etc. that work well
together. Some plants may be grown for food production, Zone 0 The house, or home center. Here permaculture
some have tap roots that draw nutrients up from deep
principles would be applied in terms of aiming to
in the soil, some are nitrogen-xing legumes, some atreduce energy and water needs, harnessing natural
tract benecial insects, and others repel harmful insects.
resources such as sunlight, and generally creating
When grouped together in a mutually benecial arrangea harmonious, sustainable environment in which to
ment, these plants form a guild. See Dave Jackes work
live and work. Zone 0 is an informal designation,
on edible forest gardens for more information on other
which is not specically dened in Bill Mollison's
guilds, specically resource-partitioning and communitybook.
function guilds.[18][19][20]
7.3.4
Edge eect
Zone 1 The zone nearest to the house, the location for

those elements in the system that require frequent
attention, or that need to be visited often, such as
salad crops, herb plants, soft fruit like strawberries
or raspberries, greenhouse and cold frames, propagation area, worm compost bin for kitchen waste,
etc. Raised beds are often used in zone 1 in urban
areas.
The edge eect in ecology is the eect of the juxtaposition or placing side by side of contrasting environments
on an ecosystem. Permaculturists argue that, where vastly
diering systems meet, there is an intense area of productivity and useful connections. An example of this is the
coast; where the land and the sea meet there is a particularly rich area that meets a disproportionate percentage Zone 2 This area is used for siting perennial plants that
require less frequent maintenance, such as occaof human and animal needs. So this idea is played out in
sional weed control or pruning, including currant
permacultural designs by using spirals in the herb garden
bushes and orchards, pumpkins, sweet potato, etc.
or creating ponds that have wavy undulating shorelines
This would also be a good place for beehives, larger
rather than a simple circle or oval (thereby increasing the
scale composting bins, and so on.
amount of edge for a given area).
7.4. COMMON PRACTICES
27
Zone 3 The area where main-crops are grown, both for

domestic use and for trade purposes. After establishment, care and maintenance required are fairly
minimal (provided mulches and similar things are
used), such as watering or weed control maybe once
a week.
Bell, Patrick Whiteeld, Dave Jacke, Eric Toensmeier

and Geo Lawton. Bell started building his forest garden
in 1991 and wrote the book The Permaculture Garden in
1995, Whiteeld wrote the book How to Make a Forest
Garden in 2002, Jacke and Toensmeier co-authored the
two volume book set Edible Forest Gardening in 2005,
and Lawton presented the lm Establishing a Food Forest
[13][25][26]
Zone 4 A semi-wild area. This zone is mainly used for in 2008.
forage and collecting wild food as well as production Tree Gardens, such as Kandyan tree gardens, in South and
of timber for construction or rewood.
Southeast Asia, are often hundreds of years old. Whether
they derived initially from experiences of cultivation and
Zone 5 A wilderness area. There is no human interven- forestry, as is the case in agroforestry, or whether they
tion in zone 5 apart from the observation of natural derived from an understanding of forest ecosystems, as
ecosystems and cycles. Through this zone we build is the case for permaculture systems, is not self-evident.
up a natural reserve of bacteria, moulds and insects Many studies of these systems, especially those that predate the term permaculture, consider these systems to be
that can aid the zones above it.[22]
forms of agroforestry. Permaculturalists who include existing and ancient systems of polycropping with woody
species as examples of food forests may obscure the dis7.3.6 People and permaculture
tinction between permaculture and agroforestry.
Permaculture uses observation of nature to create regen- Food forests and agroforestry are parallel approaches that
erative systems, and the place where this has been most sometimes lead to similar designs.
visible has been on the landscape. There has been a growing awareness though that rstly, there is the need to pay
more attention to the peoplecare ethic, as it is often the
7.4.2 Hgelkultur
dynamics of people that can interfere with projects, and
secondly that the principles of permaculture can be used
Hgelkultur is the practice of burying large volumes of
as eectively to create vibrant, healthy and productive
wood to increase soil water retention. The porous strucpeople and communities as they have been in landscapes.
ture of wood acts as a sponge when decomposing underground. During the rainy season, masses of buried wood
can absorb enough water to sustain crops through the dry
7.3.7 Domesticated animals
season.[27] This technique has been used by permaculturHemenway, Paul Wheaton and
Domesticated animals are often incorporated into site alists Sepp Holzer, Toby
[28][29]
Masanobu
Fukuoka.
[23]
design.
7.4 Common practices

7.4.1
Agroforestry
Agroforestry is an integrated approach of using the interactive benets from combining trees and shrubs with
crops and/or livestock. It combines agricultural and
forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive,
protable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.[24]
In agroforestry systems, trees or shrubs are intentionally used within agricultural systems, or non-timber forest
products are cultured in forest settings.
Forest gardening is a term permaculturalists use to describe systems designed to mimic natural forests. Forest gardens, like other permaculture designs, incorporate processes and relationships that the designers understand to be valuable in natural ecosystems. The terms
forest garden and food forest are used interchangeably
in the permaculture literature. Numerous permaculturists are proponents of forest gardens, such as Graham
7.4.3 Natural building

A natural building involves a range of building systems
and materials that place major emphasis on sustainability.
Ways of achieving sustainability through natural building
focus on durability and the use of minimally processed,
plentiful or renewable resources, as well as those that,
while recycled or salvaged, produce healthy living environments and maintain indoor air quality.
The basis of natural building is the need to lessen the
environmental impact of buildings and other supporting
systems, without sacricing comfort, health or aesthetics.
To be more sustainable, natural building uses primarily
abundantly available, renewable, reused or recycled materials. In addition to relying on natural building materials, the emphasis on the architectural design is heightened. The orientation of a building, the utilization of local climate and site conditions, the emphasis on natural
ventilation through design, fundamentally lessen operational costs and positively impact the environment. Building compactly and minimizing the ecological footprint is
28
common, as are on-site handling of energy acquisition, 7.4.6 Intensive rotational grazing
on-site water capture, alternate sewage treatment and water reuse.
Grazing has long been blamed for much of the destruction
we see in the environment. However, it has been shown
that when grazing is modeled after nature, the opposite
7.4.4 Rainwater harvesting
eect can be seen.[33][34] Also known as cell grazing,
managed intensive rotational grazing (MIRG) is a sysRainwater harvesting is the accumulating and storing of tem of grazing in which ruminant and non-ruminant herds
rainwater for reuse before it reaches the aquifer.[30] It has and/or ocks are regularly and systematically moved to
been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, fresh pasture, range, or forest with the intent to maxiwater for irrigation, as well as other typical uses. Rain- mize the quality and quantity of forage growth. This diswater collected from the roofs of houses and local institu- turbance is then followed by a period of rest which allows
tions can make an important contribution to the availabil- new growth. MIRG can be used with cattle, sheep, goats,
ity of drinking water. It can supplement the subsoil water pigs, chickens, rabbits, geese, turkeys, ducks and other
level and increase urban greenery. Water collected from animals depending on the natural ecological community
the ground, sometimes from areas which are especially that is being mimicked. Sepp Holzer and Joel Salatin
prepared for this purpose, is called stormwater harvest- have shown how the disturbance caused by the animals
ing.
can be the spark needed to start ecological succession or
Greywater is wastewater generated from domestic activi- prepare ground for planting. Allan Savory's holistic manties such as laundry, dishwashing, and bathing, which can agement technique has been likened to a permaculture
[35][36]
One variabe recycled on-site for uses such as landscape irrigation approach to rangeland management.
tion
on
MIRG
that
is
gaining
rapid
popularity
is called
and constructed wetlands. Greywater is largely sterile,
eco-grazing.
Often
used
to
either
control
invasives
or rebut not potable (drinkable). Greywater diers from water
establish
native
species,
in
eco-grazing
the
primary
purfrom the toilets which is designated sewage or blackwater,
pose
of
the
animals
is
to
benet
the
environment
and
the
to indicate it contains human waste. Blackwater is septic
animals
can
be,
but
are
not
necessarily,
used
for
meat,
or otherwise toxic and cannot be reused.
milk or ber.[37][38][39][40][41][42][43]
7.4.5
Sheet mulching
In agriculture and gardening, mulch is a protective cover

placed over the soil. Any material or combination can
be used as mulch, stones, leaves, cardboard, wood chips,
gravel, etc., though in permaculture mulches of organic
material are the most common because they perform
more functions. These include: absorbing rainfall, reducing evaporation, providing nutrients, increasing organic
matter in the soil, feeding and creating habitat for soil
organisms, suppressing weed growth and seed germination, moderating diurnal temperature swings, protecting
against frost, and reducing erosion. Sheet mulching is an
agricultural no-dig gardening technique that attempts to
mimic natural processes occurring within forests. Sheet
mulching mimics the leaf cover that is found on forest
oors. When deployed properly and in combination with
other Permacultural principles, it can generate healthy,
productive and low maintenance ecosystems.[31][32]
Sheet mulch serves as a nutrient bank, storing the nutrients contained in organic matter and slowly making these
nutrients available to plants as the organic matter slowly
and naturally breaks down. It also improves the soil by attracting and feeding earthworms, slaters and many other
soil micro-organisms, as well as adding humus. Earthworms till the soil, and their worm castings are among
the best fertilizers and soil conditioners. Sheet mulching
can be used to reduce or eliminate undesirable plants by
starving them of light, and can be more advantageous
than using herbicide or other methods of control.
7.4.7 Keyline design

Keyline design is a technique for maximizing benecial
use of water resources of a piece of land developed in
Australia by farmer and engineer P. A. Yeomans. The
Keyline refers to a specic topographic feature linked to
water ow which is used in designing the drainage system
of the site.[44]
7.4.8 Fruit tree management

The no-pruning option is usually ignored by fruit experts, though often practised by default in peoples
back gardens! But it has its advantages. Obviously it reduces work,
and more surprisingly it can lead to
higher overall yields.
Patrick
Whiteeld,
How to make a forest
garden p16
Masanobu Fukuoka, as part of early experiments on
his family farm in Japan, experimented with no-pruning
methods, noting that he ended up killing many fruit trees
by simply letting them go, which made them become convoluted and tangled, and thus unhealthy.[45][46] Then he
realised this is the dierence between natural-form fruit
7.5. TRADEMARK AND COPYRIGHT ISSUES

trees and the process of change of tree form that results from abandoning previously-pruned unnatural fruit
trees.[45][46] He concluded that the trees should be raised
all their lives without pruning, so they form healthy and
ecient branch patterns that follow their natural inclination. This is part of his implementation of the Taophilosophy of W wi translated in part as no-action
(against nature), and he described it as no unnecessary
pruning, nature farming or do-nothing farming, of fruit
trees, distinct from non-intervention or literal no-pruning.
He ultimately achieved yields comparable to or exceeding
standard/intensive practices of using pruning and chemical fertilisation.[45][46][47]
7.4.9
Mollison and Holmgren
Bill Mollison in January 2008.
In the mid-1970s, Bill Mollison and David Holmgren

started developing ideas about stable agricultural systems
on the southern Australian island state of Tasmania. This
was a result of the danger of the rapidly growing use
of industrial-agricultural methods. In their view, highly
dependent on non renewable resources, these methods
were additionally poisoning land and water, reducing
biodiversity, and removing billions of tons of topsoil from
previously fertile landscapes. A design approach called
permaculture was their response and was rst made public with the publication of their book Permaculture One
in 1978.
By the early 1980s, the concept had broadened from agricultural systems design towards sustainable human habitats. After Permaculture One, Mollison further rened
and developed the ideas by designing hundreds of permaculture sites and writing more detailed books, notably
Permaculture: A Designers Manual. Mollison lectured in
over 80 countries and taught his two-week Permaculture
Design Course (PDC) to many hundreds of students.
29
clared that they demonstrate how permaculture can feed
a growing population in an environmentally sustainable
and socially responsible manner.[48]
In 1997, Holmgren explained that the primary agenda of
the permaculture movement is to assist people to become
more self-reliant through the design and development of
productive and sustainable gardens and farms.[14]
7.5 Trademark and copyright issues

There has been contention over who, if anyone, controls
legal rights to the word permaculture: is it trademarked
or copyrighted? and if so, who holds the legal rights
to the use of the word? For a long time Bill Mollison
claimed to have copyrighted the word, and his books said
on the copyright page, The contents of this book and the
word PERMACULTURE are copyright. These statements were largely accepted at face-value within the permaculture community. However, copyright law does not
protect names, ideas, concepts, systems, or methods of
doing something; it only protects the expression or the description of an idea, not the idea itself. Eventually Mollison acknowledged that he was mistaken and that no copyright protection existed for the word permaculture.[49]
In 2000, Mollisons US based Permaculture Institute
sought a service mark (a form of trademark) for the word,
permaculture, when used in educational services such as
conducting classes, seminars, or workshops.[50] The service mark would have allowed Mollison and his two Permaculture Institutes (one in the US and one in Australia)
to set enforceable guidelines regarding how permaculture
could be taught and who could teach it, particularly with
relation to the PDC, despite the fact that he had instituted a system of certication of teachers to teach the
PDC in 1993.This certication was granted to teachers
like April Sampson-kelly and others in 1993. The service mark failed and was abandoned in 2001. Also in
2001 Mollison applied for trademarks in Australia for
the terms Permaculture Design Course[51] and Permaculture Design.[51] These applications were both withdrawn in 2003. In 2009 he sought a trademark for Permaculture: A Designers Manual[51] and Introduction
to Permaculture,[51] the names of two of his books.
These applications were withdrawn in 2011. There has
never been a trademark for the word permaculture in
Australia.[51]
7.6 Criticisms
In 1991, a four-part television documentary by ABC productions called The Global Gardener showed permaculture applied to a range of worldwide situations, bring- 7.6.1 General criticisms
ing the concept to a much broader public. In 2012,
the UMass Permaculture Initiative won the White House In 2011, Owen Hablutzel argued that permaculture has
Champions of Change sustainability contest, which de- yet to gain a large amount of specic mainstream scien-
30
tic acceptance, and that the sensitiveness to being perceived and accepted on scientic terms is motivated in
part by a desire for Permaculture to expand and become
increasingly relevant. Bec-Hellouin permaculture farm
engaged in a research program in partnership with INRA
and AgroParisTech to collect scientic data.[52][53]
Seed saving
Sepp Holzer
7.8 References
In his books Sustainable Freshwater Aquaculture and

Farming in Ponds and Dams, Nick Romanowski ex- 7.8.1 Notes
presses the view that the presentation of aquaculture in
Bill Mollisons books is unrealistic and misleading. How- [1] Hemenway, Toby (2009). Gaias Garden: A Guide to
Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Publishing. p.
ever Sustainable Freshwater Aquaculture has likewise re5. ISBN 978-1-60358-029-8.
ceived criticism as being too basic, for primary school
[54]
children and negative in its approach.
[2] Mars, Ross (2005). The Basics of Permaculture Design.
Linda Chalker-Scott alleges that Toby Hemenway's views
regarding invasive species in the permaculture book
Gaias Garden are pseudoscience.[55][56]
7.6.2
Agroforestry
Greg Williams argues that forests cannot be more productive than farmland because the net productivity of forests
decline as they mature due to ecological succession.[57]
Proponents of permaculture respond that this is true only
if one compares data from between woodland forest and
climax vegetation, but not when comparing farmland vegetation with woodland forest.[58] For example, ecological
succession generally results in a forests productivity rising after its establishment only until it reaches the woodland state (67% tree cover), before declining until full
maturity.[13]
7.7 See also

Agrarianism
Aquaponics
Bill Mollison
Biomimicry
Climate-friendly gardening
David Holmgren
Ecoagriculture
Geo Lawton
Holzer Permaculture
Hgelkultur
List of permaculture projects
Microponics
Paul Wheaton
Permaforestry
Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-85623-0230.

[3] King, FH (Franklin Hiram) Farmers of Forty Centuries:
Or Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and Japan
(1911)
[4] Mollison, B. (1991). Introduction to permaculture. Tasmania, Australia: Tagari.
[5] Smith, Joseph Russell; Smith, John (1987). Tree
Crops: A permanent agriculture. Island Press. ISBN
9781597268738.
[6] Robert Hart (1996). Forest Gardening. p. 41. ISBN
9781603580502.
[7] David Holmgren (2006). The Essence of Permaculture. Holmgren Design Services. Retrieved 10 September 2011.
[8] Mollison, Bill (September 1521, 1978). The One-Straw
Revolution by Masanobu Fukuoka. Nation Review. p.
18.
[9] Greenblott, Kara, and Kristof Nordin. 2012. Permaculture Design for Orphans and Vulnerable Children Programming: Low-Cost, Sustainable Solutions
for Food and Nutrition Insecure Communities. Arlington, VA: USAIDs AIDS Support and Technical Assistance Resources, AIDSTAR -One, Task Order 1.
http://www.aidstar-one.com/focus_areas/ovc/
resources/technical_briefs/permaculture_for_OVC
[10] Mollison, Bill (1988). Permaculture: A Designers Manual. Tagari Publications. p. 2. ISBN 0-908228-01-5.
[11] Holmgren, David (2002). Permaculture: Principles &
Pathways Beyond Sustainability. Holmgren Design Services. p. 1. ISBN 0-646-41844-0.
[12] Mollison, Bill. Permaculture: A Quiet Revolution
An Interview with Bill Mollison. http://www.scottlondon.
com. Retrieved 17 May 2013.
[13] Edible Forest Gardening.
[14] David Holmgren (1997). Weeds or Wild Nature. Permaculture International Journal. Retrieved 10 September
2011.
[15] Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainability. Holmgren Design. Retrieved 2013-10-21.
7.8. REFERENCES
31
[16] http://tcpermaculture.com/site/2013/05/27/
nine-layers-of-the-edible-forest-garden/
[36] Bradley, Kirsten. Holistic Management: Herbivores,

Hats, and Hope. Milkwood. Retrieved 25 March 2014.
[17] http://permacultureschool.ca/food-forests/
seven-layers-of-a-forest/
[37] Munching sheep replace lawn mowers in Paris. The

Sunday Times Apr 04, 2013. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
[18] Simberlo, D; Dayan, T (1991). The Guild Concept and the Structure of Ecological Communities.
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 22: 115.
doi:10.1146/annurev.es.22.110191.000555.
[38] Ash, Andrew et al. The Ecograze Project - developing

guidelines to better manage grazing country. ISBN 09579842-0-0. CSIRO PUBLISHING. Retrieved 7 April
2013.
[19] Encyclopaedia Britannica article on guilds.

nica.com. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
Britan-
[39] McCarthy, Caroline. Things to make you happy: Google

employs goats. CNET. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
[20] Williams, SE; Hero, JM (1998). Rainforest frogs of the

Australian Wet Tropics: guild classication and the ecological similarity of declining species. Proceedings. Biological sciences / the Royal Society 265 (1396): 597602.
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9881468.
[40] Gordon, Ian. A systems approach to livestock/resource

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[21] Burnett, G, 'Permaculture a Beginners Guide' (Spiralseed, 2001 ISBN 978-0955349218)

[22] Permacultuur course
[23] Bill Mollison (1988). Permaculture: A Designers Manual.
p. 5. Deer, rabbits, sheep, and herbivorous sh are very
useful to us, in that they convert unusable herbage to acceptable human food. Animals represent a valid method
of storing inedible vegetation as food.
[24] USDA National Agroforestry Center (NAC)". Unl.edu.
2011-08-01. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
[25] Graham Bells Forest Garden.
[26] "Establishing a Food Forest review.
[27] Wheaton, Paul. raised garden beds: hugelkultur instead
of irrigation Richsoil.com. Retrieved 2012-07-15.
[28] Hemenway, Toby (2009). Gaias Garden: A Guide to
Home-Scale Permaculture. Chelsea Green Publishing.
pp. 84-85. ISBN 978-1-60358-029-8.
[41] Littman, Margaret. Getting your goat: Eco-friendly

mowers. Chicago Tribune News. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
[42] Stevens, Alexis. Kudzu-eating sheep take a bite out of
weeds. ajc.com. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
[43] Klynstra, Elizabeth. Hungry sheep invade Candler
Park. CBS Atlanta. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
[44] Beaver State Permaculture (4 January 2013). Creating
Permaculture Keyline Water Systems with Don Tipping.
[45] Masanobu Fukuoka 1985 -revised ed. 1987 "The Natural Way Of Farming-The Theory and Practice of
Green Philosophy" Japan Publications, Tokyo. -page
204
[46] Masanobu Fukuoka 1978 "The OneStraw Revolution"
Rodale Press, U.S.A. -pages 13, 15-18, 46, 58-60
[47] The 1988 Ramon Magsaysay Award for Public Service
- BIOGRAPHY of Masanobu Fukuoka The Ramon
Magsaysay Award Foundation website. (Retrieved 20113-2).
[48] UMass Amherst permaculture project wins White House
award.
[29] Feineigle, Mark. Hugelkultur: Composting Whole Trees

With Ease. Permaculture Research Institute of Australia.
[49] Russ Grayson (2011). The Permaculture Papers 5:

time of change and challenge 2000-2004. www.
pacific-edge.info. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
[30] Rainwater harvesting 2012. 2012. Retrieved 2012.
[50] United States Patent and Trademark Oce (2011).

Trademark Electronic Search System (TESS)". US Department of Commerce. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
[31] Sheet Mulching: Greater Plant and Soil Health for Less
Work. Agroforestry.net. 2011-09-03. Retrieved 201110-21.
[32] Sustainable Agriculture by J. Mason, Landlinks Press 2003
[33] Prince Charles sends a message to IUCNs World Conservation Congress. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
[34] Undersander, Dan et al. Grassland birds: Fostering habitat using rotational grazing. University of WisconsinExtension. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
[35] Fairlie, Simon (2010). Meat: A Benign Extravagance.
Chelsea Green Publishing. pp. 191193. ISBN
9781603583251.
[51] IP Australia (2011). Commonwealth of Australia http:

//pericles.ipaustralia.gov.au/atmoss/Falcon.Result. Retrieved 8 September 2011. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[52] Paul, Willi (2011 date=2012-06-21). Symbols & Patterns. Interview with Owen Hablutzel, Director, Permaculture Research Institute, USA.. Check date values in:
|date= (help)
[53] Why permaculture needs accurate data and measurement
to persuade the mainstream date=2012-05-02.
[54] http://www.amazon.com/
Sustainable-Freshwater-Aquacultures-Complete-Backyard/
dp/0868408352
32
[55] https://sharepoint.cahnrs.wsu.edu/
blogs/urbanhort/archive/2010/04/28/
permaculture-beginning-a-discussion.aspx
II: Ecological Design and Practice for TemperateClimate Permaculture. Edible Forest Gardens (US)
2005
[56] https://sharepoint.cahnrs.wsu.edu/blogs/urbanhort/
archive/2010/05/26/permaculture-my-final-thoughts.
aspx
King, FH (Franklin Hiram) Farmers of Forty Centuries: Or Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea
and Japan (1911).
[57] Williams, Greg (2001). Gaias Garden: A Guide to

Home-Scale Permaculture. Whole Earth.
Law, Ben. The Woodland House. [Permanent Publications] (UK) (2005), ISBN 1-85623-031-7.
[58] A toolbox, not a tool. Findarticles.com. Retrieved

2011-10-21.
Law, Ben. The Woodland Way. [Permanent Publications] (UK), ISBN 1-85623-009-0.
7.8.2
Bibliography
Bell, Graham. The Permaculture Way. 1st edition,

Thorsons, (1992), ISBN 0-7225-2568-0, 2nd edition Permanent Publications (UK) (2004), ISBN 185623-028-7.
Bell, Graham. The Permaculture Garden. Permanent Publications (UK) (2004), ISBN 1-85623-0279.
Burnett, Graham. Permaculture: A Beginners
Guide. Spiralseed (UK).
Fern, Ken. Plants For A Future. [Permanent
Publications] (UK) (1997). ISBN 1-85623-011-2.
Google Books link
Loofs, Mona. Permaculture, Ecology and Agriculture: An investigation into Permaculture theory
and practice using two case studies in northern New
South Wales Honours thesis, Human Ecology Program, Department of Geography, Australian National University 1993
Macnamara, Looby. People and Permaculture: caring and designing for ourselves, each other and
the planet. [Permanent Publications] (UK) (2012)
ISBN 1-85623-087-2.
Mollison, Bill & David Holmgren Permaculture
One. Transworld Publishers (Australia) (1978),
ISBN 0-552-98060-9.
Mollison, Bill. Permaculture: A Designers Manual.
Tagari Press (Australia).
Fukuoka, Masanobu. The One Straw Revolution.

Rodale Books (US). Holistic Agriculture Library
Mollison, Bill Permaculture Two. Tagari Press

(Australia) (1979), ISBN 0-908228-00-7.
Holmgren, David, Future Scenarios. White River

Junction, Chelsea Green. 2009
Odum, H.T., Jorgensen, S.E. and Brown, M.T. 'Energy hierarchy and transformity in the universe', in
Ecological Modelling, 178, pp. 1728 (2004).
Holmgren, David. Permaculture: Principles and

Pathways Beyond Sustainability. Holmgren Design
Services.
Holmgren, David. Melliodora (Hepburn Permaculture Gardens): A Case Study in Cool Climate Permaculture 1985 - 2005. Holmgren Design Services
Holmgren, David. David Holmgren: Collected Writings & Presentations 1978 - 2006 .Holmgren Design
Services
Holmgren, David. Update 49: Retrotting the suburbs for sustainability. CSIRO Sustainability Network
Hart, Robert. Forest Gardening. Green Books (UK)
ISBN 1-900322-02-1.
Hemenway, Toby. Gaias Garden. Chelsea Green
Books (US) (2001). ISBN 1-890132-52-7.
Jacke, Dave with Eric Toensmeier. Edible Forest
Gardens. Volume I: Ecological Vision and Theory for Temperate-Climate Permaculture, Volume
Paull, J. Permanent Agriculture: Precursor to Organic Farming, Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania, no.83, pp. 1921, 2006. Organic eprints.
Rosemary Morrow, Earth Users Guide to Permaculture ISBN 0-86417-514-0
Whiteeld, Patrick. Permaculture In A Nutshell.
Permanent Publications (UK) (1993), ISBN 185623-003-1.
Whiteeld, Patrick. The Earth Care Manual.
Permanent Publications (UK) (2004), ISBN 185623-021-X.
Woodrow, Linda. The Permaculture Home Garden.
Penguin Books (Australia).
Yeomans, P.A. Water for Every Farm: A practical irrigation plan for every Australian property,
K.G. Murray Publishing Company Pty Ltd, Sydney,
N.S.W., Australia (1973).
Various, The Same Planet a dierent World.. free
eBook (France).
7.9. EXTERNAL LINKS
7.9 External links

Permaculture for agroecology: design, movement,
practice, and worldview. A review. - The rst systematic review of the permaculture literature, from
the perspective of agroecology.
The Permaculture Research Institute - Permaculture
Forums, Courses, Information, News and Worldwide Reports.
The Worldwide Permaculture Network - Database
of permaculture people and projects worldwide.
The Permaculture Association - UK
The 15 pamphlets based on the 1981 Permaculture
Design Course given by Bill Mollison (co-founder
of permaculture) all in 1 pdf-le.
David Holmgrens web site (co-founder of permaculture)
Ethics and principles of permaculture (Holmgrens)
Permaculture a Beginners Guide - a 'pictorial walkthrough'
Permaculture Sustainability and sustainable development
Urban Permaculture Designa city lot with over a
hundred perennial edible varieties. Permaculture
land acquisition discussion.
A quarter acre suburban property in Eugene, Oregon - grass to garden, reclaim automobile space, elevated/edible landscape, rain water catchment, passive solar design, education
33
Chapter 8
Green economy
The green economy is dened as an economy that results
in reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development without
degrading the environment. It is closely related with
ecological economics, but has a more politically applied
focus.[1][2] The 2011 UNEP Green Economy Report argues that to be green, an economy must not only be efcient, but also fair. Fairness implies recognising global
and country level equity dimensions, particularly in assuring a just transition to an economy that is low- carbon,
resource ecient, and socially inclusive. [3]
nal to some equally ill-dened mainstream economics.
A feature distinguishing it from prior economic regimes

is the direct valuation of natural capital and ecological
services as having economic value (see The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity and Bank of Natural Capital)
and a full cost accounting regime in which costs externalized onto society via ecosystems are reliably traced back
to, and accounted for as liabilities of, the entity that does
the harm or neglects an asset.[4]
Some economists view green economics as a branch or

subeld of more established schools. For instance, it
is regarded as classical economics where the traditional
land is generalized to natural capital and has some attributes in common with labor and physical capital (since
natural capital assets like rivers directly substitute for
man-made ones such as canals). Or, it is viewed as
Marxist economics with nature represented as a form
of Lumpenproletariat, an exploited base of non-human
workers providing surplus value to the human economy,
or as a branch of neoclassical economics in which the
price of life for developing vs. developed nations is held
steady at a ratio reecting a balance of power and that of
non-human life is very low.
The use of the term is further ambiguated by the political distinction of Green parties which are formally organized and claim the capital-G Green term as a unique
and distinguishing mark. It is thus preferable to refer to
a loose school of "'green economists"' who generally advocate shifts towards a green economy, biomimicry and a
fuller accounting for biodiversity. (see The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity especially for current authoritative international work towards these goals and Bank of
Natural Capital for a laypersons presentation of these.)
Green Sticker and ecolabel practices have emerged as

consumer facing measurements of friendliness to the environment and sustainable development. Many industries
are starting to adopt these standards as a viable way to
promote their greening practices in a globalizing economy. Green economy and the related eld of ecological
economics share many of their perspectives with feminist An increasing commitment by the UNEP (and national
economics, including the focus on sustainability, nature, governments such as the UK) to the ideas of natural capijustice and care values.[5]
tal and full cost accounting under the banner 'green economy' could blur distinctions between the schools and redene them all as variations of green economics. As of
8.1 Green economists and eco- 2010 [6]the Bretton Woods institutions (notably the World
Bank and International Monetary Fund (via its Green
nomics
Fund initiative) responsible for global monetary policy
have stated a clear intention to move towards biodiversity
Green economics is loosely dened as any theory of valuation and a more ocial and universal biodiversity
economics by which an economy is considered to be nance. Taking these into account targeting not less but
component of the ecosystem in which it resides (after radically zero emission and waste is what is promoted by
Lynn Margulis). A holistic approach to the subject is the Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives. The UNEP
typical, such that economic ideas are commingled with 2011 Green Economy Report informs that "[b]ased on
any number of other subjects, depending on the partic- existing studies, the annual nancing demand to green
ular theorist. Proponents of feminism, postmodernism, the global economy was estimated to be in the range US$
the ecology movement, peace movement, Green politics, 1.05 to US$ 2.59 trillion. To place this demand in pergreen anarchism and anti-globalization movement have spective, it is about one-tenth of total global investment
used the term to describe very dierent ideas, all exter- per year, as measured by global Gross Capital Forma34
8.3. MEASUREMENT
tion. [7]
35
8.3 Measurement
The Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), [11] mea8.2 Denition

sures the green economic performance of 60 countries
and 70 cities as judged by expert practitioners and third
Karl Burkart denes a green economy as based on six party indicators and datasets. The 2014 GGEI results
rank these countries and cities on four primary dimenmain sectors:[8]
sions:
Renewable energy
Green buildings
Sustainable transport
1. Leadership & Climate Change and the extent to

which national leaders are champions for green issues and addressing climate change on the local and
international stage
Water management
Waste management
Land management
The three pillars of sustainability.

The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) representing global business denes green economy as
an economy in which economic growth and environmental responsibility work together in a mutually reinforcing fashion while supporting progress on social
development.[9][10]
In 2012, the ICC published the Green Economy
Roadmap, containing contributions from experts from
around the globe brought together in a two-year consultation process. The Roadmap represents a comprehensive and multidisciplinary eort to clarify and frame the
concept of green economy. It highlights the essential
role of business in bringing solutions to common global
challenges. It sets out the following 10 conditions which
relate to business/intra-industry and collaborative action
for a transition towards a green economy:
Open and competitive markets
Metrics, accounting, and reporting
Finance and investment
Awareness
Life cycle approach
Resource eciency and decoupling
Employment
Education and skills
Governance and partnership
Integrated policy and decision-making
2. Eciency Sectors and how well each country

performs at greening its building, transportation,
tourism and energy sectors
3. Markets & Investment and the perceived and actual opportunities for renewable energy and cleantech investment and the climate for innovation and
commercialization of green products and services in
each country
4. Environment & Natural Capital and the extent to
which countries protect their environmental assets
and use natural capital eciently
This index is arguably deceptive as being designed for appearance rather than ecologically factual. [12]
8.4 Green Energy Issues

Green economies require green energy generation based
on renewable energy to replace fossil fuels as well as
energy conservation and ecient energy use.
There is justication for market failure to respond to
environmental protection and climate protection needs
with the excuse that high external costs and high initial
costs for research, development, and marketing of green
energy sources and green products prevents rms from
voluntarily reducing their ecological footprints. [13] The
green economy may need government subsidies as market incentives to motivate rms to invest and produce
green products and services. The German Renewable Energy Act, legislations of many other member states of the
European Union and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, all provide such market incentives. However, other experts[14] argue that green strategies can be highly protable for corporations that understand the business case for sustainability and can market
green products and services beyond the traditional green
consumer.
36
8.5 Criticisms
A number of organisations and individuals have criticised
aspects of the 'Green Economy', particularly the mainstream conceptions of it based on using price mechanisms
to protect nature, arguing that this will extend corporate
control into new areas from forestry to water. The research organisation ETC Group argues that the corporate
emphasis on bio-economy will spur even greater convergence of corporate power and unleash the most massive
resource grab in more than 500 years.[15] Venezuelan
professor Edgardo Lander says that the UNEPs report,
Towards a Green Economy,[16] while well-intentioned
ignores the fact that the capacity of existing political systems to establish regulations and restrictions to the free
operation of the markets even when a large majority
of the population call for them is seriously limited by
the political and nancial power of the corporations.[17]
Ulrich Homann, in a paper for UNCTAD also says that
the focus on Green Economy and green growth in particular, based on an evolutionary (and often reductionist) approach will not be sucient to cope with the complexities of climate change and may rather give much
false hope and excuses to do nothing really fundamental that can bring about a U-turn of global greenhouse
gas emissions.[18] Clive Spash, an ecological economist,
has criticised the use of economic growth to address environmental losses,[19] and argued that the Green Economy, as advocated by the UN, is not a new approach at
all and is actually a diversion from the real drivers of
environmental crisis.[20] He has also criticised the UNs
project on the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity
(TEEB),[21] and the basis for valuing ecosystems services
in monetary terms.[22]
CHAPTER 8. GREEN ECONOMY

Energy quality
Environmental economics
Environmental ethics
Exergy
Feed-in tari
Free-market environmentalism
Green accounting
Human development theory
Human ecology
ISO 14000
Industrial ecology
Land value tax
List of Green topics
Market Governance Mechanisms
Natural capital
Natural resource economics
Pigovian tax
Renewable energy commercialization
Renewable heat
Restoration economy
8.6 See also

Agroecology
Sustainable design
Clean Tech Nation
Alternative energy indexes
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity

(TEEB)
Chemical Leasing
World energy resources and consumption
Circular Economy
Eco-capitalism
Ecological Economics
Ecology of contexts
Embodied energy
Embodied water
Energy accounting
Energy economics
Energy policy
8.7 Notes
[1] United Nations Environment Programme
[2] Lynn R. Kahle, Eda Gurel-Atay, Eds (2014). Communicating Sustainability for the Green Economy. New York:
M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-3680-5.
[3] UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to
Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, www.
unep.org/greeneconomy
[4] Runnals, D. (2011) Environment and economy: joined at
the hip or just strange bedfellows?. S.A.P.I.EN.S. 4 (1)
8.8. REFERENCES
[5] Aslaksen, Iulie; Bragstad, Torunn; s, Berit (2014).

Feminist Economics as Vision for a Sustainable Future. In Bjrnholt, Margunn; McKay, Ailsa. Counting on Marilyn Waring: New Advances in Feminist Economics. Demeter Press/Brunswick Books. pp. 2136.
ISBN 9781927335277.
[6] BBC.co.uk
[7] UNEP, 2011, Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to
Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication, www.
unep.org/greeneconomy
[8] How do you dene the 'green' economy?". MNN Mother Nature Network. 2009-01-09. Retrieved 201311-09.
[9] International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), (2012). ICC
Green Economy Roadmap. A guide for business, policymakers and society.
[10] UNDESA, (2012). A guidebook to the Green Economy.
[11] 2014 Global Green Economy Index. Dual Citizen LLC.
19 October 2014. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
[12] Indicators in Practice. Yale University.
[13] (Reinhardt, 1999; King and Lenox, 2002; Wagner, 203;
Wagner, et al., 2005)
[14] Amory Lovins, Hunter Lovins, and Paul Hawken, authors
of Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, and Jay Conrad Levinson and Shel Horowitz, authors
of Guerrilla Marketing Goes Green
[15] Etcgroup (2011) Who will control the Green Economy
[16] Green Economy - Green Economy Report. UNEP.
2011-11-16. Retrieved 2013-11-09.
[17] E.Lander (2011), The Green Economy: A Wolf in
Sheeps Clothing
[18] U.Homann (2011), Some reections on climate change,
green growth illusions and development space
[19] Spash, C.L. 2007. Fallacies of economic growth in addressing environmental losses: Human induced climatic
change. Newsletter of the Australia New Zealand Society
for Ecological Economics (ANZSEE), no. May, 2-4
[20] Spash, C.L. 2012. Green Economy, Red Herring. Environmental Values, vol. 21, no. 2, 95-99
37
8.8 References
Jeremy Rifkin (2013), The Third Industrial Revolution. VII,233-242
Brand, Ulrich (2012), "Green Economy - the Next
Oxymoron? No Lessons Learned from Failures
of Implementing Sustainable Development. GAIA
21(1): 28-35.
Common, M. and Stagl, S. 2005. Ecological Economics: An Introduction. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Daly, H. and Townsend, K. (eds.) 1993. Valuing
The Earth: Economics, Ecology, Ethics. Cambridge,
Mass.; London, England: MIT Press.
Georgescu-Roegen, N. 1975. Energy and economic
myths. Southern Economic Journal 41: 347-381.
Hahnel, R. (2010), Green Economics: Confronting
the Ecological Crisis. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
Horowitz, S. 2010. Amory Lovins: Reinventing Human Enterprise for Sustainability Down
to Business magazine, http://frugalmarketing.com/
dtb/amorylovins.shtml.
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC),
(2012), ICC Green Economy Roadmap. A guide
for business, policymakers and society.
Kennet M., and Heinemann V, (2006) Green Economics, Setting the Scene. in International Journal
of Green Economics, Vol 1 issue 1/2 (2006) Inderscience, Geneva.
Kennet M., (2009) Emerging Pedogogy in an
Emerging Discipline, Green Economics in Reardon
J., (2009) Pluralist education, Routledge.
Kennet M., (2008) Introduction to Green Economics, in Harvard School Economics Review.
Kennet M.,and Kamarudin N., (2012) Green Economics: The Greening of Asia and China. The
Green Economics Institute.
Kennet M.,and Winston Ka-Ming Mak (2012)
Green Economics and Climate Change. The Green
Economics Institute
[21] Spash, C.L. 2011. Terrible economics, ecosystems and

banking. Environmental Values, vol. 20, no. 2, 141-145
Kennet M., and Michelle Gale De Oliveira,

and Winchester A., (2012) Green Economics:
Women{}s Unequal Pay and Poverty. The Green
Economics Institute
[22] Spash, C.L. 2008. How much is that ecosystem in the window? The one with the bio-diverse trail. Environmental
Values, vol. 17, no. 2, 259-284
Kennet M.,and Winchester A. and Felton J. (2012)

Green Economics:Voices of Africa. The Green
Economics Institute.
38
CHAPTER 8. GREEN ECONOMY
Kennet M., and Felton J.,(2012)The Green Built Environment:A Handbook. The Green Economics Institute.
Scott Cato, Molly (2009). Green Economics: An Introduction to Theory, Policy and Practice. Earthscan.
ISBN 1844075710. Retrieved 1 July 2014.
Kennet M., and Courea E, Pepinyte (2011) Handbook of Green Economics. The Green Economics
Institute.
Spash, C. L. (1999) The development of environmental thinking in economics. Environmental Values 8(4): 413-435.
Kennet M., (2012) The Green Economics Reader.

The Green Economics Institute.
Vatn, A. (2005) Institutions and the Environment.

Cheltenham: Edward Elgar
Kennet M., Heinemann V. and Gale De Oliviera M.,

(2010) Green Economics in Il Libro del Anno, Trecani. Italy.
Kennet M.(2011) Green Economics. in Latvian Institute of Science Papers. (2011)
Kennet M., (2009) Green Economics and the Socio Ecological Transformation, in Rosa Luxemburg
Foundation Occasional Papers.71. G. Krause Dietz.
Kennet M., (2010) Kennet, in 200 Visionaries. in
Murtha. W. (2010) Red Wheel Publishers.
Kennet M., and Gale de Oliveira (2012) Greening
the Academy. Syracuse University.
Kennet M., (2010) Green Economics. in Reardon
J., Pluralist Education. Routledge.
Kennet M., and Jocuite K., (2011) Green Economics and the Age of Global Transformation. in
Proceedings of the 6th Annual Oxford University
Conference on Green Economics, The Green Economics Institute. Ed. K.Jociute. (2011).
King, Andrew; Lenox, Michael, 2002. Does it really pay to be green? Journal of Industrial Ecology
5, 105-117.
Krishnan R, Harris JM, Goodwin NR. (1995). A
Survey of Ecological Economics. Island Press. ISBN
1-55963-411-1, ISBN 978-1-55963-411-3.
Martinez-Alier, J. (1990) Ecological Economics:
Energy, Environment and Society. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
Martinez-Alier, J., Ropke, I. eds.(2008), Recent
Developments in Ecological Economics, 2 vols., E.
Elgar, Cheltenham, UK.
Rpke, I. (2004) The early history of modern ecological economics. Ecological Economics 50(3-4):
293-314.
Rpke, I. (2005) Trends in the development of ecological economics from the late 1980s to the early
2000s. Ecological Economics 55(2): 262-290.
Reinhardt, F. (1999) Market failure and the environmental policies of rms: economic rationales for
beyond compliance behavior. Journal of Industrial
Ecology 3(1), 9-21.
United Nations Division for Sustainable Development (UNDESA) (2012), A guidebook to the
Green Economy.
United
Nations
Environment
Programme
(2010), Green Economy Report: A Preview.
http://www.unep.org/GreenEconomy/LinkClick.
aspx?fileticket=JvDFtjopXsA%3d&tabid=1350&
language=en-US
United Nations Environment Programme (2010),
Developing Countries Success Stories. http://www.
unep.org/pdf/GreenEconomy_SuccessStories.pdf
A Brief for Policymakers on the Green Economy and Millennium Development Goals.
http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/
30/docs/policymakers_brief_GEI&MDG.pdf
United
Nations
Environment
Programme
(2010), Driving a Green Economy Through
Public Finance and Fiscal Policy Reform.
http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/
30/docs/DrivingGreenEconomy.pdf
United
Nations
Environment
Programme
(2009), Global Green New Deal Update,
http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/LinkClick.
aspx?fileticket=ciH9RD7XHwc%3d&tabid=
1394&language=en-US
United
Nations
Environment
Programme
(2009), Global Green New Deal, Policy brief,
http://www.unep.org/pdf/A_Global_Green_New_
Deal_Policy_Brief.pdf
Green Jobs: Towards Decent Work in a Sustainable, Low-Carbon World (Policy messages and main ndings for decision makers),
http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/LinkClick.
aspx?fileticket=hR62Ck7RTX4%3d&tabid=
1377&language=en-US
Global green new deal - environmentally-focused
investment historic opportunity for 21st century
prosperity and job generation. London/Nairobi,
October 22.
8.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

Wagner, Ma. (2003) Does it pay to be eco-ecient
in the European energy supply industry?" Zeitschrift
fr Energiewirtschaft 27(4), 309-318.
Wagner, M. et al. (2002) The relationship between
environmental and economic performance of rms:
what does the theory propose and what does the empirical evidence tell us?" Greener Management International 34, 95-108.
8.9 External links

ICC Green Economy Roadmap
The Green Economy Coalition
The Green Economist
UNEP The Green Economy Initiative
The 2012 Earth Summit
The Green Economics Institute
The Green Economics Institute Global Campaigning Forum
The International Society for Ecological Economics
(ISEE)
Green Recovery
The International Journal of Green Economics
Eco-Economy Indicators
EarthTrends World Resources Institute
The Inspired Economist
Ecological Economics Encyclopedia
The academic journal, Ecological Economics
The US Society of Ecological Economics
The Beijer International Institute for Ecological
Economics
Green Economist website
Sustainable Prosperity
The Gund Institute of Ecological Economics
Ecological Economics at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
An ecological economics article about reconciling
economics and its supporting ecosystem
Economics in a Full World, by Herman E. Daly
NOAA Economics of Ecosystems Data & Products
39
Chapter 9
Elements of passive solar design, shown in a direct gain application
9.1 Passive energy gain

Passive solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems (as contrasted to active solar). Such
technologies convert sunlight into usable heat (in water, air, and thermal mass), cause air-movement for
ventilating, or future use, with little use of other energy sources. A common example is a solarium on the
equator-side of a building. Passive cooling is the use of
the same design principles to reduce summer cooling requirements.
Active and passive solar systems are used in the Solar Umbrella
house to achieve nearly 100% energy neutrality.
Some passive systems use a small amount of conventional

energy to control dampers, shutters, night insulation, and
other devices that enhance solar energy collection, storIn passive solar building design, windows, walls, and age, and use, and reduce undesirable heat transfer.
oors are made to collect, store, and distribute solar en- Passive solar technologies include direct and indirect
ergy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar solar gain for space heating, solar water heating sysheat in the summer. This is called passive solar design tems based on the thermosiphon or geyser pump, use
because, unlike active solar heating systems, it does not of thermal mass and phase-change materials for slowing
involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.[1]
indoor air temperature swings, solar cookers, the solar
chimney
for enhancing natural ventilation, and earth shelThe key to designing a passive solar building is to best
tering.
take advantage of the local climate. Elements to be considered include window placement and size, and glazing
type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading.[2]
Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily
to new buildings, but existing buildings can be adapted or
retrotted.
More widely, passive solar technologies include the solar

furnace and solar forge, but these typically require some
external energy for aligning their concentrating mirrors or
receivers, and historically have not proven to be practical
or cost eective for widespread use. 'Low-grade' energy
40
9.3. THE SOLAR PATH IN PASSIVE DESIGN
41
needs, such as space and water heating, have proven, over a cold winter night or hot summer day.
time, to be better applications for passive use of solar en- The scientic lessons learned over the last three decades
ergy.
have been captured in sophisticated comprehensive
building energy simulation computer software systems
(like U.S. DOE Energy Plus, et al.).
9.2 As a science
The scientic basis for passive solar building design

has been developed from a combination of climatology,
thermodynamics ( particularly heat transfer: conduction
(heat), convection, and electromagnetic radiation ), uid
mechanics / natural convection (passive movement of
air and water without the use of electricity, fans or
pumps), and human thermal comfort based on heat index, psychrometrics and enthalpy control for buildings to
be inhabited by humans or animals, sunrooms, solariums,
and greenhouses for raising plants.
Scientic passive solar building design with quantitative

cost benet product optimization is not easy for a novice.
The level of complexity has resulted in ongoing badarchitecture, and many intuition-based, unscientic construction experiments that disappoint their designers and
waste a signicant portion of their construction budget
on inappropriate ideas.
The economic motivation for scientic design and engineering is signicant. If it had been applied comprehensively to new building construction beginning in 1980
(based on 1970s lessons learned), America could be saving over $250,000,000 per year on expensive energy and
Specic attention is divided into: the site, location and related pollution today.
solar orientation of the building, local sun path, the prevailing level of insolation ( latitude / sunshine / clouds Since 1979, Passive Solar Building Design has been
/ precipitation (meteorology) ), design and construction a critical element of achieving zero energy by educaquality / materials, placement / size / type of windows and tional institution experiments, and governments around
walls, and incorporation of solar-energy-storing thermal the world, including the U.S. Department of Energy, and
the energy research scientists that they have supported for
mass with heat capacity.
decades. The cost eective proof of concept was estabWhile these considerations may be directed toward any lished decades ago, but cultural assimilation into archibuilding, achieving an ideal optimized cost / perfor- tecture, construction trades, and building-owner decision
mance solution requires careful, holistic, system integra- making has been very slow and dicult to change.
tion engineering of these scientic principles. Modern renements through computer modeling (such as the com- The new terms Architectural Science and Architecprehensive U.S. Department of Energy Energy Plus[3] tural Technology are being added to some schools of
building energy simulation software), and application of Architecture, with a future goal of teaching the above scidecades of lessons learned (since the 1970s energy crisis) entic and energy-engineering principles.
can achieve signicant energy savings and reduction of
environmental damage, without sacricing functionality
or aesthetics.[4] In fact, passive-solar design features such 9.3 The solar path in passive design
as a greenhouse / sunroom / solarium can greatly enhance
the livability, daylight, views, and value of a home, at a
low cost per unit of space.
June 21 (summer solstice)
Much has been learned about passive solar building design since the 1970s energy crisis. Many unscientic,
intuition-based expensive construction experiments have
attempted and failed to achieve zero energy - the total
elimination of heating-and-cooling energy bills.
Mar 21, Sep 21 (equinox)
23.5 deg
23.5 deg
Dec 21 (winter solstice)
47 deg
Passive solar building construction may not be dicult

or expensive (using o-the-shelf existing materials and
technology), but the scientic passive solar building design is a non-trivial engineering eort that requires significant study of previous counter-intuitive lessons learned,
and time to enter, evaluate, and iteratively rene the
simulation input and output.
Solar altitude over a year; latitude based on New York, New York
(90 deg - Local Latitude)
One of the most useful post-construction evaluation

tools has been the use of thermography using digital
thermal imaging cameras for a formal quantitative scientic energy audit. Thermal imaging can be used to document areas of poor thermal performance such as the negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on
Main articles: Sun path and Position of the Sun

The ability to achieve these goals simultaneously is fundamentally dependent on the seasonal variations in the suns
path throughout the day.
42
This occurs as a result of the inclination of the Earths
axis of rotation in relation to its orbit. The sun path is
unique for any given latitude.
CHAPTER 9. PASSIVE SOLAR BUILDING DESIGN
9.4 Passive solar thermodynamic

principles
In Northern Hemisphere non-tropical latitudes farther Personal thermal comfort is a function of personal health
than 23.5 degrees from the equator:
factors (medical, psychological, sociological and situational), ambient air temperature, mean radiant tem The sun will reach its highest point toward the south perature, air movement (wind chill, turbulence) and
relative humidity (aecting human evaporative cooling).
(in the direction of the equator)
Heat transfer in buildings occurs through convection,
As winter solstice approaches, the angle at which the conduction, and thermal radiation through roof, walls,
[9]
sun rises and sets progressively moves further toward oor and windows.
the South and the daylight hours will become shorter
The opposite is noted in summer where the sun will 9.4.1 Convective heat transfer
rise and set further toward the North and the daylight
Convective heat transfer can be benecial or detrimenhours will lengthen[5]
tal. Uncontrolled air inltration from poor weatherization
/ weatherstripping / draft-proong can contribute up to
The converse is observed in the Southern Hemisphere, 40% of heat loss during winter;[10] however, strategic
but the sun rises to the east and sets toward the west re- placement of operable windows or vents can enhance
gardless of which hemisphere you are in.
convection, cross-ventilation, and summer cooling when
In equatorial regions at less than 23.5 degrees, the posi- the outside air is of a comfortable temperature and
[11]
tion of the sun at solar noon will oscillate from north to relative humidity. Filtered energy recovery ventilation
[6]
systems may be useful to eliminate undesirable humidity,
south and back again during the year.
dust, pollen, and microorganisms in unltered ventilation
In regions closer than 23.5 degrees from either north-orair.
south pole, during summer the sun will trace a complete
circle in the sky without setting whilst it will never appear Natural convection causing rising warm air and falling
above the horizon six months later, during the height of cooler air can result in an uneven stratication of heat.
This may cause uncomfortable variations in temperature
winter.[7]
in the upper and lower conditioned space, serve as a
The 47-degree dierence in the altitude of the sun at solar
method of venting hot air, or be designed in as a naturalnoon between winter and summer forms the basis of pasconvection air-ow loop for passive solar heat distribution
sive solar design. This information is combined with local
and temperature equalization. Natural human cooling by
climatic data (degree day) heating and cooling requireperspiration and evaporation may be facilitated through
ments to determine at what time of the year solar gain
natural or forced convective air movement by fans, but
will be benecial for thermal comfort, and when it should
ceiling fans can disturb the stratied insulating air layers
be blocked with shading. By strategic placement of items
at the top of a room, and accelerate heat transfer from a
such as glazing and shading devices, the percent of solar
hot attic, or through nearby windows. In addition, high
gain entering a building can be controlled throughout the
relative humidity inhibits evaporative cooling by humans.
year.
One passive solar sun path design problem is that although
the sun is in the same relative position six weeks before, and six weeks after, the solstice, due to thermal
lag from the thermal mass of the Earth, the temperature and solar gain requirements are quite dierent before and after the summer or winter solstice. Movable
shutters, shades, shade screens, or window quilts can accommodate day-to-day and hour-to-hour solar gain and
insulation requirements.
9.4.2 Radiative heat transfer
The main source of heat transfer is radiant energy, and the

primary source is the sun. Solar radiation occurs predominantly through the roof and windows (but also through
walls). Thermal radiation moves from a warmer surface
to a cooler one. Roofs receive the majority of the solar
radiation delivered to a house. A cool roof, or green roof
Careful arrangement of rooms completes the passive so- in addition to a radiant barrier can help prevent your attic
hotter than the peak summer outdoor air
lar design. A common recommendation for residential from becoming
[12]
(see
albedo, absorptivity, emissivity, and
temperature
dwellings is to place living areas facing solar noon and
reectivity).
[8]
sleeping quarters on the opposite side. A heliodon is a
traditional movable light device used by architects and Windows are a ready and predictable site for thermal radidesigners to help model sun path eects. In modern ation.[13] Energy from radiation can move into a window
times, 3D computer graphics can visually simulate this in the day time, and out of the same window at night. Radiation uses photons to transmit electromagnetic waves
data, and calculate performance predictions.[4]
9.6. DESIGN ELEMENTS FOR RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN TEMPERATE CLIMATES

through a vacuum, or translucent medium. Solar heat
gain can be signicant even on cold clear days. Solar
heat gain through windows can be reduced by insulated
glazing, shading, and orientation. Windows are particularly dicult to insulate compared to roof and walls.
Convective heat transfer through and around window coverings also degrade its insulation properties.[13] When
shading windows, external shading is more eective at
reducing heat gain than internal window coverings.[13]
Western and eastern sun can provide warmth and lighting, but are vulnerable to overheating in summer if not
shaded. In contrast, the low midday sun readily admits
light and warmth during the winter, but can be easily
shaded with appropriate length overhangs or angled louvres during summer and leaf bearing summer shade trees
which shed their leaves in the fall. The amount of radiant
heat received is related to the location latitude, altitude,
cloud cover, and seasonal / hourly angle of incidence (see
Sun path and Lamberts cosine law).
Another passive solar design principle is that thermal energy can be stored in certain building materials and released again when heat gain eases to stabilize diurnal
(day/night) temperature variations. The complex interaction of thermodynamic principles can be counterintuitive
for rst-time designers. Precise computer modeling can
help avoid costly construction experiments.
9.5 Site specic

during design
considerations
Latitude, sun path, and insolation (sunshine)
43
Minimising windows on other sides, especially western windows[13]

Erecting correctly sized, latitude-specic roof
overhangs,[14] or shading elements (shrubbery, trees,
trellises, fences, shutters, etc.)[15]
Using the appropriate amount and type of insulation
including radiant barriers and bulk insulation to
minimise seasonal excessive heat gain or loss
Using thermal mass to store excess solar energy during the winter day (which is then re-radiated during
the night)[16]
The precise amount of equator-facing glass and thermal
mass should be based on careful consideration of latitude,
altitude, climatic conditions, and heating/cooling degree
day requirements.
Factors that can degrade thermal performance:
Deviation
from
ideal
orientation
north/south/east/west aspect ratio
and
Excessive glass area (over-glazing) resulting in

overheating (also resulting in glare and fading of soft
furnishings) and heat loss when ambient air temperatures fall
Installing glazing where solar gain during the day
and thermal losses during the night cannot be controlled easily e.g. West-facing, angled glazing,
skylights[17]
Seasonal variations in solar gain e.g. cooling or

heating degree days, solar insolation, humidity
Thermal losses through non-insulated or unprotected glazing
Diurnal variations in temperature
Lack of adequate shading during seasonal periods of

high solar gain (especially on the West wall)
Micro-climate details related to breezes, humidity,

vegetation and land contour
Obstructions / Over-shadowing - to solar gain or local cross-winds
9.6 Design elements for residential

buildings in temperate climates
Incorrect application of thermal mass to modulate

daily temperature variations
Open staircases leading to unequal distribution of
warm air between upper and lower oors as warm
air rises
High building surface area to volume - Too many
corners
Placement of room-types, internal doors and walls,

and equipment in the house.
Inadequate weatherization leading to high air inltration
Orienting the building to face the equator (or a few

degrees to the East to capture the morning sun)[8]
Lack of, or incorrectly installed, radiant barriers

during the hot season. (See also cool roof and green
roof)
Extending the building dimension along the

east/west axis
Adequately sizing windows to face the midday sun
in the winter, and be shaded in the summer.
Insulation materials that are not matched to the main

mode of heat transfer (e.g. undesirable convective/conductive/radiant heat transfer)
44
9.7 Eciency and economics of 9.8.2 Indirect solar gain

passive solar heating
Indirect gain attempts to control solar radiation reaching
Technically, PSH is highly ecient. Direct-gain systems
can utilize (i.e. convert into useful heat) 65-70% of
the energy of solar radiation that strikes the aperture or
collector.
Passive solar fraction (PSF) is the percentage of the required heat load met by PSH and hence represents potential reduction in heating costs. RETScreen International has reported a PSF of 20-50%. Within the eld of
sustainability, energy conservation even of the order of
15% is considered substantial.
Other sources report the following PSFs:
an area adjacent but not part of the living space. Heat

enters the building through windows and is captured and
stored in thermal mass (e.g. water tank, masonry wall)
and slowly transmitted indirectly to the building through
conduction and convection. Eciency can suer from
slow response (thermal lag) and heat losses at night. Other
issues include the cost of insulated glazing and developing eective systems to redistribute heat throughout the
living area.
9.8.3 Isolated solar gain
Isolated gain involves utilizing solar energy to passively

move heat from or to the living space using a uid, such
as water or air by natural convection or forced convection.
Heat gain can occur through a sunspace, solarium or so 40% for highly optimized systems
lar closet. These areas may also be employed usefully
Up to 75% for very intense systems
as a greenhouse or drying cabinet. An equator-side sun
room may have its exterior windows higher than the winIn favorable climates such as the southwest United States, dows between the sun room and the interior living space,
to allow the low winter sun to penetrate to the cold side
highly optimized systems can exceed 75% PSF.[18]
of adjacent rooms. Glass placement and overhangs preFor more information see Solar Air Heat
vent solar gain during the summer. Earth cooling tubes
or other passive cooling techniques can keep a solarium
cool in the summer.
5-25% for modest systems
9.8 Key passive solar building design concepts
Measures should be taken to reduce heat loss at night e.g.

window coverings or movable window insulation
Examples:
There are six

congurations:[19]
primary
passive
solar
energy
direct solar gain

indirect solar gain
isolated solar gain
heat storage
insulation and glazing
passive cooling
9.8.1
Direct solar gain
Direct gain attempts to control the amount of direct solar

radiation reaching the living space. This direct solar gain
is a critical part of passive solar house designation as it
imparts to a direct gain.
Thermosiphon
Barra system
Double envelope house
Thermal buer zone[21]
Solar space heating system
Solar chimney
9.8.4 Heat storage

The sun doesn't shine all the time. Heat storage, or
thermal mass, keeps the building warm when the sun can't
heat it.
In diurnal solar houses, the storage is designed for one or

a few days. The usual method is a custom-constructed
thermal mass. This includes a Trombe wall, a ventilated
concrete oor, a cistern, water wall or roof pond. It is also
The cost eectiveness of these congurations are cur- feasible to use the thermal mass of the earth itself, either
rently being investigated in great detail and are demon- as-is or by incorporation into the structure by banking or
strating promising results.[20]
using rammed earth as a structural medium.[22]
9.8. KEY PASSIVE SOLAR BUILDING DESIGN CONCEPTS

In subarctic areas, or areas that have long terms without solar gain (e.g. weeks of freezing fog), purpose-built
thermal mass is very expensive. Don Stephens pioneered
an experimental technique to use the ground as thermal
mass large enough for annualized heat storage. His designs run an isolated thermosiphon 3 m under a house,
and insulate the ground with a 6 m waterproof skirt.[23]
9.8.5
Insulation
Main article: Building insulation
45
skylights are used with reectors to increase the intensity

of solar radiation (and harsh glare), depending on the roof
angle of incidence. When the winter sun is low on the
horizon, most solar radiation reects o of roof angled
glass ( the angle of incidence is nearly parallel to roofangled glass morning and afternoon ). When the summer
sun is high, it is nearly perpendicular to roof-angled glass,
which maximizes solar gain at the wrong time of year,
and acts like a solar furnace. Skylights should be covered
and well-insulated to reduce natural convection ( warm
air rising ) heat loss on cold winter nights, and intense
solar heat gain during hot spring/summer/fall days.
The equator-facing side of a building is south in the northThermal insulation or superinsulation (type, placement ern hemisphere, and north in the southern hemisphere.
and amount) reduces unwanted leakage of heat.[9] Some Skylights on roofs that face away from the equator propassive buildings are actually constructed of insulation.
vide mostly indirect illumination, except for summer days
when the sun rises on the non-equator side of the building
(depending on latitude). Skylights on east-facing roofs
9.8.6 Special glazing systems and window provide maximum direct light and solar heat gain in the
summer morning. West-facing skylights provide aftercoverings
noon sunlight and heat gain during the hottest part of the
day.
Main articles: Insulated glazing and Window covering
Some skylights have expensive glazing that partially reduces summer solar heat gain, while still allowing some
visible light transmission. However, if visible light can
pass through it, so can some radiant heat gain (they are
both electromagnetic radiation waves).
The eectiveness of direct solar gain systems is signicantly enhanced by insulative (e.g. double glazing), spectrally selective glazing (low-e), or movable window insulation (window quilts, bifold interior insulation shutters,
shades, etc.).[24]
You can partially reduce some of the unwanted roofGenerally, Equator-facing windows should not employ angled-glazing summer solar heat gain by installing a skylight in the shade of deciduous (leaf-shedding) trees, or
glazing coatings that inhibit solar gain.
by adding a movable insulated opaque window covering
There is extensive use of super-insulated windows in the
on the inside or outside of the skylight. This would elimGerman Passive House standard. Selection of dierent
inate the daylight benet in the summer. If tree limbs
spectrally selective window coating depends on the ratio
hang over a roof, they will increase problems with leaves
of heating versus cooling degree days for the design locain rain gutters, possibly cause roof-damaging ice dams,
tion.
shorten roof life, and provide an easier path for pests to
enter your attic. Leaves and twigs on skylights are unappealing, dicult to clean, and can increase the glazing
9.8.7 Glazing selection
breakage risk in wind storms.
Sawtooth roof glazing with vertical-glass-only can
bring some of the passive solar building design benets
The requirement for vertical equator-facing glass is dif- into the core of a commercial or industrial building, withferent from the other three sides of a building. Reective out the need for any roof-angled glass or skylights.
window coatings and multiple panes of glass can reduce Skylights provide daylight. The only view they provide
useful solar gain. However, direct-gain systems are more is essentially straight up in most applications. Welldependent on double or triple glazing to reduce heat loss. insulated light tubes can bring daylight into northern
Indirect-gain and isolated-gain congurations may still be rooms, without using a skylight. A passive-solar greenable to function eectively with only single-pane glazing. house provides abundant daylight for the equator-side of
Nevertheless, the optimal cost-eective solution is both the building.
location and system dependent.
Infrared thermography color thermal imaging cameras (
used in formal energy audits ) can quickly document the
negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight
Roof-angle glass / Skylights
on a cold winter night or hot summer day.
Skylights admit harsh direct overhead sunlight and The U.S. Department of Energy states: vertical glazing
glare[25] either horizontally (a at roof) or pitched at the is the overall best option for sunspaces.[26] Roof-angled
same angle as the roof slope. In some cases, horizontal
Equator-facing glass
46
glass and sidewall glass are not recommended for passive ably bright living spaces at certain times of the year, and
solar sunspaces.
excessive heat transfer on winter nights and summer days.
The U.S. DOE explains drawbacks to roof-angled glazing: Glass and plastic have little structural strength.
When installed vertically, glass (or plastic) bears its own
weight because only a small area (the top edge of the glazing) is subject to gravity. As the glass tilts o the vertical
axis, however, an increased area (now the sloped crosssection) of the glazing has to bear the force of gravity.
Glass is also brittle; it does not ex much before breaking.
To counteract this, you usually must increase the thickness of the glazing or increase the number of structural
supports to hold the glazing. Both increase overall cost,
and the latter will reduce the amount of solar gain into
the sunspace.
Although the sun is at the same altitude 6-weeks before

and after the solstice, the heating and cooling requirements before and after the solstice are signicantly different. Heat storage on the Earths surface causes thermal lag. Variable cloud cover inuences solar gain potential. This means that latitude-specic xed window
overhangs, while important, are not a complete seasonal
solar gain control solution.
Another common problem with sloped glazing is its increased exposure to the weather. It is dicult to maintain a good seal on roof-angled glass in intense sunlight.
Hail, sleet, snow, and wind may cause material failure.
For occupant safety, regulatory agencies usually require
sloped glass to be made of safety glass, laminated, or a
combination thereof, which reduce solar gain potential.
Most of the roof-angled glass on the Crowne Plaza Hotel
Orlando Airport sunspace was destroyed in a single windstorm. Roof-angled glass increases construction cost, and
can increase insurance premiums. Vertical glass is less
susceptible to weather damage than roof-angled glass.
Home automation systems that monitor temperature, sunlight, time of day, and room occupancy can precisely control motorized window-shading-and-insulation devices.
Angle of incident radiation
Main article: Energy-ecient landscaping
The amount of solar gain transmitted through glass is

also aected by the angle of the incident solar radiation.
Sunlight striking glass within 20 degrees of perpendicular
is mostly transmitted through the glass, whereas sunlight
at more than 35 degrees from perpendicular is mostly
reected[27]
Energy-ecient landscaping materials for careful passive solar choices include hardscape building material and
"softscape" plants. The use of landscape design principles for selection of trees, hedges, and trellis-pergola
features with vines; all can be used to create summer
shading. For winter solar gain it is desirable to use
deciduous plants that drop their leaves in the autumn
gives year round passive solar benets. Non-deciduous
evergreen shrubs and trees can be windbreaks, at variable heights and distances, to create protection and shelter from winter wind chill. Xeriscaping with 'mature
size appropriate' native species of-and drought tolerant
plants, drip irrigation, mulching, and organic gardening practices reduce or eliminate the need for energyand-water-intensive irrigation, gas powered garden equipment, and reduces the landll waste footprint. Solar powered landscape lighting and fountain pumps, and covered swimming pools and plunge pools with solar water
heaters can reduce the impact of such amenities.
Control mechanisms (such as manual-or-motorized interior insulated drapes, shutters, exterior roll-down shade
screens, or retractable awnings) can compensate for differences caused by thermal lag or cloud cover, and help
control daily / hourly solar gain requirement variations.
9.8.9 Exterior colors reecting - absorbing
Materials and colors can be chosen to reect or absorb

solar thermal energy. Using information on a Color for
electromagnetic radiation to determine its thermal radiation properties of reection or absorption can assist the
choices.
It is dicult to control solar heat gain in a sunspace with See Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Oak
sloped glazing during the summer and even during the Ridge National Laboratory: Cool Colors
middle of a mild and sunny winter day. Skylights are the
antithesis of zero energy building Passive Solar Cooling
in climates with an air conditioning requirement.
9.9 Landscaping and gardens
All of these factors can be modeled more precisely with

a photographic light meter and a heliodon or optical
bench, which can quantify the ratio of reectivity to
transmissivity, based on angle of incidence.
Alternatively, passive solar computer software can determine the impact of sun path, and cooling-and-heating
degree days on energy performance. Regional climatic
conditions are often available from local weather services.
9.8.8
Operable shading and insulation devices
A design with too much equator-facing glass can result in

excessive winter, spring, or fall day heating, uncomfort-
Sustainable gardening
9.11. COMPARISON TO THE PASSIVE HOUSE STANDARD IN EUROPE

Sustainable landscaping
Sustainable landscape architecture
9.10 Other passive solar principles

9.10.1
Passive solar lighting
Main article: Passive solar lighting
47
There are many ways to use solar thermal energy to

heat water for domestic use. Dierent active-and-passive
solar hot water technologies have dierent locationspecic economic cost benet analysis implications.
Fundamental passive solar hot water heating involves no
pumps or anything electrical. It is very cost eective in
climates that do not have lengthy sub-freezing, or verycloudy, weather conditions.[30] Other active solar water
heating technologies, etc. may be more appropriate for
some locations.
It is possible to have active solar hot water which is also

capable of being o grid and qualies as sustainable.
Passive solar lighting techniques enhance taking advan- This is done by the use of a photovoltaic cell which uses
tage of natural illumination for interiors, and so reduce energy from the sun to power the pumps.
reliance on articial lighting systems.
This can be achieved by careful building design, orientation, and placement of window sections to collect 9.11 Comparison to the Passive
light. Other creative solutions involve the use of reectHouse standard in Europe
ing surfaces to admit daylight into the interior of a building. Window sections should be adequately sized, and
to avoid over-illumination can be shielded with a Brise Main article: Passive house
soleil, awnings, well placed trees, glass coatings, and
other passive and active devices.[19]
There is growing momentum in Europe for the approach
Another major issue for many window systems is that espoused by the Passive House (Passivhaus in German)
they can be potentially vulnerable sites of excessive ther- Institute in Germany. Rather than relying solely on tradimal gain or heat loss. Whilst high mounted clerestory tional passive solar design techniques, this approach seeks
window and traditional skylights can introduce daylight to make use of all passive sources of heat, minimises enin poorly oriented sections of a building, unwanted heat ergy usage, and emphasises the need for high levels of
transfer may be hard to control.[28][29] Thus, energy that insulation reinforced by meticulous attention to detail in
is saved by reducing articial lighting is often more than order to address thermal bridging and cold air inltration.
oset by the energy required for operating HVAC sys- Most of the buildings built to the Passive House standard
also incorporate an active heat recovery ventilation unit
tems to maintain thermal comfort.
with or without a small (typically 1 kW) incorporated
Various methods can be employed to address this includheating component.
ing but not limited to window coverings, insulated glazing
and novel materials such as aerogel semi-transparent insu- The energy design of Passive House buildings is devellation, optical ber embedded in walls or roof, or hybrid oped using a spreadsheet-based modeling tool called the
Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) which is upsolar lighting at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
dated periodically. The current version is PHPP2007,
Reecting elements, from active and passive daylighting
where 2007 is the year of issue. A building may be cercollectors, such as light shelves, lighter wall and oor coltied as a Passive House when it can be shown that it
ors, mirrored wall sections, interior walls with upper glass
meets certain criteria, the most important being that the
panels, and clear or translucent glassed hinged doors and
annual specic heat demand for the house should not exsliding glass doors take the captured light and passively
ceed 15kWh/m2 a.
reect it further inside. The light can be from passive windows or skylights and solar light tubes or from active daylighting sources. In traditional Japanese architecture the
Shji sliding panel doors, with translucent Washi screens, 9.12 Design tools
are an original precedent. International style, Modernist
and Mid-century modern architecture were earlier inno- Traditionally a heliodon was used to simulate the altivators of this passive penetration and reection in indus- tude and azimuth of the sun shining on a model buildtrial, commercial, and residential applications.
ing at any time of any day of the year.[31] In modern
times, computer programs can model this phenomenon
and integrate local climate data (including site impacts
9.10.2 Passive solar water heating
such as overshadowing and physical obstructions) to predict the solar gain potential for a particular building deMain article: Solar hot water
sign over the course of a year. GPS-based smartphone
applications can now do this inexpensively on a hand
48
held device. These design tools provide the passive solar
designer the ability to evaluate local conditions, design
elements and orientation prior to construction. Energy
performance optimization normally requires an iterativerenement design-and-evaluate process. There is no such
thing as a one-size-ts-all universal passive solar building design that would work well in all locations.
9.13 Levels of application

Many detached suburban houses can achieve reductions
in heating expense without obvious changes to their appearance, comfort or usability.[32] This is done using good
siting and window positioning, small amounts of thermal mass, with good-but-conventional insulation, weatherization, and an occasional supplementary heat source,
such as a central radiator connected to a (solar) water
heater. Sunrays may fall on a wall during the daytime
and raise the temperature of its thermal mass. This will
then radiate heat into the building in the evening. External shading, or a radiant barrier plus air gap, may be used
to reduce undesirable summer solar gain.
An extension of the passive solar approach to seasonal
solar capture and storage of heat and cooling. These designs attempt to capture warm-season solar heat, and convey it to a seasonal thermal store for use months later
during the cold season (annualised passive solar.) Increased storage is achieved by employing large amounts
of thermal mass or earth coupling. Anecdotal reports
suggest they can be eective but no formal study has
been conducted to demonstrate their superiority. The approach also can move cooling into the warm season. Examples:
Passive Annual Heat Storage (PAHS) - by John Hait
Annualized Geothermal Solar (AGS) heating - by
Don Stephen
Earthed-roof
A purely passive solar-heated house would have no mechanical furnace unit, relying instead on energy captured
from sunshine, only supplemented by incidental heat
energy given o by lights, computers, and other taskspecic appliances (such as those for cooking, entertainment, etc.), showering, people and pets. The use of natural convection air currents (rather than mechanical devices such as fans) to circulate air is related, though not
strictly solar design. Passive solar building design sometimes uses limited electrical and mechanical controls to
operate dampers, insulating shutters, shades, awnings,
or reectors. Some systems enlist small fans or solarheated chimneys to improve convective air-ow. A reasonable way to analyse these systems is by measuring their
coecient of performance. A heat pump might use 1 J
for every 4 J it delivers giving a COP of 4. A system that

only uses a 30 W fan to more-evenly distribute 10 kW of
solar heat through an entire house would have a COP of
300.
Passive solar building design is often a foundational element of a cost-eective zero energy building.[33][34] Although a ZEB uses multiple passive solar building design concepts, a ZEB is usually not purely passive, having active mechanical renewable energy generation systems such as: wind turbine, photovoltaics, micro hydro, geothermal, and other emerging alternative energy
sources.
9.14 See also

Architecture 2030
Daylighting
Energy plus house
List of low-energy building techniques
List of pioneering solar buildings
Low energy building
Low-energy house
Earthship
PlusEnergy
Solar architecture
The 2010 Imperative
Energy Rating systems
House Energy Rating (Aust.)
Home energy rating (USA)
EnerGuide (Canada)
National Home Energy Rating (UK)
9.15 References
[1] Doerr, Thomas (2012). Passive Solar Simplied (1st ed.).
Retrieved October 24, 2012.
[2] Norton, Brian (2014). Harnessing Solar Heat. Springer.
ISBN 978-94-007-7275-5.
[3] U.S. Department of Energy - Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy - Energy Plus Energy Simulation Software. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
[4] Rating tools. Archived from the original on September
30, 2007. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
9.16. EXTERNAL LINKS
[5] http://www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/fig5_40n.
gif
[6] http://www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/fig5_0n.gif
[7] http://www.srrb.noaa.gov/highlights/sunrise/fig5_90n.
gif
[8] Your Home - Orientation
[9] Your Home - Insulation
[10] BERC - Airtightness. Ornl.gov. 2004-05-26. Retrieved
2010-03-16.
49
[30] Brian Norton (2011) Solar Water Heaters: A Review of

Systems Research and Design Innovation, Green. 1, 189
207, ISSN (Online) 1869-8778
[31]
[32] Industrial Technologies Program: Industrial Distributed
Energy. Eere.energy.gov. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[33] Cold-Climate Case Study for Aordable Zero Energy
Homes: Preprint (PDF). Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[34] Zero Energy Homes: A Brief Primer (PDF). Retrieved
2010-03-16.
[11] Your Home - Passive Cooling

[12] EERE Radiant Barriers. Eere.energy.gov. 2009-05-28.
9.16 External links
[13] Glazing. Archived from the original on December 15,

2007. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
www.solarbuildings.ca - Canadian Solar Buildings

Research Network
[14] Springer, John L. (December 1954). The 'Big Piece'

Way to Build. Popular Science 165 (6): 157.
www.eere.energy.gov - US Department of Energy

(DOE) Guidelines
[15] Your Home - Shading

[16] Your Home - Thermal Mass
[17] Introductory Passive Solar Energy Technology
Overview. U.S. DOE - ORNL Passive Solar Workshop.
[18] Passive Solar Design. New Mexico Solar Association.
[19] Chiras, D. The Solar House: Passive Heating and Cooling.
Chelsea Green Publishing Company; 2002.
[20] Zero Energy Buildings. Fsec.ucf.edu. Retrieved 201003-16.
[21] Two Small Delta Ts Are Better Than One Large Delta
T. Zero Energy Design. Retrieved 2007-12-23.
Passive Solar Building Design. Energy Eciency

and Renewable Energy. U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
www.climatechange.gov.au - Australian Dept of
Climate Change and Energy Eciency
www.ornl.gov - Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL) Building Technology
www.FSEC.UCF.edu - Florida Solar Energy Center
www.ZeroEnergyDesign.com - 28 Years of Passive
Solar Building Design
- Prefabricated Passive Solar Home Kits
[22] Earthships
Passive Solar Design Guidelines
[23] Annualized Geo-Solar Heating, Don Stephens- Accessed

2009-02-05
http://www.solaroof.org/wiki
[24] Shurcli, William A.. Thermal Shutters & Shades - Over

100 Schemes for Reducing Heat Loss through Windows
1980. ISBN 0-931790-14-X.
[25] Florida Solar Energy Center - Skylights. Retrieved
2011-03-29.
[26] U.S. Department of Energy - Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy - Sunspace Orientation and Glazing Angles. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
[27] Solar Heat Gain Through Glass. Irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca.
2010-03-08. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[28] "[ARCHIVED CONTENT] Insulating and heating your
home eciently : Directgov - Environment and greener
living. Direct.gov.uk. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
[29] Reduce Your Heating Bills This Winter - Overlooked
Sources of Heat Loss in the Home. Allwoodwork.com.
2003-02-14. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
www.PassiveSolarEnergy.info - Passive Solar Energy Technology Overview

www.yourhome.gov.au/technical/index.html
Your Home Technical Manual developed by the
Commonwealth of Australia to provide information about how to design, build and live in
environmentally sustainable homes.
amergin.tippinst.ie/downloadsEnergyArchhtml.
html- Energy in Architecture, The European Passive Solar Handbook, Goulding J.R, Owen Lewis
J, Steemers Theo C, Sponsored by the European
Commission, published by Batsford 1986, reprinted
1993
Chapter 10
Agroforestry
10.2 Benets
Further information: Ecoscaping
Agroforestry systems can be advantageous over conventional agricultural, and forest production methods.
They can oer increased productivity, economic benets, and more diversity in the ecological goods and services provided.[4]
Biodiversity in agroforestry systems is typically higher
than in conventional agricultural systems. With two or
more interacting plant species in a given land area, it creates a more complex habitat that can support a wider variParkland in Burkina Faso: sorghum grown under Faidherbia al- ety of birds, insects, and other animals. Depending upon
bida and Borassus akeassii near Banfora
the application, impacts of agroforestry can include:
Agroforestry or agro-sylviculture is a land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or
among crops or pastureland. It combines agricultural and
forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive,
protable, healthy, and sustainable land-use systems.[1]
10.1 As a science
Reducing poverty through increased production of

wood and other tree products for home consumption
and sale
Contributing to food security by restoring the soil
fertility for food crops
Cleaner water through reduced nutrient and soil
runo
The theoretical base for agroforestry comes from ecology,

via agroecology.[2] From this perspective, agroforestry is
one of the three principal land-use sciences. The other
two are agriculture and forestry.[3]
The eciency of photosynthesis drops o with increasing light intensity, and the rate of photosynthesis hardly
increases once the light intensity is over about one tenth
that of direct overhead sun. This means that plants under
trees can still grow well even though they get less light. By
having more than one level of vegetation, it is possible to
get more photosynthesis than with a single layer.
Agroforestry has a lot in common with intercropping.
Both have two or more plant species (such as nitrogenxing plants) in close interaction, both provide multiple
outputs, as a consequence, higher overall yields and, because a single application or input is shared, costs are reduced. Beyond these, there are gains specic to agroforestry.
50
Countering global warming and the risk of hunger

by increasing the number of drought-resistant trees
and the subsequent production of fruits, nuts and
edible oils
Reducing deforestation and pressure on woodlands
by providing farm-grown fuelwood
Reducing or eliminating the need for toxic chemicals (insecticides, herbicides, etc.)
Through more diverse farm outputs, improved human nutrition
In situations where people have limited access to
mainstream medicines, providing growing space for
medicinal plants
Increased crop stability
10.3. APPLICATIONS
Multifunctional site use i.e crop production and animal grazing.
Typically more drought resistant.
Stabilises depleted soils from erosion
Bioremediation
Agroforestry practices may also realize a number of other
associated environmental goals, such as:
51
Strip cropping
Fauna-based systems
Boundary systems
Taungyas
Physical support systems
Agroforests
Wind break and shelterbelt.
Carbon sequestration
Odour, dust, and noise reduction
Green space and visual aesthetics
Enhancement or maintenance of wildlife habitat
10.2.1
Adaptation to climate change
There is some evidence that, especially in recent years,

poor smallholder farmers are turning to agroforestry as a
mean to adapt to the impacts of climate change. A study
from the CGIAR research program on Climate Change,
Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) found from a
survey of over 700 households in East Africa that at least
50% of those households had begun planting trees on
their farms in a change from their practices 10 years
ago.[5] The trees ameliorate the eects of climate change
by helping to stabilize erosion, improving water and soil
quality and providing yields of fruit, tea, coee, oil, fodder and medicinal products in addition to their usual harvest. Agroforestry was one of the most widely adopted
adaptation strategies in the study, along with the use of
improved crop varieties and intercropping.[5]
10.3.1 Parkland
Parklands are visually dened by the presence of trees
widely scattered over a large agricultural plot or pasture.
The trees are usually of a single species with clear regional
favorites. Among the benets, the trees oer shade to
grazing animals, protect crops against strong wind bursts,
provide tree prunings for rewood, and are a roost for
insect or rodent-eating birds.
There are other gains. Research with Faidherbia albida
in Zambia showed that mature trees can sustain maize
yields of 4.1 tonnes per hectare compared to 1.3 tonnes
per hectare without these trees. Unlike other trees, Faidherbia sheds its nitrogen-rich leaves during the rainy crop
growing season so it does not compete with the crop for
light, nutrients and water. The leaves then regrow during the dry season and provide land cover and shade for
crops.[6]
10.3.2 Shade systems
With shade applications, crops are purposely raised under

tree canopies and within the resulting shady environment.
For most uses, the understory crops are shade tolerant or
the overstory trees have fairly open canopies. A conspicu10.3 Applications
ous example is shade-grown coee. This practice reduces
weeding costs and increases the quality and taste of the
[7][8]
Agroforestry represents a wide diversity in application coee.
and in practice. One listing includes over 50 distinct
uses.[2] The 50 or so applications can be roughly classied under a few broad headings. There are visual sim- 10.3.3 Crop-over-tree systems
ilarities between practices in dierent categories. This
is expected as categorization is based around the prob- Not commonly encountered, crop-over-tree systems emlems addressed (countering winds, high rainfall, harmful ploy woody perennials in the role of a cover crop. For
insects, etc.) and the overall economic constraints and ob- this, small shrubs or trees pruned to near ground level are
jectives (labor and other inputs costs, yield requirements, utilized. The purpose, as with any cover crop, is to increase in-soil nutrients and/or to reduce soil erosion.
etc.). The categories include :
Parklands
Shade systems
Crop-over-tree systems
Alley cropping
10.3.4 Alley cropping

With alley cropping, crop strips alternate with rows of
closely spaced tree or hedge species. Normally, the trees
are pruned before planting the crop. The cut leafy material is spread over the crop area to provide nutrients for
52
CHAPTER 10. AGROFORESTRY
the crop. In addition to nutrients, the hedges serve as

windbreaks and eliminate soil erosion.
Alley cropping has been shown to be advantageous in
Africa, particularly in relation to improving maize yields
in the sub-Saharan region. Use here relies upon the nitrogen xing tree species Sesbania sesban, Tephrosia vogelii,
Gliricidia sepium and Faidherbia albida. In one example, a ten-year experiment in Malawi showed that, by using fertilizer trees such as Tephrosia vogelii and Gliricidia
sepium, maize yields averaged 3.7 tonnes per hectare as
compared to one tonne per hectare in plots without fertilizer trees or mineral fertilizer.[9]
10.3.5
Strip cropping
Strip cropping is similar to alley cropping in that trees

alternate with crops. The dierence is that, with alley
cropping, the trees are in single row. With strip cropping,
the trees or shrubs are planted in wide strip. The purpose
can be, as with alley cropping, to provide nutrients, in
leaf form, to the crop. With strip cropping, the trees can
have a purely productive role, providing fruits, nuts, etc.
while, at the same time, protecting nearby crops from soil
erosion and harmful winds.
A riparian buer bordering a river in Iowa.
10.3.6
Fauna-based systems
fences, the riparian buer, and windbreaks.
A living fence can be a thick hedge or fencing wire
strung on living trees. In addition to restricting the
movement of people and animals, living fences oer
habitat to insect-eating birds and, in the case of a
boundary hedge, slow soil erosion.
Silvopasture over the years (Australia).
There are situations where trees benet fauna. The

most common examples are the silvopasture where cattle,
goats, or sheep browse on grasses grown under trees.[10]
In hot climates, the animals are less stressed and put on
weight faster when grazing in a cooler, shaded environment. Other variations have these animals directly eating
the leaves of trees or shrubs.
There are similar systems for other types of fauna. Deer
and hogs gain when living and feeding in a forest ecosystem, especially when the tree forage suits their dietary
needs. Another variation, aquaforestry, is where trees
shade sh ponds. In many cases, the sh eat the leaves
or fruit from the trees.
Riparian buers are strips of permanent vegetation located along or near active watercourses or in
ditches where water runo concentrates. The purpose is to keep nutrients and soil from contaminating
surface water.
Windbreaks reduce the velocity of the winds over
and around crops. This increases yields through reduced drying of the crop and/or by preventing the
crop from toppling in strong wind gusts.
10.3.8 Taungya
Taungya is a system originating in Burma. In the initial

stages of an orchard or tree plantation, the trees are small
and widely spaced. The free space between the newly
planted trees can accommodate a seasonal crop. Instead
of costly weeding, the underutilized area provides an additional output and income. More complex taungyas use
10.3.7 Boundary systems
the between-tree space for a series of crops. The crops
There are a number of applications that fall under the become more shade resistant as the tree canopies grow
heading of a boundary system. These include the living and the amount of sunlight reaching the ground declines.
10.5. SEE ALSO

If a plantation is thinned in the latter stages, this opens
further the between-tree cropping opportunities.
10.3.9
Physical support systems
In the long history of agriculture, trellises are comparatively recent. Before this, grapes and other vine crops
were raised atop pruned trees. Variations of the physical
support theme depend upon the type of vine. The advantages come through greater in-eld biodiversity. In many
cases, the control of weeds, diseases, and insect pests are
primary motives.
10.3.10
Agroforests
53
Expense of additional management
Lack of training or expertise
Lack of knowledge about where to market products
Lack of technical assistance
Cannot aord adoption or start up costs, including
costs of time
Unfamiliarity with alternative marketing approaches
(e.g. web)
Unavailability of information about agroforestry
Apparent inconvenience
Lack of infrastructure (e.g. buildings, equipment)
These are widely found in the humid tropics and are

Lack of equipment
referenced by dierent names (forest gardening, forest
farming, tropical home gardens and, where short-statured
Insucient land
trees or shrubs dominate, shrub gardens). Through a
Lack of seed/seedling sources
complex, disarrayed mix of trees, shrubs, vines, and seasonal crops, these systems, through their high levels of
biodiversity, achieve the ecological dynamics of a forest Some solutions to these obstacles have already been sugecosystem. Because of the internal ecology, they tend gested although many depend on particular circumstances
to be less susceptible to harmful insects, plant diseases, which vary from one location to the next.[12]
drought, and wind damage. Although they can be high
yielding, complex systems tend to produce a large number of outputs. These are not utilized when a large volume 10.5 See also
of a single crop or output is required.
10.5.1 Permaculture
10.4 Challenges
Agroforestry is relevant to almost all environments and
is a potential response to common problems around the
globe, and agroforestry systems can be advantageous
compared to conventional agriculture or forestry.[11][4]
Yet agroforestry is not very widespread, at least according
to current but incomplete USDA surveys as of November,
2013.[12][11]
As suggested by a survey of extension programs in the
United States, some obstacles (ordered most critical to
least critical) to agroforestry adoption include:[12]
Agroforestry is a key component of the Permaculture system.

Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable gardening
Permaculture
Permaforestry
Orchard
Lack of developed markets for products
Farmer-managed natural regeneration
Unfamiliarity with technologies
Fertilizer tree
Lack of awareness of successful agroforestry examples
Forest gardening
Forest farming
Competition between trees, crops, and animals
Analog forestry
Lack of nancial assistance
Wildcrafting
Lack of apparent prot potential
Buer strip
Lack of demonstration sites
Aorestation
54
CHAPTER 10. AGROFORESTRY
10.7 Further reading
Deforestation
Megaprojects
Patish, Daizy Rani, ed. (2008). Ecological basis of

agroforestry. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-43273.
Mycoforestry
World Forestry Congress
The Springer Journal, Agroforestry Systems

(ISSN 1572-9680) ; Editor-In-Chief: Prof. Shibu
Jose, H.E. Garrett Endowed Professor and Director,
The Center for Agroforestry, University of Missouri
Agropastoralism
Sylvopasture
Deforestation and climate change
10.6 References
Robbins, Jim (November 21, 2011). A Quiet Push

to Grow Crops Under Cover of Trees. The New
York Times. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
10.8 External links
[1] National Agroforestry Center. USDA National Agroforestry Center (NAC). Retrieved 2 April 2014.
[2] Wojtkowski, Paul A. (1998) The Theory and Practice of
Agroforestry Design. Science Publishers Inc., Eneld,
NH, 282p.
[3] Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives
in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Eneld, NH, 356p.
National Agroforesty Center (USDA)

World Agroforestry Centre
The Center for Agroforestry at the University of
Missouri
Online Masters Degree in Agroforestry University
of Missouri
Australian Agroforestry
[4] Benets of agroforestry.
The Green Belt Movement
[5] Kristjanson, P; Neufeldt H, Gassner A, Mango J, Kyazze

FB, Desta S, Sayula G, Thiede B, Forch W, Thornton PK,
Coe R (2012). Are food insecure smallholder households making changes in their farming practices? Evidence form East Africa. Food Security 4 (3): 381397.
doi:10.1007/s12571-012-0194-z.
[6] Turning the tide on farm productivity in Africa: an agroforestry solution. July 8, 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
[7] Muschler, R. (1999) rboles en Cafetales. Materiales de
Enseanza No. 45, CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica, 139
pp.
[8] Muschler, R.G. (2001) Shade improves coee quality in a
sub-optimal coee-zone of Costa Rica. Agroforestry Systems 85:131-139.
[9] Evergreen Agriculture Project.
Centre. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
World Agroforestry
[10] Silvopasture.
[11] Agroforestry Frequently Asked Questions. United
States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 19 February
2014.
[12] Jacobson, Michael; Shiba Kar (August 2013). Extent of
Agroforestry Extension Programs in the United States.
Journal of Extension 51 (Number 4). Retrieved 19 February 2014.
Plants For A Future

Ya'axch Conservation Trust
Trees for the Future
Free Distance Agroforestry Training Manual (from
Trees for the Future)
Vi-Agroforestry
Agroforst in Deutschland
Media
Agroforestry makes sense for marginalised people
in the Philippines uplands (Erhardt/Bnner), article
in the magazine D+C Development and Cooperation
The short lm Agroforestry Practices - Alley Cropping (2004) is available for free download at the
Internet Archive
The short lm Agroforestry Practices - Forest Farming (2004) is available for free download at the
Internet Archive
The short lm Agroforestry Practices - Riparian Forest Buers (2004) is available for free download at
the Internet Archive

The short lm Agroforestry Practices - Silvopasture
(2004) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
The short lm Agroforestry Practices - Windbreaks
(2004) is available for free download at the Internet
Archive
55
Chapter 11
Agroecology
productivity, stability, sustainability and equitability.[3]
As opposed to disciplines that are concerned with only
one or some of these properties, agroecologists see
all four properties as interconnected and integral to
the success of an agroecosystem. Recognizing that
these properties are found on varying spatial scales,
agroecologists do not limit themselves to the study
of agroecosystems at any one scale: gene-organismpopulation-community-ecosystem-landscape-biome,
eld-farm-community-region-state-country-continentglobal.
Agroecologists study these four properties through an
interdisciplinary lens, using natural sciences to understand elements of agroecosystems such as soil properties
A community-supported agriculture share of crops.
and plant-insect interactions, as well as using social sciences to understand the eects of farming practices on
Agroecology is the study of ecological processes that rural communities, economic constraints to developing
operate in agricultural production systems. The prex new production methods, or cultural factors determining
agro- refers to agriculture. Bringing ecological princi- farming practices.
ples to bear in agroecosystems can suggest novel management approaches that would not otherwise be considered. The term is often used imprecisely and may refer to a science, a movement, [or] a practice.[1] Agroe- 11.2 Approaches
cologists study a variety of agroecosystems, and the eld
of agroecology is not associated with any one particular
method of farming, whether it be organic, integrated, or Agroecologists do not always agree about what agroecology is or should be in the long-term. Dierent denitions
conventional; intensive or extensive.
of the term agroecology can be distinguished largely by
the specicity with which one denes the term ecology,
as well as the terms potential political connotations. Def11.1 Ecological strategy
initions of agroecology, therefore, may be rst grouped
according to the specic contexts within which they sitAgroecologists do not unanimously oppose technology or uate agriculture. Agroecology is dened by the OECD
inputs in agriculture but instead assess how, when, and if as the study of the relation of agricultural crops and
technology can be used in conjunction with natural, so- environment.[4] This denition refers to the "-ecology
cial and human assets.[2] Agroecology proposes a context- part of agroecology narrowly as the natural environor site-specic manner of studying agroecosystems, and ment. Following this denition, an agroecologist would
as such, it recognizes that there is no universal formula study agricultures various relationships with soil health,
or recipe for the success and maximum well-being of an water quality, air quality, meso- and micro-fauna, suragroecosystem. Thus, agroecology is not dened by cer- rounding ora, environmental toxins, and other environtain management practices, such as the use of natural en- mental contexts.
emies in place of insecticides, or polyculture in place of A more common denition of the word can be taken
monoculture.
from Dalgaard et al., who refer to agroecology as the
Instead, agroecologists may study questions related study of the interactions between plants, animals, humans
to the four system properties of agroecosystems: and the environment within agricultural systems. Conse56
11.3. APPLICATIONS
quently, agroecology is inherently multidisciplinary, including factors from agronomy, ecology, sociology, economics and related disciplines.[5] In this case, the ecology portion of agroecology is dened broadly to
include social, cultural, and economic contexts as well.
Francis et al. also expand the denition in the same way,
but put more emphasis on the notion of food systems.[6]
Agroecology is also dened dierently according to geographic location. In the global south, the term often carries overtly political connotations. Such political denitions of the term usually ascribe to it the goals of social
and economic justice; special attention, in this case, is often paid to the traditional farming knowledge of indigenous populations.[7] North American and European uses
of the term sometimes avoid the inclusion of such overtly
political goals. In these cases, agroecology is seen more
strictly as a scientic discipline with less specic social
goals.
57
subheadings include agronomy, organic farming, traditional agriculture, permaculture, and silviculture. Within
this system of subdivisions, agroecology is philosophically neutral. The importance lies in providing a theoretical base hitherto lacking in the land-use sciences. This
allows progress in biocomplex agroecosystems including
the multi-species plantations of forestry and agroforestry.
11.3 Applications
To arrive at a point of view about a particular way of

farming, an agroecologist would rst seek to understand
the contexts in which the farm(s) is(are) involved. Each
farm may be inserted in a unique combination of factors
or contexts. Each farmer may have their own premises
about the meanings of an agricultural endeavor, and these
meanings might be dierent from those of agroecologists. Generally, farmers seek a conguration that is viable in multiple contexts, such as family, nancial, tech11.2.1 Agro-population ecology
nical, political, logistical, market, environmental, spiritual. Agroecologists want to understand the behavior
This approach is derived from the science of ecology priof those who seek livelihoods from plant and animal inmarily based on population ecology, which over the past
crease, acknowledging the organization and planning that
three decades has been displacing the ecosystems biology
is required to run a farm.
of Odum. Buttel explains the main dierence between
the two categories, saying that the application of population ecology to agroecology involves the primacy not
only of analyzing agroecosystems from the perspective 11.3.1 Views on organic and non-organic
milk production
of the population dynamics of their constituent species,
and their relationships to climate and biogeochemistry,
but also there is a major emphasis placed on the role of Because organic agriculture proclaims to sustain the
health of soils, ecosystems, and people,[11] it has much
genetics.[8]
in common with Agroecology; this does not mean that
Agroecology is synonymous with organic agriculture, nor
11.2.2 Inclusive agroecology
that Agroecology views organic farming as the 'right' way
of farming. Also, it is important to point out that there
Rather than viewing agroecology as a subset of agricul- are large dierences in organic standards among counture, Wojtkowski [9][10] takes a more encompassing per- tries and certifying agencies.
spective. In this, natural ecology and agroecology are the Three of the main areas that agroecologists would look
major headings under ecology. Natural ecology is the at in farms, would be: the environmental impacts, animal
study of organisms as they interact with and within nat- welfare issues, and the social aspects.
ural environments. Correspondingly, agroecology is the
basis for the land-use sciences. Here humans are the pri- Environmental impacts caused by organic and nonmary governing force for organisms within planned and organic milk production can vary signicantly. For both
cases, there are positive and negative environmental conmanaged, mostly terrestrial, environments.
sequences.
As key headings, natural ecology and agroecology provide the theoretical base for their respective sciences. Compared to conventional milk production, organic milk
These theoretical bases overlap but dier in a major production tends to have lower eutrophication potential
way. Economics has no role in the functioning of natu- per ton of milk or per hectare of farmland, because it po
ral ecosystems whereas economics sets direction and pur- tentially reduces leaching of nitrates (NO3 ) and phos
phates (PO4 ) due to lower fertilizer application rates.
pose in agroecology.
Because organic milk production reduces pesticides utiUnder agroecology are the three land-use sciences, lization, it increases land use per ton of milk due to deagriculture, forestry, and agroforestry. Although these creased crop yields per hectare. Mainly due to the lower
use their plant components in dierent ways, they share level of concentrates given to cows in organic herds, orthe same theoretical core.
ganic dairy farms generally produce less milk per cow
Beyond this, the land-use sciences further subdivide. The than conventional dairy farms. Because of the increased
58
CHAPTER 11. AGROECOLOGY
use of roughage and the, on-average, lower milk pro- 3. Does this way of farming sustain good quality of life
duction level per cow, some research has connected or- for the farmers, their families, rural labor and communiganic milk production with increases in the emission of ties involved?
methane.[12]
Animal welfare issues vary among dairy farms and are not
necessarily related to the way of producing milk (organ- 11.3.2 Views on no-till farming
ically or conventionally).
A key component of animal welfare is freedom to per- No-tillage is one of the components of conservation agrimore environmental
form their innate (natural) behavior, and this is stated in culture practices and is considered
[15][16]
friendly
than
complete
tillage.
Due to this belief, it
one of the basic principles of organic agriculture. Also,
could
be
expected
that
agroecologists
would not recomthere are other aspects of animal welfare to be considmend
the
use
of
complete
tillage
and
would
rather recomered - such as freedom from hunger, thirst, discomfort,
mend
no-till
farming,
but
this
is
not
always
the case. In
injury, fear, distress, disease and pain. Because organic
fact,
there
is
a
general
consensus
that
no-till
can
increase
standards require loose housing systems, adequate bedsoils
capacity
of
acting
as
a
carbon
sink,
especially
when
ding, restrictions on the area of slatted oors, a minimum
[15][17]
combined
with
cover
crops.
forage proportion in the ruminant diets, and tend to limit
stocking densities both on pasture and in housing for dairy
cows, they potentially promote good foot and hoof health.
Some studies show lower incidence of placenta retention,
milk fever, abomasums displacement and other diseases
in organic than in conventional dairy herds.[13] However,
the level of infections by parasites in organically managed
herds is generally higher than in conventional herds.[14]
No-till can contribute to higher soil organic matter and

organic carbon content in soils,[18][19] though reports of
no-eects of no-tillage in organic matter and organic carbon soil contents also exist, depending on environmental and crop conditions.[20] In addition, no-till can indirectly reduce CO2 emissions by decreasing the use of fossil fuels.[18][21]
Social aspects of dairy enterprises include life quality of Most crops can benet from the practice of no-till,
farmers, of farm labor, of rural and urban communities, but not all crops are suitable for complete no-till
and also includes public health.
agriculture.[22][23] Crops that do not perform well when
Both organic and non-organic farms can have good and competing with other plants that grow in untilled soil in
bad implications for the life quality of all the dierent their early stages can be best grown by using other conlike a combination of strip-till
people involved in that food chain. Issues like labor conservation tillage practices,
[23]
with
no-till
areas.
Also,
crops which harvestable porditions, labor hours and labor rights, for instance, do not
tion
grows
underground
can
have better results with stripdepend on the organic/non-organic characteristic of the
tillage,
mainly
in
soils
which
are hard for plant roots to
farm; they can be more related to the socio-economical
penetrate
into
deeper
layers
to
access water and nutrients.
and cultural situations in which the farm is inserted, instead.
As for the public health or food safety concern, organic
foods are intended to be healthy, free of contaminations
and free from agents that could cause human diseases.
Organic milk is meant to have no chemical residues to
consumers, and the restrictions on the use of antibiotics
and chemicals in organic food production has the purpose to accomplish this goal. But dairy cows in organic
farms, as in conventional farms, indeed do get exposed
to virus, parasites and bacteria that can contaminate milk
and hence humans, so the risks of transmitting diseases
are not eliminated just because the production is organic.
In an organic dairy farm, an agroecologist could evaluate
the following:
1. Can the farm minimize environmental impacts and increase its level of sustainability, for instance by eciently
increasing the productivity of the animals to minimize
waste of feed and of land use?
The benets provided by no-tillage to predators may lead

to larger predator populations,[24] which is a good way to
control pests (biological control), but also can facilitate
predation of the crop itself. In corn crops, for instance,
predation by caterpillars can be higher in no-till than in
conventional tillage elds.[25]
In places with rigorous winter, untilled soil can take
longer to warm and dry in spring, which may delay planting to less ideal dates.[26][27] Another factor to be considered is that organic residue from the prior years crops lying on the surface of untilled elds can provide a favorable
environment to pathogens, helping to increase the risk of
transmitting diseases to the future crop. And because notill farming provides good environment for pathogens, insects and weeds, it can lead farmers to a more intensive
use of chemicals for pest control. Other disadvantages
of no-till include underground rot, low soil temperatures
and high moisture.
Based on the balance of these factors, and because each

2. Are there ways to improve the health status of the herd farm has dierent problems, agroecologists will not at(in the case of organics, by using biological controls, for est that only no-till or complete tillage is the right way
instance)?
of farming. Yet, these are not the only possible choices
regarding soil preparation, since there are intermediate
11.4. HISTORY
59
practices such as strip-till, mulch-till and ridge-till, all of

them - just as no-till - categorized as conservation tillage.
Agroecologists, then, will evaluate the need of dierent
practices for the contexts in which each farm is inserted.
the dierent points of view in ecology schools, and the

fundamental dierences, which set the basis for the development of agroecology. The early ecology school of
Henry Gleason investigated plant populations focusing in
In a no-till system, an agroecologist could ask the follow- the hierarchical levels of the organism under study.
ing:
Friederich Clements ecology school, however included
the organism in question as well as the higher hierarchi1. Can the farm minimize environmental impacts and increase its level of sustainability; for instance by eciently cal levels in its investigations, a landscape perspective.
increasing the productivity of the crops to minimize land However, the ecological schools where the roots of agroecology lie are even broader in nature. The ecology school
use?
of Tansley, whose view included both the biotic organism
2. Does this way of farming sustain good quality of life and their environment, is the one from which the concept
for the farmers, their families, rural labor and rural com- of agroecosystems emerged in 1974 with Harper.[5][34]
munities involved?
In the 1960s and 1970s the increasing awareness of how
humans manage the landscape and its consequences set
the stage for the necessary cross between agronomy and
11.4 History
ecology. Even though, in many ways the environmental
movement in the US was a product of the times, the
Green Decade spread an environmental awareness of
11.4.1 Pre-WWII
the unintended consequences of changing ecological proThe notions and ideas relating to crop ecology have been cesses. Works such as Silent Spring, and The Limits to
around since at least 1911 when F.H. King released Farm- Growth, and changes in legislation such as the Clean Air
ers of Forty Centuries. King was one of the pioneers as a Act, Clean Water Act, and the National Environmenproponent of more quantitative methods for characteriza- tal Policy Act caused the public to be aware of societal
production, and the overall
tion of water relations and physical properties of soils.[6] growth patterns, agricultural
[5]
capacity
of
the
system.
In the late 1920s the attempt to merge agronomy and
ecology was born with the development of the eld of
crop ecology. Crop ecologys main concern was where
crops would be best grown.[28] Actually, it was only in 11.4.3 Fusion with ecology
1928 that agronomy and ecology were formally linked by
After the 1970s, when agronomists saw the value of ecolKlages.[6][29]
ogy and ecologists began to use the agricultural systems as
The rst mention of the term agroecology was in 1928,
study plots, studies in agroecology grew more rapidly.[28]
[30]
with the publication of the term by Bensin in 1928.
Gliessman describes that the innovative work of Prof.
The book of Tischler (1965), was probably the rst to be
Efraim Hernandez X., who developed research based on
[31]
actually titled agroecology'. He analysed the dierent
indigenous systems of knowledge in Mexico, led to educomponents (plants, animals, soils and climate) and their
cation programs in agroecology.[35] In 1977 Prof. Efraim
interactions within an agroecosystem as well as the imHernandez X. explained that modern agricultural systems
pact of human agricultural management on these compohad lost their ecological foundation when socio-economic
nents. Other books dealing with agroecology, but without
factors became the only driving force in the food sysusing the term explicitly were published by the German
tem.[6] The acknowledgement that the socio-economic
zoologist Friederichs (1930) with his book on agricultural
interactions are indeed one of the fundamental compozoology and related ecological/environmental factors for
nents of any agroecosystems came to light in 1982, with
[32]
plant protection
and by American crop physiologist
the article Agroecologia del Tropico Americano by Mon[33]
when both used the word as a synHansen in 1939
[5] taldo. The author argues that the socio-economic context
onym for the application of ecology within agriculture.
cannot be separated from the agricultural systems when
designing agricultural practices.[6]
11.4.2
Post-WWII
Gliessman mentions that post-WWII, groups of scientists

with ecologists gave more focus to experiments in the
natural environment, while agronomists dedicated their
attention to the cultivated systems in agriculture.[28] According to Gliessman,[28] the two groups kept their research and interest apart until books and articles using
the concept of agroecosystems and the word agroecology started to appear in 1970.[30] Dalgaard[5] explains
In 1995 Edens et al. in Sustainable Agriculture and

Integrated Farming Systems solidied this idea proving
his point by devoting special sections to economics of
the systems, ecological impacts, and ethics and values in
agriculture.[6] Actually, 1985 ended up being a fertile and
creative year for the new discipline. For instance in the
same year, Miguel Altieri integrated how consolidation
of the farms, and cropping systems impact pest populations. In addition, Gliessman highlighted that socioeconomic, technological, and ecological components give
60
rise to producer choices of food production systems.[6]

These pioneering agroecologists have helped to frame
the foundation of what we today consider the interdisciplinary eld of agroecology.
or a practice. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development (published online)

[2] Pretty, Jules. 2008. Agricultural sustainability: concepts,
principles and evidence. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society, 363, 447-465.
11.5 Publications
[3] Conway, Gordon R. 1985. Agroecosystem analysis. Agricultural Administration, 20, 31-55.
[36]
[4] Agroecology, Glossary of Statistical Terms
11.6 By region
The principles of agroecology are expressed dierently
depending on local ecological and social contexts.
11.6.1
Latin America
Main article: Agroecology in Latin America
[5] Dalgaard, Tommy, and Nicholas Hutchings, John Porter.

Agroecology, Scaling and Interdisciplinarity. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 100(2003): 39-51.
[6] Francis et al (2003). Agroecology: the ecology of food
systems. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 22 (3): 99
118. doi:10.1300/J064v22n03_10.
[7] Agroecology.org
[8] Buttel, Frederick. Envisioning the Future Development
of Farming in the USA: Agroecology between Extinction
and Multifunctionality?" New Directions in Agroecology
Research and Education (2003)
Latin Americas experiences with North American Green

Revolution agricultural techniques have opened space for [9] Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2002) Agroecological Perspectives
in Agronomy, Forestry and Agroforestry. Science Pubagroecologists. Traditional or indigenous knowledge replishers Inc., Eneld, NH, 356p.
resents a wealth of possibility for agroecologists, including exchange of wisdoms. See Miguel Alteiris En[10] Wojtkowski, Paul A. (2006) Introduction to Agroecology:
hancing the Productivity of Latin American Traditional
Principles and Practices. Haworth Press, Binghamton,
Peasant Farming Systems Through an Agroecological ApNY, 404p.
proach for information on agroecology in Latin America.
[11] IFOAM (International Federation for Organic Agriculture
Movements)
11.6.2
Madagascar
Main article: Agroecology in Madagascar
[12] Boer, I J. M. 2003. Environmental impact assessment of

conventional and organic milk production. Livestock Production Science. Vol 80, p 6977.
Most of the historical farming in Madagascar has been [13] Hovi, M. el al. 2003. Animal health and welfare in organic
livestock production in Europe: current state and future
conducted by indigenous peoples. The French colonial
challenges. Livestock Production Science. Vol 80, p 41
period disturbed a very small percentage of land area,
53.
and even included some useful experiments in Sustainable
forestry. Slash-and-burn techniques, a component of [14] Bennedsgaard, T.W. et al. 2003. Eleven years of organic
some shifting cultivation systems have been practised by
dairy production in Denmark: herd health and production
natives in Madagascar for centuries. As of 2006 some
related to time of conversion and compared to conventional production. Livestock production science. Vol 80,
of the major agricultural products from slash-and-burn
p 121-131.
methods are wood, charcoal and grass for Zebu grazing.
These practices have taken perhaps the greatest toll on
land fertility since the end of French rule, mainly due to [15] Garcia-Torres, L. et al. 2002. Summary of the Workshop
on Soil Protection and Sustainable Agriculture organized
overpopulation pressures.
by the EU Commission DG Environment and the DG Environmental Quality of the Spanish Ministry of Environment (Soria, Spain)
11.7 See also

11.8 References
[1] Wezel, A., Bellon, S., Dor, T., Francis, C., Vallod, D.,
David, C. (2009). Agroecology as a science, a movement
[16] Branco, H. and Lal, R. 2008. Principles of Conservation

Management. No Tillage-Farming (Ch.8). Springer Verlag. Netherlands. P. 195
[17] Bolliger, A. et al. 2006. Taking stock of the Brazilian
Zero Till Revolution: A review of landmark research
and farmers practice. Adv. Agron. Vol 91, p 47110
11.9. FURTHER READING
[18] Calegari, A. et al. 2008. Impact of Long-Term NoTillage and Cropping System Management on Soil Organic Carbon in an Oxisol: A Model for Sustainability.
Agronomy Journal. Vol 100, Issue 4, p 1013-1019
[19] West, T. and Post, W. 2002. Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration Rates by Tillage and Crop Rotation: A Global
Data Analysis. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66:19301946
[20] Machado, P.L.O.A. and Silva, C.A. 2001. Soil management under no-tillage systems in the tropics with special
reference to Brazil. Nutr. Cycling Agroecosyst. Vol 61,
p 119130
[21] Koga, N. et al. 2003. Fuel consumption-derived CO2
emissions under conventional and reduced tillage cropping systems in northern Japan. Agriculture, Ecosystems
and Environment. Vol 99, p 213219.
[22] Fleizo et al. 2002
[23] Koller, K. 2003. Techniques of soil tillage. Ed. Adel El
Titi (CRC Press)
61
[34] Harper, J.L., 1974. Agric. Ecosyst. Agroecosyst. 1, 16.

[35] qtd. in Francis et al. 2003.
[36] Reproduced from Francis et al., 2003 and Wezel et al.,
2009.

Altieri, M.A. 1987. Agroecology: the scientic basis of alternative agriculture. Boulder: Westview
Press.
Altieri, M.A. 1992. Agroecological foundations of
alternative agriculture in California. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment 39: 23-53.
Buttel, F.H. and M.E. Gertler 1982. Agricultural structure, agricultural policy and environmental quality. Agriculture and Environment 7: 101119.
[24] Pavuk, D.M. 1994. Inuence of weeds within Zea mays

crop plantings on populations of adult Diabrotica barberi
and Diabrotica virgifera virgifera. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. Vol 50, p 165-175
Carrol, C. R., J.H. Vandermeer and P.M. Rosset.

1990. Agroecology. McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York.
[25] G. E. Brust, B. Stinner & D. McCartney. 1986. Predator

activity and predation in corn agroecosystems. Environmental Entomology 15:1017-1021
Paoletti, M.G., B.R. Stinner, and G.G. Lorenzoni,

ed. Agricultural Ecology and Environment. New
York: Elsevier Science Publisher B.V., 1989.
[26] Randall, G.W., and P.R. Hill. 2000. Fall strip-tillage

systems. p. 193199. In R.C. Reeder (ed.) Conservation tillage systems and management. MWPS-45, 2nd ed.
Iowa State Univ., Ames.
Robertson, Philip, and Scott M Swinton. Reconciling agricultural productivity and environmental integrity: a grand challenge for agriculture. Frontiers
in Ecology and the Environment 3.1 (2005): 38-46.
[27] Licht, M.A. and Al-Kaisi, M. 2005. Strip-tillage eect on

seedbed soil temperature and other soil physical properties. Soil and Tillage Research. Vol 80, p 233-249
Savory, Allan; Jody Buttereld (1998-12-01)

[1988]. Holistic Management: A New Framework
for Decision Making (2nd ed. ed.). Washington,
D.C.: Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-487-1.
[28] Gliessman, Stephen. R Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture. Ann Arbor: Sleeping
Bear Press, 1998.
[29] Klages, K.H.W. 1928. Crop ecology and ecological crop
geography in the agronomic curriculum. J. Amer. Soc.
Agron. 20:336-353.
[30] Wezel, A., Soldat, V. (2009). A quantitative and qualitative historical analysis of the scientic discipline agroecology. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 7
(1): 3-18.
[31] Tischler, W. (1965). Agrarkologie. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, Germany, 499 pp.
[32] Friederichs, K. (1930) Die Grundfragen und Gesetzmigkeiten der land- und forstwirtschaftlichen Zoologie. Vol. 1: kologischer Teil, Vol. 2: Wirtschaftlicher
Teil. Verlagsbuchhandlung Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany,
417 and 443 pp.
[33] Hansen, B., Alre, H.F., Kristensen, E.S., 2001. Approaches to assess the environmental impact of organic
farming with particular regard to Denmark. Agric.
Ecosys. Environ. 83, 1126.
The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak

Oil. Yellow Springs,Ohio 45387: The Community
Solution.
Vandermeer, J. 1995. The ecological basis of alternative agriculture. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 26:
201-224
Wojtkowski, P.A. 2002. Agroecological perspectives in agronomy, forestry and agroforestry. Science Publishers Inc., Eneld, New Hampshire.
Advances in Agroecology Book Series
Soil Organic Matter in Sustainable Agriculture (Advances in Agroecology) by Fred Magdo and Ray R.
Weil (Hardcover - May 27, 2004)
Agroforestry in Sustainable Agricultural Systems
(Advances in Agroecology) by Louise E. Buck,
James P. Lassoie, and Erick C.M. Fernandes (Hardcover - Oct 1, 1998)
62
Agroecosystem Sustainability: Developing Practical

Strategies (Advances in Agroecology) by Stephen R.
Gliessman (Hardcover - Sep 25, 2000)
Agroecology at Iowa State University
Interactions Between Agroecosystems and Rural

Communities (Advances in Agroecology) by Cornelia Flora (Hardcover - Feb 5, 2001)
European Master Agroecology
Landscape Ecology in Agroecosystems Management (Advances in Agroecology) by Lech

Ryszkowski (Hardcover - Dec 27, 2001)
Agroecology Program at The University of British

Columbia
Integrated Assessment of Health and Sustainability

of Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) by
Thomas Gitau, Margaret W. Gitau, David WaltnerToewsClive A. Edwards June 2008 | Hardback:
978-1-4200-7277-8 (CRC Press)
Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis of Agroecosystems
(Advances in Agroecology) by Mario Giampietro
2003 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-1067-6 (CRC Press)
Soil Tillage in Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) edited by Adel El Titi 2002 | Hardback:
978-0-8493-1228-1 (CRC Press)
Tropical Agroecosystems (Advances in Agroecology) edited by John H. Vandermeer 2002 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-1581-7 (CRC Press)
Structure and Function in Agroecosystem Design
and Management (Advances in Agroecology) edited
by Masae Shiyomi, Hiroshi Koizumi 2001 | Hardback: 978-0-8493-0904-5 (CRC Press)
Biodiversity in Agroecosystems (Advances in
Agroecology) edited by Wanda W. Collins, Calvin
O. Qualset 1998 | Hardback: 978-1-56670-290-4
(CRC Press)
Sustainable Agroecosystem Management: Integrating Ecology, Economics and Society. (Advances in
Agroecology) edited by Patrick J. Bohlen and Gar
House 2009 | Hardback: 978-1-4200-5214-5 (CRC
Press)
11.10 External links

University of WisconsinMadison Agroecology
Graduate Program
The Center for Integrated Agricultural Systems
Agroecology in action
agroecology
Agroecoloy seminars in Montpellier, France
Agroecology/Sustainable Agriculture Program at
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Agroecology Program at Penn State
MSc Agroecology at Norwegian University of Life

Sciences (UMB)
UC Santa Cruz Center for Agroecology & Sustainable Food Systems

Facilitating Mechanism of the Global Plan of Action
for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of
Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
http://www.agroeco.org/index.html
Agroecology in Brazil
Agroecology in Spain
Chapter 12
Agroecological restoration
Agroecological restoration is the practice of reintegrating natural systems into agriculture in order
to maximize sustainability, ecosystem services, and
biodiversity. This is one example of a way to apply the
principles of agroecology to an agricultural system.
12.1 Overview
Farms cannot be restored to a purely natural state because of the negative economic impact on farmers, but
returning processes, such as pest control to nature with
the method of intercropping, allows a farm to be more
ecologically sustainable and, at the same time, economically viable. Agroecological restoration works toward
this balance of sustainability and economic viability because conventional farming is not sustainable over the
long run without the integration of natural systems and
because the use of land for agriculture has been a driving
force in creating the present world biodiversity crisis. Its
eorts are complementary to, rather than a substitute for,
biological conservation.[1]
"...biodiversity is just as important on
farms and in elds as it is in deep river valleys
or mountain cloud forests.
FAO, 15 October 2004
Agriculture creates a conict over the use of land between
wildlife and humans. Though the domestication of crop
plants occurred 10,000 years ago, a 500% increase in the
amount of pasture and crop land over the last three hundred years has led to the rapid loss of natural habitats.[2]
In recent years, the world community acknowledged the
value of biodiversity in treaties, such as the 1992 landmark Convention on Biological Diversity.[3]
12.2.1 Biodiversity
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that more than 40% of earths land surface
is currently used for agriculture. And because so much
land has been converted to agriculture, habitat loss is recognized as the driving force in biodiversity loss (FAO).
This biodiversity loss often occurred in two steps, as in
the American Midwest, with the introduction of mixed
farming carried out on small farms and then with the
widespread use of mechanized farming and monoculture
beginning after World War II.[4] The decline in farmland biodiversity can now be traced to changes in farming
practices and increased agricultural intensity.[5]
12.2.2 Increasing heterogeneity

Heterogeneity (here, the diversity or complexity of the
landscape) has been shown to be associated with species
diversity. For example, the abundance of butteries has
been found to increase with heterogeneity. One important part of maintaining heterogeneity in the spaces
between dierent elds is made up of habitat that is
not cropped, such as grass margins and strips, scrub
along eld boundaries, woodland, ponds, and fallow land.
These seemingly unimportant pieces of land are crucial
for the biodiversity of a farm. The presence of eld
margins benets many dierent taxa: the plants attract
herbivorous insects, will which attract certain species of
birds and those birds will attract their natural predators.
Also, the cover provided by the no cropped habitat allows the species that need a large range to move across
the landscape.[6]
12.2.3 Monoculture
In the absence of cover, species face a landscape in which

their habitat is greatly fragmented. The isolation of a
species to a small habitat that it cant safely wander from
The reintegration of agricultural systems into more nat- can create a genetic bottleneck, decreasing the resilience
ural systems will result in decreased yield and produce of the particular population, and be another factor leada more complex system, but there will be considerable ing to the decline of the total population of the species.[7]
Monoculture, the practice of producing a single crop over
gains in biodiversity and ecosystem services.
12.2 Reintegration
63
64
CHAPTER 12. AGROECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
a wide area, causes fragmentation. In conventional farming, monoculture, such as with rotations of corn and soybean crops planted in alternating growing seasons, is used
so that very high yields can be produced. After the mechanization of farming, monoculture became a standard
practice in corn-beans rotation, and had broad implications for the long-term sustainability and biodiversity of
farms. Whereas organic fertilizers, had kept the soils nutrients xed to the ecosystem, the introduction of monoculture removed the nutrients and farmers compensated
for that loss by using inorganic fertilizers. It is estimated
that humans have doubled the rate of nitrogen input into
the nitrogen cycle, mostly since 1975. As a result, the biological processes that controlled the way crops used the
nutrients changed and the leached nitrogen from farmland
soils has become a source of pollution.[8]
[2] ^ Macdonald, Key Topics in Conservation Biology, Chapter 16

[3] 3.^
http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/focus/2004/
51102/index.html
[4] 4. Jackson et al., The Farm as Natural Habitat, Ch. 10
[5] 5.^ Benton et al., 182
[6] 6.^ Benton et al., 183184
[7] 7.^ Macdonald et al., Key Topics in Conservation Biology,
Ch 4
[8] 8. Jackson et al., The Farm as Natural Habitat, Ch. 10
[9] 9.^ Zhang et al., 255
[10] 10.^ Hole D.G. et al., 114
12.2.4
Organic farming
Organic farming is dened in dierent legal terms by different nations, but its main distinction from conventional
farming is that it prohibits the use of synthetic chemicals in crop and livestock production. Often, it also includes diverse crop rotations and provides non-cropped
habitat for insects that provide ecosystem services, such
as pest control and pollination.[9] However, it is merely
encouraged that organic farmers follow those kinds of
wildlife friendly practices, and as a result there is a great
dierence between the ecosystem services that similarly
sized but distinctly managed organic farms provide.[10]
A recent review of the 76 studies concerning the relationship between biodiversity and organic farming listed
three practices associated with organic farming that accounted for the higher biodiversity counts found in organic farms as compared to conventional farms.
1. Prohibition/reduced use of chemical
pesticides and inorganic fertilizers is likely to
have a positive impact through the removal
of both direct and indirect negative eects on
arable plants, invertebrates and vertebrates.
2. Sympathetic management of non-crop habitats and eld margins can enhance diversity
and abundance of arable plants, invertebrates,
birds and mammals.
3. Preservation of mixed farming is likely
to positively impact farmland biodiversity
through the provision of greater habitat heterogeneity at a variety of temporal and spacial
scales within the landscape.[11] "
12.3 Notes
[1] 1.^ Jackson et al., The Farm as Natural Habitat, Introduction
[11] 11.^ Hole D.G. et al., 120
12.4 References
Altieri, Miguel A. 1999. The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems: Agriculture, Ecosystemsand Environment 74: 1931.
Benton, Tim G., Vickery, Juliet A., Wilson, Jeremy
D. 2003. Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends in Ecology and Evolution
18: 182188
Dabbert, Stephan, 2002, Organic Agriculture and
the Environment. OECD Publications Service
FAO,
http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/focus/
2004/51102/index.html
Fiedler, Anna K., Landis, Douglas A., Wratten,
Steve D. 2008. Maximizing ecosystem services
from conservation biological control: The role of
habitat management. Biological Control 45: 254
271
Hole. D.G., Perkins, A.J., Wilson, D.J., Alexander, I.H., Grice, P.V., Evans, A.D. 2005. Biological
Conservation 112:113130
Jackson, Dana L, Jackson, Laura L. 2002. The Farm
as Natural Habitat. Island Press, Washington.
Leopold, Aldo. 1939. The Farmer as a Conservationist. Pages 255265 in Flader, Susan L., Callicott, J. Baird, editors. The River of the Mother of
God. University of Wisconsin Press.
Macdonald, David W., Service, Katrina. 2007. Key
Topics in Conservation Biology. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
12.4. REFERENCES
Schmidt, Martin H. Tscharntke, Teja. 2005. The
role of perennial habitats for Central European
farmland spiders. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 105: 235242
Shannon, D., Sen, A.M., Johnson, D.B. 2002. A
comparative study of the microbiology of soils managed under organic and conventional regimes. Soil
Use and Management 18: 274283
Zhang, Wei., Rickets, Taylor H., Kremen, Claire.,
Carney, Karen., Swinton, Scott M. 2007. Ecosystem services and dis-services to agriculture. Ecological Economics 64: 253260
65
Chapter 13
Community-supported agriculture
13.1 History
Community-supported agriculture began in the United
States in the 1980s, inuenced by European biodynamic
agriculture ideas formulated by Rudolf Steiner.[1] Two
European farmers, Jan Vander Tuin from Switzerland
and Trauger Groh from Germany, brought European biodynamic farming ideas to the United States in the mid1980s.[1] Vander Tuin had co-founded a communitysupported agricultural project named Topinambur located near Zurich, Switzerland. Coinage of the term
community-supported agriculture stems from Vander
[2]
An example of a weeks CSA share, including bell peppers, okra, Tuin. This inuence led to the separate and simultaneous creation of two CSAs in 1986. The CSA Gartomatoes, beans, potatoes, garlic, eggplant, and squash.
den at Great Barrington was created in Massachusetts by
Jan Vander Tuin, Susan Witt, and Robyn Van En. The
Temple-Wilton Community Farm was created in New
Hampshire by Anthony Graham, Trauger Groh, and LinCommunity-supported agriculture (CSA; sometimes coln Geiger.[1]
known as community-shared agriculture) is an alterThe CSA Garden at Great Barrington remained together
native, locally-based economic model of agriculture and
food distribution. A CSA also refers to a particular net- until 1990 when many members left to form the Mahaiwe
Harvest CSA. One of the original founders, Robyn Van
work or association of individuals who have pledged to
support one or more local farms, with growers and con- En, became incredibly inuential in the CSA movement
[1]
sumers sharing the risks and benets of food production. in America and founded CSA North America in 1992.
CSA members or subscribers pay at the onset of the grow- The Temple-Wilton Community Garden was more sucing season for a share of the anticipated harvest; once har- cessful and still operates as a CSA today. It became an
vesting begins, they receive weekly shares of vegetables important member of the Wilton community and it[1]reand fruit, in a vegetable box scheme. Often, CSAs also ceives funding from state, federal, and local sources.
include herbs, honey, eggs, dairy products and meat, in Since the 1980s, community supported farms have been
addition to conventional produce oerings. In theory a organized throughout North America mainly in New
CSA can provide any product to its members, although England, the Northwest, the Pacic coast, the Upperthe majority of CSA operations tend to provide produce, Midwest and Canada. North America now has at least
fruits, and various edibles. Some CSA programs also in- 13,000 CSA farms of which 12,549 are in the US acclude cut owers and various ornamental plants as part cording to the US Department of Agriculture in 2007.[3]
of their weekly pickup arrangement. Some CSAs pro- The rise of CSAs seems to be correlated with the invide for contributions of labor in lieu of a portion of sub- crease in awareness of the environmental movement in
scription costs. While some CSAs include small com- the United States.Some examples of larger and well estabmunity deliveries, other CSAs expand to large neighbor- lished CSAs in the US are Angelic Organics[4] and Roxhoods and beyond, centering with a farmers market type bury Farm.[5] CSAs have even become popular in urban
setup where members can pickup their shares and estab- environments as proven by the New York City Coalition
lish an open forum for other topics that members may be Against Hunger's own CSA program that maintains locainterested in discussing. The farmers market type CSA tions in all ve boroughs of the city.[6] The largest subusually leads to a more dynamic community stemming scription CSA with over 13,000 families is Farm Fresh
To You in Capay Valley, California.[7] The Qubec CSA
from this pickup location.
66
13.2. THE CSA SYSTEM
67
network (17 years old in 2012) is one of the larger in the

Farmer-shareholder cooperative: Farmers and local
world. It is a unique system where a non-prot organizaresidents set up and cooperatively manage a CSA.[11]
tion reach the customers for the farmers and provide these
farmers with technical support. More than one hundred
In most original CSAs, a core group of members existed.
farms are part of this network.
This core group of members helped to make decisions
Since 2008, the international CSA network Urgenci about and run the CSA including marketing, distribuhas been coordinating dissemination and exchange pro- tion, administrative, and community organization funcgrammes that have resulted in the creation of dozens of tions. CSAs with a core group of members are most
small scale CSA in Central and Eastern Europe.
protable and successful. However, in 1999, 72 percent
of CSAs did not have a core group of members. CSAs
with a core group of members operate more successfully
13.2 The CSA system
as a farmer-shareholder cooperative and CSAs without
a group of core members rely much more on subscripCSAs generally focus on the production of high qual- tions and run most prominently as shareholder/subscriber
[12]
ity foods for a local community, often using organic CSAs.
or biodynamic farming methods, and a shared risk
membershipmarketing structure. This kind of farming
operates with a much greater degree of involvement of 13.2.2 Ideology
consumers and other stakeholders than usual resulting
in a stronger consumer-producer relationship.[8] The core
Community-supported agriculture in America was inudesign includes developing a cohesive consumer group
enced by the ideas of Rudolf Steiner, an Austrian philosothat is willing to fund a whole seasons budget in order to
pher. He developed the concepts of anthroposophy and
get quality foods. The system has many variations on how
biodynamic agriculture. The Temple-Wilton Community
the farm budget is supported by the consumers and how
Farm used his ideas to develop three main goals of CSAs:
the producers then deliver the foods. CSA theory purports that the more a farm embraces whole-farm, wholebudget support, the more it can focus on quality and re New forms of property ownership: the idea that land
duce the risk of food waste or
should be held in common by a community through
a legal trust, which leases the land to farmers
13.2.1
Structure
Community-supported agriculture farms in the United

States today share three common characteristics: an emphasis on community and/or local produce, share or subscriptions sold prior to season, and weekly deliveries
to members/subscribers. Though CSA operation varies
from farm to farm and has evolved over time, these three
characteristics have remained constant.[9] The functioning of a CSA also relies on four practical arrangements:
for farmers to know the needs of a community, for consumers to have the opportunity to express to farmers what
their needs and nancial limitations are, for commitments
between farmers and consumers to be consciously established, and for farmers needs to be recognized.[10]
New forms of cooperation: the idea that a network

of human relationships should replace the traditional
system of employers and employees
New forms of economy: that the economy should not
be based on increasing prot, but should be based on
the actual needs of the people and land involved in
an enterprise[1]
As CSAs have increased in both number and size since

they were rst developed, they have also change ideologically. While original CSAs and some more current
CSAs are still philosophically oriented, most CSAs today are commercially oriented and community-supported
From this base, four main types of CSAs have been deagriculture is predominantly seen as a benecial marketveloped:
ing strategy.[1] This has led to three ideologically based
types of CSAs. The rst type is instrumental, the CSA
Farmer managed: A farmer sets up and maintains a is considered a market in the traditional sense, instead
CSA, recruits subscribers, and controls management of an alternative form of economy and relationship. The
of the CSA.
second type is functional; there is a relationship of sol Shareholder/subscriber: Local residents set up a idarity between the farmer and the subscribers, but this
CSA and hire a farmer to grow crops, sharehold- extends mostly to social functions, not managerial or administrative functions. This is the most common type of
ers/subscribers control most management.
CSA. The nal type is collaborative; this is the closest to
Farmer cooperative: Multiple farmers develop a the original aims of CSAs where the relationship between
CSA program
the farmer and the subscribers is seen as a partnership.[13]
68
13.2.3
CHAPTER 13. COMMUNITY-SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE
Distribution and marketing methods
Shares of a CSA originally and predominantly consist of

produce. In more recent years, shares have diversied
and include non-produce products including eggs, meat,
owers, honey, dairy and soaps.[9] Share prices vary from
CSA to CSA. Shares are sold as full shares, which feed 2
through 5 people, and half shares, which feed 1 through
3 people. Prices range from $200 to $500. Full shares
are sold at a median of $400 and half shares are sold
at a median of $250.[14] Share prices are mostly determined by overhead costs of production, but are also determined by share prices of other CSAs, variable costs
of production, market forces, and income level of the
community.[9] Many CSAs have payment plans and lowincome options.
Andelslandbruk in Norway
Gruppi di Acquisto Solidale (GAS) in Italy, (see also,
Ethical purchasing groups)
in Bulgaria
Asociaia pentru Susinerea Agriculturii rneti
(ASAT) in Romania
Grupa solidarne razmjene (GSR) in Croatia
All these dierent models are represented in the international network, Urgenci, under the terminology of local
and solidarity-based partnerships between producers and
consumers. Some of them have been documented in Urgencis newsletter, Teikei. The Romanian, Croatian and
Bulgarian models were directly implemented as a result
Shares are distributed in several dierent ways. Shares
of Urgencis dissemination programmes.
are most often distributed weekly. Most CSAs allow
share pick up at the farm. Shares are also distributed
through regional drop o, direct home or oce drop
o, farmers markets, and community center/ church drop 13.3.1 Orti Solidali (Italy)
o.[9] For example the new Farmie Markets of upstate
NY [15] take orders online and have a number of farmers Orti Solidali (meaning Solidarity Gardens) is an example
who send that weeks orders to a central point in a limited of a CSA project in Italy; the reasons for participating are
mostly ethical. Participants commitment to sustainable,
region, for distribution by the organizers.
local produce protect the development of the network
CSAs market their farms and shares in dierent ways. from mainstream market forces, allowing it to develop
CSAs employ dierent channels of marketing to diver- independently and ourish. Key to its success are shared
sify their sales eorts and increase subscriptions. CSAs ethical and environmental values, as well as the nature of
use local farmers markets, restaurants, on-farm retail, the relationships that are formed, which help to shape and
wholesale to natural food stores, and wholesale to local constitute this protective environment. Orti Solidali uses
groceries in addition to their CSAs to market shares. One a sustainable agronomic method for food production and
problem that CSAs encounter is over-production. So, supplies locally-sourced produce while providing revenue
CSAs often sell their produce and products in ways other and fair working conditions for the producers. With one
than shares. Often, CSA farms also sell their products of the aims being the reduction of economic growth, also
at local farmers markets. Excess products are sometimes known as degrowth, the objective is to transition to a new
also given to foods banks.[9]
economic system based on environmental protection and
social equity.[16]
13.3 CSAs around the world

The term CSA is mostly used in the USA but a variety of
similar production and economic sub-systems are in use
worldwide:
Association pour le maintien de lagriculture
paysanne (AMAP) in France
Agriculture soutenue par la communaut (ASC) in
Qubec
Teikei (
) in Japan
13.4 See also

Civic agriculture
Community supported shery
Development-supported agriculture
Farmers market
Local food
Reciproco in Portugal
Sustainable agriculture
Solidarische Landwirtschaft in Germany
Vegetable box scheme
Pergola(-landbouw) in the Netherlands
WWOOF
13.5 References
[1] History of Community Supported Agriculture, Part 1
(2005), Rosdale Institute, accessed 05-15-2013.
[2] Community Supported Agriculture (PDF). Retrieved
2010-09-05.
[3] USDA 2007 Agricultural Census Table 44 (PDF). Retrieved 2012-08-09.
[4] Honeybrook Organic Farm
69
Egan, Timothy. (2003). Amid Dying Towns of
Rural Plains, One Makes a Stand, New York Times,
December 1.
En, Robyn Van. (1995). Eating for Your Community: A Report from the Founder of Community
Supported Agriculture, Context, Fall, p, 29.
Greenwood, Deborah, and Robin Leichenko.
(2012). Community-Supported Agriculture. In
Danto, William, ed., Food and Famine in the 21st
Century, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 86-94.
[5] Roxbury farm.com Roxbury Farm

[6] Farm-fresh project
[7] Mark Anderson (22 August 2010). Capay farm, distributor buys West Sac warehouse. Sacramento Business Journal
[8] Committee on Twenty-First Century Systems Agriculture, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Division on Earth and Life Sciences (2010). Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century. Washington,
D.C.: National Academies Press. ISBN 9780309148962.
[9] 2009 Survey of Community Supported Agriculture Producers, University of Kentucky, accessed 05-15-2013.
[10] Community Supported Agriculture, The Center for Social Research. Accessed 05-15-2013.
[11] Community Supported Agriculture, Technotes: Oce
of Community Development, US Department of Agriculture, accessed 05-15-2013.
[12] CSA Across the Nation Center for Integrated Agricultural Services. Accessed 05-22-2013
[13] Devon Acres CSA: local struggles in a global food system (2008), retrieved 04-11-2013.
[14] Community Supported Agriculture Entering the 21st
Century. Accessed 23 May 2013.
[15] Farmie Markets of Upstate NY.
[16] Agricultural Innovation: Sustaining What Agriculture?
For What European Bio-Economy? page 26 of the
CREPE report
13.6 Additional reading

Bryant, Greg. (1992). Community Supported
Agriculture, RAIN magazine 14(2), Winter/Spring.
Cone, C. A., & Myhre, A. (2000). CommunitySupported Agriculture: A Sustainable Alternative to
Industrial Agriculture? Human Organization 59(2),
187-197.
DeMuth, Suzanne. (1993). Community Supported
Agriculture (CSA): An Annotated Bibliography and
Resource Guide, September.
Groh, Trauger, and Steven McFadden. (1990).

Farms of Tomorrow: Community Supported Farms
- Farm Supported Communities. Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association
Groh, Trauger, and Steven McFadden. (1998).
Farms of Tomorrow Revisited: Community Supported Farms - Farm Supported Communities. Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Association.
Kumar, S., Duell, J., Soergell, A., & Ali, R. (2011).
Towards direct marketing of produce by farmers in
India: Lessons from the United States of America.
Journal of International Development, 23(4), 539547. doi:10.1002/jid.1600
Lawson, Jered. (1993). Cabbages and Compassion, RAIN magazine 14(3), Spring.
McFadden, Steven. (2004). The History of Community Supported Agriculture, Part II: CSAs World
of Possibilities. Rodale.
McFadden, Steven. (2011). The Call of the Land:
An Agrarian Primer for the 21st Century, 2nd ed.
NorLights Press.
Organic Gardening. (1984). Produce by Subscription, April.
Organic Gardening. (1986). From Farms to Families, July.
Speth, James Gustav. (2008). The bridge at the edge
of the world. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Time. (2003). Fresh O the Farm, A new breed of
planters and eaters are joining forces to nurture the
local-foods movement,, November. 3.
VanderTuin, Jan. (1992). Zrich Supported Agriculture, RAIN magazine 14(2), Winter/Spring.
13.7 External links

Urgenci, the international CSA network, also feeds
a blog
70
CHAPTER 13. COMMUNITY-SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE
Wilson Colleges community-supported agriculture

database for CSA registration or research.
Directory of US CSAs
National Agricultural Library of the U.S. Department of Agriculture CSA resource
Comprehensive map of CSAs in the United States
Going beyond CSAs with Community Food Systems
Chapter 14
Forest gardening
Home garden redirects here. For other uses, see Home
garden (disambiguation).
Forest gardening is a low-maintenance sustainable
14.1 History
Forest gardens are probably the worlds oldest form of
land use and most resilient agroecosystem.[2][3] They
originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river
banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions. In the
gradual process of families improving their immediate
environment, useful tree and vine species were identied,
protected and improved whilst undesirable species were
eliminated. Eventually superior foreign species were selected and incorporated into the gardens.[4]
Forest gardens are still common in the tropics and known
by various names such as: home gardens in Kerala in
South India, Nepal, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Tanzania;
Kandyan forest gardens in Sri Lanka;[5] huertos familiares, the family orchards of Mexico; and pekarangan,
the gardens of complete design, in Java.[6] These are
also called agroforests and, where the wood components
are short-statured, the term shrub garden is employed.
Forest gardens have been shown to be a signicant source
of income and food security for local populations.[7]
Robert Hart adapted forest gardening for the United
Kingdom's temperate climate during the 1980s.[1] His
theories were later developed by Martin Crawford from
the Agroforestry Research Trust and various permaculturalists such as Graham Bell, Patrick Whiteeld, Dave
Jacke and Geo Lawton.
Robert Hart's forest garden in Shropshire
14.2 In tropical climates
Forest gardens, or home gardens, are common in the

tropics, using intercropping to cultivate trees, crops, and
livestock on the same land. In Kerala in south India as
well as in northeastern India, the home garden is the most
common form of land use and is also found in Indonesia.
One example combines coconut, black pepper, cocoa
and pineapple. These gardens exemplify polyculture, and
Forest gardening is a prehistoric method of securing food conserve much crop genetic diversity and heirloom plants
in tropical areas. In the 1980s, Robert Hart coined the that are not found in monocultures. Forest gardens have
term forest gardening after adapting the principles and been loosely compared to the religious concept of the
Garden of Eden.[8]
applying them to temperate climates.[1]
plant-based food production and agroforestry system
based on woodland ecosystems, incorporating fruit and
nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines and perennial vegetables
which have yields directly useful to humans. Making use
of companion planting, these can be intermixed to grow
in a succession of layers, to build a woodland habitat.
71
72
14.2.1
CHAPTER 14. FOREST GARDENING
Americas
The BBCs Unnatural Histories claimed that the Amazon

rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has
been shaped by humans for at least 11,000 years through
practices such as forest gardening and terra preta.[9] This
was also explored in the bestselling book 1491 by author
Charles C. Mann. Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs
have also been discovered on deforested land in the
Amazon rainforest, furthering the evidence about PreColumbian civilizations.[10][11]
home gardens as women and children have easy access to

preferred food, and for this reason alone we should promote home gardens as a key element for a healthy way
of life. Home gardens, with their intensive and multiple
uses, provide a safety net for households when food is
scarce. These gardens are not only important sources of
food, fodder, fuel, medicines, spices, herbs, owers, construction materials and income in many countries, they
are also important for the in situ conservation of a wide
range of unique genetic resources for food and agriculture (Subedi et al., 2004). Many uncultivated, as well as
neglected and underutilised species could make an important contribution to the dietary diversity of local communities (Gautam et al., 2004).
On the Yucatn Peninsula, much of the Maya food supply was grown in orchard-gardens, known as pet kot.[12]
The system takes its name from the low wall of stones
(pet meaning circular and kot wall of loose stones) that In addition to supplementing diet in times of diculty, home gardens promote whole-family and wholecharacteristically surrounds the gardens.[13]
community involvement in the process of providing food.
Children, the elderly, and those caring for them can participate in this ineld agriculture, incorporating it with
14.2.2 Africa
other household tasks and scheduling. This tradition has
In many African countries, for example Zambia, existed in many cultures around the world for thousands
Zimbabwe, Ethiopia and Tanzania, gardens are of years.[14][15]
widespread in rural, periurban and urban areas and
they play an essential role in establishing food security.
Most well known are the Chaga or Chagga gardens
14.3 In temperate climates
on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. These
are an excellent example of an agroforestry system. In
many countries, women are the main actors in home
gardening and food is mainly produced for subsistence.
In North-Africa, oasis layered gardening with palm trees,
fruit trees and vegetables is a traditional type of forest
garden.
14.2.3
Nepal
In Nepal, the Ghar Bagaincha, literally home garden,

refers to the traditional land use system around a homestead, where several species of plants are grown and
maintained by household members and their products are
primarily intended for the family consumption (Shrestha
et al., 2002). The term home garden is often considered
synonymous to the kitchen garden. However, they dier
in terms of function, size, diversity, composition and features (Sthapit et al., 2006). In Nepal, 72% of households
have home gardens of an area 211% of the total land
holdings (Gautam et al., 2004). Because of their small
size, the government has never identied home gardens
as an important unit of food production and they thereby
remain neglected from research and development. However, at the household level the system is very important
as it is an important source of quality food and nutrition
for the rural poor and, therefore, are important contributors to the household food security and livelihoods of
farming communities in Nepal. The gardens are typically cultivated with a mixture of annual and perennial
plants that can be harvested on a daily or seasonal basis.
Biodiversity that has an immediate value is maintained in
Robert Hart, forest gardening pioneer
Robert Hart coined the term forest gardening during the 1980s.
Hart began farming at Wenlock
Edge in Shropshire with the intention of providing a
healthy and therapeutic environment for himself and
his brother Lacon.[16] Starting as relatively conventional
smallholders, Hart soon discovered that maintaining large
annual vegetable beds, rearing livestock and taking care
of an orchard were tasks beyond their strength. However,
a small bed of perennial vegetables and herbs he planted
was looking after itself with little intervention.
Following Harts adoption of a raw vegan diet for health
and personal reasons, he replaced his farm animals with
plants. The three main products from a forest garden
14.3. IN TEMPERATE CLIMATES
73
are fruit, nuts and green leafy vegetables.[17] He cre5. Rhizosphere or underground dimension of plants
ated a model forest garden from a 0.12 acre (500 m)
grown for their roots and tubers.
orchard on his farm and intended naming his garden6. Ground cover layer of edible plants that spread horing method ecological horticulture or ecocultivation.[18]
izontally.
Hart later dropped these terms once he became aware
that agroforestry and forest gardens were already being
7. Vertical layer of vines and climbers.
used to describe similar systems in other parts of the
[19]
He was inspired by the forest farming methworld.
ods of Toyohiko Kagawa and James Sholto Douglas, and A key component of the seven-layer system was the plants
the productivity of the Keralan home gardens as Hart he selected. Most of the traditional vegetable crops
grown today, such as carrots, are sun loving plants not
explains:[20]
well selected for the more shady forest garden system.
Hart favoured shade tolerant perennial vegetables.
From the agroforestry point of view, perhaps the worlds most advanced country is the
Indian state of Kerala, which boasts no fewer
14.3.2 Further development
than three and a half million forest gardens...As
an example of the extraordinary intensivity of
The Agroforestry Research Trust (ART), managed by
cultivation of some forest gardens, one plot of
Martin Crawford, runs experimental forest gardening
only 0.12 hectares (0.30 acres) was found by
projects on a number of plots in Devon, United Kinga study group to have twenty-three young codom.[22] Crawford describes a forest garden as a lowconut palms, twelve cloves, fty-six bananas,
maintenance way of sustainably producing food and other
and forty-nine pineapples, with thirty pepper
household
products.[23]
vines trained up its trees. In addition, the small
holder grew fodder for his house-cow.[21]
14.3.1
Seven-layer system
Ken Fern had the idea that for a successful temperate forest garden a wider range of edible shade tolerant plants
would need to be used. To this end, Fern created the organisation Plants for a Future (PFAF) which compiled a
plant database suitable for such a system. Fern used the
term woodland gardening, rather than forest gardening,
in his book Plants for a Future.[24][25]
The Movement for Compassionate Living (MCL) promote forest gardening and other types of vegan organic
gardening to meet societys needs for food and natural
resources. Kathleen Jannaway, the founder of MCL,
wrote a book outlining a sustainable vegan future called
Abundant Living in the Coming Age of the Tree in 1991.
In 2009, the MCL provided a grant of 1,000 to the
Bangor Forest Garden project in Gwynedd, North West
Wales.[26]
The seven layers of the forest garden
Robert Hart pioneered a system based on the observation

that the natural forest can be divided into distinct levels.
He used intercropping to develop an existing small orchard of apples and pears into an edible polyculture landscape consisting of the following layers:
1. Canopy layer consisting of the original mature fruit
trees.
In 2005, Dave Jacke and Eric Toensmeiers two-volume

book Edible Forest Gardens provided a deeply researched
reference focused on North American forest gardening
climates, habitats, and species. The book attempts to
ground forest gardening deeply in ecological science. The
Apios Institute wiki grew out of their work, and seeks to
document and share the experience of people around the
world working with the species in polycultures.
14.3.3 Permaculture
2. Low-tree layer of smaller nut and fruit trees on

Bill Mollison, who coined the term permaculture, visited
dwarng root stocks.
Robert Hart at his forest garden in Wenlock Edge in Oc3. Shrub layer of fruit bushes such as currants and tober 1990.[27] Harts seven-layer system has since been
berries.
adopted as a common permaculture design element.
4. Herbaceous layer of perennial vegetables and Numerous permaculturalists are proponents of forest garherbs.
dens, or food forests, such as Graham Bell, Patrick
74
Whiteeld, Dave Jacke, Eric Toensmeier and Geo Lawton. Bell started building his forest garden in 1991
and wrote the book The Permaculture Garden in 1995,
Whiteeld wrote the book How to Make a Forest Garden in 2002, Jacke and Toensmeier co-authored the two
volume book set Edible Forest Gardening in 2005, and
Lawton presented the lm Establishing a Food Forest in
2008.[28][29][30]
Forest farming
Austrian Sepp Holzer practices "Holzer Permaculture" on

his Krameterhof farm, at varying altitudes ranging from
1,100 to 1,500 metres above sea level. His designs create
micro-climates with rocks, ponds and living wind barriers, enabling the cultivation of a variety of fruit trees, vegetables and owers in a region that averages 4C, and with
temperatures as low as 20C in the winter.
Nutrient cycle
14.4 Projects
El Pilar on the Belize-Guatemala border features a forest garden to demonstrate traditional Maya agricultural
practices.[31][32] A further 1-acre model forest garden,
called Knan Kaax (meaning well-tended garden in
Mayan), is being funded by the National Geographic Society and developed at Santa Familia Primary School in
Cayo.[33]
In the United States the largest known food forest on public land is believed to be the 7-acre Beacon Food Forest
in Seattle, WA.[34] Other forest garden projects include
those at the Central Rocky Mountain Permaculture Institute in Basalt, Colorado and Montview Neighborhood
farm in Northampton, Massachusetts.[35][36]
In Canada food forester Richard Walker has been developing and maintaining food forests in the province of
British Columbia for over 30 years. He developed a 3acre food forest that when at maturity provided raw materials for a nursery and herbalism business as well as food
for his family.[37] The Living Centre have developed various forest garden projects in Ontario.[38]
In the United Kingdom, other than those run by the Agroforestry Research Trust (ART), there are numerous forest garden projects such as the Bangor Forest Garden
in Gwynedd, North West Wales.[39] Martin Crawford
from ART administers the Forest Garden Network, an
informal network of people and organisations around the
world who are cultivating their own forest gardens.[40][41]
14.5 See also

Agroecology
Analog forestry
Deep ecology
List of companion plants

Mycoforestry
Multiple cropping
Natural farming
Orchard
Permaculture
Polyculture
Vegan organic gardening
14.6 Notes
[1] Crawford, Martin (2010).
Green Books. p. 18.
Creating a Forest Garden.
[2] Hart, Robert A. de J. (1996a), p.124: Forest gardening,

in the sense of nding uses for and attempting to control
the growth of wild plants, is undoubtedly the oldest form
of land use in the world.
[3] Douglas John McConnell (2003). The Forest Farms of
Kandy: And Other Gardens of Complete Design, p.1, Forest garden farms are probably the worlds oldest and most
resilient agroecosystem.
[4] Douglas John McConnell (1992). The Forest-Garden
Farms of Kandy, Sri Lanka. p. 1. ISBN 9789251028988.
[5] Jacob, V. J.; Alles, W. S. (1987). Kandyan gardens of Sri Lanka. Agroforestry Systems 5 (2): 123.
doi:10.1007/BF00047517.
[6] timeshighereducation.co.uk
[7] Douglas John McConnell (1973). The economic structure
of Kandyan forest-garden farms.
[8] Graham Bell (2004). The Permaculture Garden, p.129,
The Forest Garden...This is the original garden of Eden.
It could be your garden too.
Also see Rob Hopkins (foreword), Martin Crawford (2010). Creating a Forest Garden: Working
with Nature to Grow Edible Crops, p.10 Perhaps
what Hart created was the closest to what we imagine the Garden of Eden as being.
Helmut Lieth (1989). Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems: Biogeographical and Ecological Studies, p.611
Important food plants, such as sago-producing
palms, fruit-producing trees and medicinal plants
were purposefully aggregated and tended in convenient places. Eventually, the forest garden, a kind
of Garden of Eden, emerged. These jungle gardens
on good soils of easy access required little maintenance and hardly any hard work.
14.7. REFERENCES
Dave Jacke and Eric Toensmeier (2005). Edible
Forest Gardens - Volume One, p.1
Robert Hart (1996a), p.80
Deborha d'Arms (2011). Jardin D'Or: A Treatise
on Forest Gardening, Recreating Sustainable Gardens of Eden
[9] Unnatural Histories - Amazon. BBC Four.
75
[31] Ford, Anabel (May 2, 2009). El Pilar Archaeological Reserve for Maya Flora and Fauna. The Guatemala
Times. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
[32] Ford, Anabel (December 15, 2010). Legacy of the Ancient Maya: The Maya Forest Garden. Popular Archaeology.
[33] National Geographic Society Funds Mayan Garden.
[10] Simon Romero (January 14, 2012). Once Hidden by

Forest, Carvings in Land Attest to Amazons Lost World.
The New York Times.
[34] Mellinger, Robert (16 February 2012). Nations Largest

Food Forest takes root on Beacon Hill. Crosscut. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
[11] Martti Prssinen, Denise Schaan and Alceu Ranzi (2009).

Pre-Columbian geometric earthworks in the upper Purs:
a complex society in western Amazonia. Antiquity 83
(322): 10841095.
[35] The Central Rocky Mountain Permaculture Institute.

[36] Montview Neighborhood farm.
[37] Richard Walker.
[12] Michael Ernest Smith and Marilyn A. Masson (2000).

The Ancient Civilizations of Mesoamerica. p. 127. ISBN
9780631211167.
[38] Forest Gardening.
[13] David L. Lentz, ed. (2000). Imperfect Balance: Landscape Transformations in the Precolumbian Americas. p.
212. ISBN 9780231111577.
[40] The Agroforestry and Forest Garden Network.
[14] Killion, Thomas W., Gardens of Prehistory: The Archaeology of Settlement Agriculture in Greater Mesoamerica,
University of Alabama Press, 1992
[15] Heidelberg, Kurt, Ethnographic Analogy and Its Problems in the Northern Maya Lowlands. In Lifeways in the
Northern Maya Lowlands: New Approaches to Archaeology in the Yucatan Peninsula. Edited by Jennifer Mathews.
University of Arizona Press. 2006
[16] Graham Burnett. Seven Storeys of Abundance; A visit to
Robert Harts Forest Garden.
[17] Patrick Whiteeld (2002). How to Make a Forest Garden.
p. 5. ISBN 9781856230087.
[18] Hart, Robert A. de J. (1996a), p. 45
[19] Hart, Robert A. de J. (1996a), pages 28 and 43
[21] Hart, Robert A. de J. (1996a), pages 45
[22] Agroforestry Research Trust.
[23] Forest gardening. Agroforestry Research Trust. Retrieved 13 Feb 2013.
[24] Woodland Gardening.
[25] Plants for a Future - The book.
[26] Bangor Forest Garden. The Movement for Compassionate Living - New Leaves (issue no.93). 2009. pp. 68.
[28] Graham Bells Forest Garden.
[29] Edible Forest Gardening.
[30] "Establishing a Food Forest review.
[39] Bangor Forest Garden.
[41] Martin Crawford (2014). List of visitable forest garden

and agroforestry projects in the UK, Europe and North
America. Agroforestry Research Trust.
14.7 References
Crawford, Martin 2010. Creating a Forest Garden:
Working with Nature to Grow Edible Crops. Totnes:
Green Books. ISBN 1-900322-62-5.
d'Arms, Deborha 2011. Jardin dOr (Garden of
Gold): A Treatise on Forest Gardening, Recreating Sustainable Gardens of Eden. Los Gatos, CA:
Robertson Publishing. ISBN 978-1611700299.
Douglas, J. Sholto and Hart, Robert A. de J. 1985.
Forest Farming. Intermediate Technology. ISBN 0946688-30-3.
Fern, Ken 1997. Plants for a Future: Edible and
Useful Plants for a Healthier World. Hampshire:
Permanent Publications. ISBN 1-85623-011-2.
Hart, Robert A. de J. (1996a). Forest Gardening:
Cultivating an Edible Landscape. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green. ISBN 0-930031-84-9.
Hart, Robert A. de J. 1996b. Beyond the Forest Garden. Gaia Books. ISBN 1-85675-037-X.
Jacke, Dave, and Toensmeier, Eric 2005. Edible
Forest Gardens. Two volume set. Volume One:
Ecological Vision and Theory for Temperate Climate
Permaculture, ISBN 1-931498-79-2. Volume Two:
Ecological Design and Practice for Temperate Climate Permaculture, ISBN 1-931498-80-6. White
River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green.
76
Jannaway, Kathleen 1991. Abundant Living in the
Coming Age of the Tree. Movement for Compassionate Living. ISBN 0-9517328-0-3.
Smith, Joseph Russell 1988 (rst published in
1929). Tree Crops: A Permanent Agriculture. Island
Press. ISBN 0-933280-44-0
Whiteeld, P. 2002. How to Make a Forest Garden. Hampshire: Permanent Publications. ISBN 185623-008-2.
14.8 External links

Why Food Forests?, Permaculture Research Institute
Plant an Edible Forest Garden, Mother Earth News
The garden of the future?, The Guardian
Edible Forest Gardens: an Invitation to Adventure,
The Natural Farmer
Forest gardens, Permaculture Association
El Pilar Forest Garden Network, information on traditional Maya forest gardening
Chapter 15
Food desert
A food desert is a geographic area where aordable and
nutritious food is dicult to obtain, particularly for those
without access to an automobile.[1] Food deserts usually
exist in rural areas and low-income communities. Some
research links them to diet-related health problems in
aected populations.[2] Food deserts are sometimes associated with supermarket shortages and food security.
The relation between food deserts and obesity has been
disputed.[3]
15.1 Denitions
The term food desert is rst documented in a 1995
United Kingdom government report from a working
group in the Nutrition Task Force Low Income Project
Team of the Department of Health and was originally
dened as populated areas with little or no food retail
provision[4] or more specically areas of relative exclusion where people experience physical and economic barriers to accessing healthy foods.[5] British food deserts
can be broadly classied into twelve geographical types,
based on the interaction of socio-economic factors of
physical access to shops, nancial access (aordability
of) healthy food, and attitudes towards consumption of
healthy food, the desire to consume it rather than fast /
convenience food, possession of cooking skills, that is,
pyschological access. These twelve neighbourhood types
are, 1) Inner city executive at areas (too fast lifestyle to
cook healthily), 2) inner city ethnic minority areas (cost
of food vs low wages), 3) inner city deprived areas severed by main roads from retail areas (poor physical access), 4) declining suburban areas (shops closing, poor
physical access to supermarkets), 5) planned local authority housing areas (low income, and shops often lack fresh
produce), 6) student residence areas (preference for fast
food outlets, litle demand for fresh produce), 7) Wealthy
suburban areas, most shop by car, but some less mobile pensioners with no car. Areas 8 - 12 are rural food
deserts. 8) is small market town centres losing trade to
out-of-town supermarkets, leaving the car-less without
easy access, 9) market town suburbs, poor bus service to
centre perhaps 1 or 2 miles (2 - 3 kilometres) distant, 10),
smaller rural towns, lack full range of fresh produce, 11)
remoter villages, no shop, and under-served by mobile
shops, 12) dispersed settlements, no focal point for shop

(Shaw H, The Consuming Geographies of Food: Diet,
Food Deserts and Obesity, 2014, Routledge, 2014, pp.
132133), see also www.fooddeserts.org
In general, there is no specic agreed-upon denition for
the term.[6] An initial denition counts the type and quality of foods available for purchase and the neighborhood
residents being impoverished and unable to buy such
foods.[5][7][8] A second denition takes into account access, or the degree to which individuals live within close
proximity to a large supermarket or supercenter, which
oers consumers a wider array of food choices at relatively lower costs.[6] Such a denition weights the number, type and size of food stores available to residents.[8]
One study counted food deserts as urban areas with 10
or fewer (grocery) stores and no stores with more than
20 employees.[9] The existence of multiple denitions
which can even change by country and the uncertainty
over the exact measures by which a food desert can be
recognized have fueled controversy over the existence of
food deserts.[8]
Maps, showing the distribution of food deserts in the
United States can be found in Morton and Blanchards
2007 article.[6]
Despite dierences in terminology, most research in the
United States supports the hypothesis that on the neighborhood level, there are disparities in the retail food
environment.[10]
15.2 Origin and theories for development

Land-use policies that facilitate development of predominantly wealthy and white suburban neighborhoods
have altered the distribution of food stores. In the interest of protability, larger supermarkets have followed
this trend and are most prevalent in these white suburban
neighborhoods.[11] Prevalence of food deserts in poorer
neighborhoods is driven by lack of consumer demand, as
the poor have less money to spend on healthful, nutritious
food. From an economic standpoint, low demand does
not justify supply. Food retailers are also discouraged
77
78
from opening chains in low-income rural and urban communities because of crime rates, transportation costs and
low return of investment.[12] Furey et al. describes food
desert creation as arising where high competition from
large chain supermarkets has created a void.[13] As a result, the food supply within inner cities includes less variety, denying some urban residents the benets of healthful foods at aordable prices.[14] Remaining food retailers in inner-cities are gas stations, convenience stores, tobacco stores, drugstores, and liquor stores. A diet based
on foods from these locations consists primarily of processed foods high in calories, sugars, salt, fat, and articial ingredients.
15.3 Access to quality food

The main factor used to classify a community as a food
desert is distance from nutritional food retailers. There
is no standard for inadequate access or adequate access to foods. This can be a limited classication and
scientic limitation as individuals may live close to a retailer that provides nutritious food, but this food may be
more expensive, creating an additional barrier to access.
Access to food is calculated by distance of consumer residence to nearest supermarket or grocery store. Distance
is measured from centroid of an area (by zip code, census
tract, or block) to nearest supermarket or grocery store.
Standards of access and methods of measurement vary
among researchers to determine food deserts. Research
suggests food deserts exist if consumer residence is one to
ten miles away from the nearest supermarket. Other measurements include urban areas with 10 or fewer stores
with no more than 20 employers.[9] The USDAs Thrifty
Food Plan aims to standardize the methods of assessment
for the availability and price of foods in stores.
Residents of food desert areas have no alternative but to
utilize private cars, travel several miles on foot, or use
public transit to gain access to healthful food. Consumers
without cars are dependent on food sources in their closest proximity. Ownership and access to a vehicle may be
the best marker for access regardless of Socioeconomic
status. A study by Inagami reveals that the distance traveled to food stores is an independent predictor of BMI.[10]
The problem increases in rural food desert areas, where
closing the distance to nutritional food access is impossible on foot.
Researchers have determined that distance to food is also
psychological. The physical distance from fresh foods determine eating behaviors and preferences for palatable,
processed foods. To create a healthy relationship with
food, researchers recommend creating a direct connection between fresh produce and consumer. Examples
of this include urban farm programs and incorporating
healthful foods in schools.
According to a report to Congress prepared by the U.S.
CHAPTER 15. FOOD DESERT

Department of Agriculture, assessing the extent of limited access to aordable, nutritious food, approximately
2.4 million households in the United States are more
than a mile from a supermarket and lack access to a
vehicle.[15] The physical distance from full service supermarkets leaves residents of these areas to be more likely
to purchase food from convenience stores or corner shops
that stock mainly cheap, processed foods or foods high in
fats and sugars.[16]
15.4 Aordability
Research indicates that low-income households shop
where food prices are lower, and generally cannot afford healthful foods. Compared with residents of higherincome neighborhoods, low SES individuals generally
have diets higher in meat and processed foods with a
low intake of fruits and vegetables.[14] It has been suggested that people of low socioeconomic status ultimately
spend up to 37% more on their food purchases, due to
smaller weekly food budgets and poorly stocked grocery
stores.[11]
Fringe food retailers in food deserts can have a 30-60%
markup on prices, provide a limited selection of products and a dominant marketing of processed foods. Comparing prices that consumers pay for similar foods purchased at a dierent outlets determines disparities in real
food prices. Low-income individuals are more likely
to purchase inexpensive fats and sugars over fresh fruits
and vegetables that are more expensive on a per calorie basis.[2] Nutritious foods such as whole grain products and fresh fruits and vegetables are more expensive
than high calorie junk foods. Energy-dense [junk foods]
cost on average $1.76 per 1,000 calories, compared with
$18.16 per 1,000 calories for low-energy but nutritious
foods.
15.5 Rural food deserts

A rural food desert is generally classied as a county
where residents must drive more than 10 miles to the
nearest supermarket chain or supercenter, whereas an urban food desert is classied as having to drive more than a
mile. Using this denition, twenty percent of rural counties are considered food deserts.[17] Within these counties, there are approximately 2.4 million individuals determined to have low access to a large supermarket.[18][19]
This number may underestimate or overestimate those
truly at risk of food insecurity since it only takes into account the number of individuals 10 miles or more away
from the nearest supermarket. There may be individuals
that live closer, however if they dont have a vehicle or
public transportation, then even being just a mile away
can present access issues. Likewise there may be a large
portion of this population with easy access to a vehicle,
15.6. RACIAL, ETHNIC, AND SOCIOECONOMIC DISPARITIES
79
which regularly drives more than 10 miles to buy food. 75 and older is second only to (and virtually identical
This is an unfortunate data limitation in studies of rural with) the highest risk group of those ages 1525.[25]
food deserts.
A third concern is that elderly have higher nutrient needs
There is an increased risk of rural food deserts as mar- and are less able to tolerate the high sodium and sugar
ket pressures continue to negatively impact small grocers. content typically found in processed foods. As people
Smaller grocers in rural areas struggle to be protable for age, the degree of nutrient absorption in their digestive
many reasons, such as low sales volumes, which can cause tract declines. Also, elderly tend to have existing diseases
costs of goods to increase or make it dicult to purchase and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient ablarge volumes of perishable foods. This in turn creates sorption. There is evidence that elderly people living in
issues with meeting wholesale food suppliers minimum rural areas suer from inadequate nutrition intake due to
purchasing requirements.[15] Economies of scale, which low diet variety.[26] If an elderly individual does not have
is when the costs of operating a store decrease as store a reliable source and access to an adequate amount of
size increases, and economies of scope, which is when fruits and vegetables, as is the case in rural food deserts,
the costs decrease as more product variety increases, sug- their health is put in jeopardy and sets them up for future
gests that larger stores that oer greater variety can do so ailments.
and oer lower prices. Both factors may account for the Lastly, some seniors have time constraints that make it
ability of larger stores to survive more easily than smaller dicult to perform daily activities such as food shopping,
stores.[12] Small grocers tend to oer less variety and less especially when they are living with a sick spouse requirproduce as a result.
ing a lot of their time and care. And for those who have
The market pressures experienced by small grocers in ru- recently lost a spouse and are suering from depression,
ral areas also lend to groceries being more expensive in the desire to go to the store or cook for themselves can be
these areas than in urban areas. For example, in New greatly diminished, especially in the case of widows.[24]
Mexico the same basket of groceries cost $85 for rural
residents, and $55 for urban residents.[17] However, this
is not true of all rural areas. A study in Iowa showed
that four rural food desert counties had lower costs on key 15.6 Racial, ethnic, and socioecofoods that make up a nutritionally balanced diet than did
nomic disparities
the nearby larger supermarkets.[6] This suggests an area
in which further research is needed.
Health disparities related to food access and consumption
Barriers to food access for elderly living in rural food are associated with residential segregation, low incomes,
deserts
and neighborhood deprivation.
As of 2007, the elderly made up 7.5 million of the 50
million people living in rural America.[20] The U.S Census website includes maps showing the percentage of residents aged 65 and older.[21] Of these elderly citizens,
nearly a half million live in rural food deserts and are food
insecure, while many more may be at risk.[18][19]
In a study on urban food environments, participants described the lack of supermarkets as both a practical impediment to healthful food purchase and a symbol of
their neighborhoods social and economic struggles.[27]
Within cities, there are more than three times as many
supermarkets in wealthier neighborhoods compared with
[14]
There are many barriers to healthful, aordable food for poorer areas. Residents in low-income urban areas are
seelderly living in rural food deserts. First of all, most el- often forced to depend on small stores with limited
[11]
lections
of
foods
at
substantially
higher
prices.
derly live on a xed income. According to a study of rural seniors living in the Brazos Valley by Sharkey, et al., Research has found parallel trends between high rates
about 14% of respondents indicated that on a monthly ba- of obesity and individuals of low SES and non-white
sis household food supplies did not last, 13% could not af- ethnicity, particularly in the case of women. Research
ford to eat balanced meals, and 8.3% of respondents had by Morland et al., found that areas with a majority of
to cut the size of their meals or skip meals altogether.[22] convenience stores have a higher prevalence of overA second issue faced by seniors is that they struggle with weight and obese individuals, compared to areas with
limited mobility. This can mean anything from having only supermarkets.[11] Fast food restaurants are disprodiculty cooking and moving about their home, to not portionately placed in low-income and minority neighhaving a car or anyone nearby who could drive them to borhoods, and are often the closest and cheapest food
a store. Older persons and those with limited incomes options. People living in the poorest SES areas have
are more likely to be dependent on family, friends, neigh- 2.5 times the exposure to fast-food restaurants as those
bors and others for transportation to purchase food.[23] living in the wealthiest areas.[14] The lack of adequate
Older women are more likely than men to stop driving food sources and limited transportation available to lowat younger ages or to have never driven, and minority income communities are contributing factors to malnuwomen are even less likely to drive.[24] Additionally, the trition among those living in low SES neighborhoods.[11]
death rate from motor vehicle accidents among those ages
Research has documented inequalities of access to su-
80
permarkets in urban city areas, and found a dierence
in access to supermarkets in poor vs non-poor areas. A
study by Baker et al., found that mixed-race areas were
signicantly less likely to have access to foods that adhere to a healthful diet compared to predominantly white,
high income areas.[10] Research by Mari Gallagher has
found that African Americans are farther from healthful foods than other racial groups.[28][29][30] The availability of supermarkets in African American neighborhoods
is 52% of their prevalence in white neighborhoods.[31]
Moreover, Morlands study of food-frequency data in the
Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study revealed that dominantly white populations had ve times
more supermarkets than neighborhoods with a dominantly non-white population. African Americans who
lived in the same census tract with access to a supermarket were more likely to meet dietary guidelines for fruit
and vegetable consumption. For each additional supermarket, an increase of 32% in fruit and vegetable intake
was found.[32]
A 2010 study by Michael Correll published by the Duke
Journal of Gender Law & Policy entitled Getting Fat
on Government Cheese: The Connection Between Social Welfare Participation, Gender and Obesity in America, analyzed data from the Centers for Disease Control and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to assess the health outcomes of women participating in the government Food Stamps and Temporary Aid
to Needy Families programs. The study primarily examines and critiques the structure of current social welfare
policies, but it also notes: 1) Many of the participants in
the food stamps program live in food deserts. Some
25% of food stamps participants do not have easy access
to a supermarket; and 2) Under welfare-to-work reforms
enacted in 1996, an adult recipient must have 30 hours
a week of work activity to receive these benets. Because many women are single with children and thus have
limited time, this work obligation may limit their ability
to travel to nd nutritious foods, prepare healthful meals
for themselves and their families, and exercise.[33]
Prevalence of obesity is generally higher in rural areas as
compared to urban areas. Socioeconomic factors inhibit
access to private cars as well as limited reliable public
transportation.
15.7 Research
Initial research on food deserts explored the impact of
retail ight from the urban core.[10] More recent studies
have explored the impact of food deserts in other geographic areas (e.g., rural and frontier), as well as among
specic populations, such as minorities and elderly people. Studies of urban and rural food environments reveal signicant potential for evidence-based interventions
and policies to combat the growing obesity epidemic, and
to decrease some health disparities. Multilevel, mixed

methods studies oer the potential to provide a more
complete picture of the direct and perceived environmental inuences on healthy behaviors.[10]
A 2011 study published in the Archives of Internal
Medicine, Fast Food Restaurants and Food Stores, used
15 years of data on more than 5,000 young adults 1830
years old in a variety of places around the United States.
The studys ndings include: 1) Higher levels of fast
food consumption were strongly correlated to fast food
availability, particularly among low-income men with fast
food restaurants within 1.00 to 2.99 km of their homes. A
1% increase in fast food availability within 1 km and 3 km
of the home was associated with a 0.13% and 0.34% increase in fast food consumption, respectively; 2) Greater
proximity to supermarkets was not correlated in any consistent fashion with diet outcomes, nor was it associated
with fruit and vegetable intake levels; 3) There were no
consistent or strong correlations between neighborhood
fast food availability and individual consumption of fast
food for women of any income level; 4) On average, men
of all income levels consumed fast food 2.1 times a week,
while their female counterparts consumed such food only
1.6 times. The studys authors conclude that by promoting greater access to supermarkets, several U.S. policies aim to improve diets through provision of aordable
healthful foods, particularly fresh produce in underserved
areas. Our ndings do not support this initiative in young
to middle-aged adults. Rather, they suggest that adding
neighborhood supermarkets may have little benet to diet
quality across the income spectrum and that alternative
policy options such as targeting specic foods or shifting
food costs (subsidization or taxation) should be further
considered.[34]
A 2009 study of rural food deserts found a number
of key dierences in overall health, access to food,
and the social environment when compared with urban
environments.[35] In terms of health, rural residents report overall poorer health and more physical limitations,
with 12% of them rating their health as fair or poor,
compared to 9% of urban residents[35] Communities that
are smaller and isolated from urban inuences have decreased access to the broader global market and consequently have fewer choices in food retailers. Lack of
competition in the community not only restricts access
to food resources, but can also result in higher food costs.
Respondents in this study felt that food quality and variety
in their area were poor at times. The authors also found
that although personal factors impact eating behavior for
rural people, it is the physical and social environments
that place constraints on food access, even in civically engaged communities.
But the study of food deserts requires further research, including longitudinal studies of food environments, to support associations with obesity and to support neighborhood interventions. Longitudinal studies permit temporal associations between exposure to nutritious food and
obesity.[10] They also provide historical data on grocery
15.8. BARRIERS AND PROPOSED SOLUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES
81
store location, nutritional environments, and data associ- of land that is shared with other community members.
ated with life-course exposure to food.[10]
Community garden programs successfully increased acFuture research is required to overcome the barriers fac- cess to aordable, nutritious food in rural, suburban and
community and
ing residents of food deserts, including retail trends and urban areas. They also help strengthen
[40]
social
support
for
participants.
location of supermarkets, in order that food retailers and
city planners may develop multilevel interventions to address barriers to health at the individual and environmental level. Studies that examine geographic dierences in
the access and availability of food, as well as nutritional
quality of food, provide information for public health to
explain disparities.
The USDA released an extensive report to Congress in

2009 as a request to reform the Food, Conservation,
and Energy Act of 2008. The study outlines a list of
recommendations for addressing access issues in food
deserts that include the above options, but also includes
transportation reform as a solution.[15] Transportation is
a signicant barrier in rural food deserts (rural realities). Evaluating current transportation in these communities and developing community-specic solutions can
target populations limited by current transportation options (rural realities). According to Morton and Blanchard, there is a need to address the added complications of individuals living in these isolated communities. Proposed solutions include utilizing a combination
of public and private resources. Current transit assistance
and meal-provisioning programs that are already established in many communities, such Meals on Wheels, have
initiatives that focus on providing food residents with
limited mobility and ability to shop at traditional food
retailers.[41]
Other recent studies have shown some correlations between food availability and health, including a 2010
study that correlated distance from supermarkets with
increases in body mass index.[36] Among elderly people in particular, malnutrition caused by inadequate access to food can lead to other health risks. For those
suering from weight loss and undernutrition, risks include increased and longer hospitalizations, early admission to long term care facilities, and overall increased
morbidity and mortality.[37] Nutritional disorders with
co-morbidities are the ninth most frequent diagnostic category among hospitalized rural elderly Medicare beneciaries. Elderly adults struggling with obesity and overnutrition related to limited food choices are at risk of exacerbating existing chronic conditions, such as heart disease In early 2010 the Obama administration unveiled the
and diabetes, and increased functional decline.[37][38]
Healthy Food Financing Initiative (HFFI) that will promote a range of interventions that expand access to nutritious foods, including developing and equipping grocery stores and other small businesses and retailers selling
15.8 Barriers and proposed solu- healthful food in communities that currently lack these
options. The initiative provided more than $400 million
tions in the United States
in funding intended to bring grocery stores and healthful food retailers to low-income rural and urban commuAccess is not the only determinant to healthful eating. nities. This eort is in concert with Michelle Obamas
There are many environmental determinants that predict Lets Move campaign to counter childhood obesity.
a positive outcome in healthful eating for residents of cur- The initiative receives funding from the Treasury Derent food desert areas, such as transportation, culture, so- partment, Department of Agriculture and Department of
cial capital, and food price. A criticism of current re- Health and Human Services.[42]
search on food access and obesity assumes a simplisSeveral states and cities within the United States are
tic deprivation eect associated with poor-quality food
also implementing comprehensive programs that involve
environments.[10]
public-private partnership and a combination of nancAudit research suggests that supermarkets are the most ing initiatives and community-level interventions.[15] The
eective way to supply communities with a wide selection Pennsylvania Fresh Food Financing Intitative, for examof fresh and relatively aordable healthful food. More- ple is a public-private partnership aimed at encouragover, supermarkets typically are open year-round, pro- ing the development of new supermarkets by providing
vide convenient hours of operation, and generally accept grants of up to $250,000 or loans of up to $2.5 million
Electronic Benet Transfer (EBT).[39] As a result, many per store to defray the infrastructure costs of developing
programs focus on increasing incentives for supermarkets a new store. So far, $41.8 million in grants and loans have
to operate in these underserved areas. Some incentives funded 58 stores.[15]
include property or sales tax breaks. Community-level
The New York City FRESH program (Food Retail Exinterventions that focus on getting healthful food to lowpansion Health) is one of the most comprehensive atincome areas through farmers markets, mobile carts or
tempts to increase access to full-service grocery stores
community gardens.[15]
in underserved areas. They oer an abatement of land
One community intervention that increases food access or building taxes for a period of 25 years and a sales tax
is the community garden. Community gardens enable in- exemption on building materials.[31]
dividuals to grow their own food on a designated area
82
Community-level interventions are useful in that they are
less expensive and easier to implement than programs
that encourage the creation of new stores. They require
less space, promote local farmers and increase community and social capital.
Citizens of a rural community in North Carolina collaborated to develop and implement a solution to the problem of access to food in Bertie County, the poorest in
the state.[43] Community members, in conjunction with a
class at the public high school, designed and constructed
a pavilion to serve as the home for a local farmers market. This is one example of committed civic engagement,
which can be a strong determinant in the successful development of community-specic solutions and improved
access to food. Community involvement and the incorporation of local organizations and volunteerism can improve the eectiveness of food safety nets and alternative
solutions such as community gardens.[35]
[4] Cummins S, Macintyre S (1999).

The location
of food stores in urban areas: a case study in
Glasgow. British Food Journal 101 (7): 54553.
doi:10.1108/00070709910279027.
[5] Reising Vmt, Hobbiss A (June 2000). Food deserts
and how to tackle them: a study of one citys approach. Health Education Journal 59 (2): 13749.
doi:10.1177/001789690005900203.
[6] Morton L, Blanchard T (2007). Starved for access: life
in rural Americas food deserts. Rural Realities (Rural
Sociological Society) 1 (4): 110.
[7] Cummins, Steven; MacIntyre, S (2002).
"'Food
desertsevidence
and
assumption
in
health
BMJ 325 (7361):
4368.
policy making.
doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7361.436.
PMC 1123946.
PMID 12193363.
[8] Walker RE, Keane CR, Burke JG (September
However, farmers markets can be costly for low-income

2010).
Disparities and access to healthy food
in the United States: A review of food deserts
individuals living in these communities.[31] The City of
literature.
Health & Place 16 (5):
87684.
New York has implemented several community-level inidoi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013.
PMID
tiatives such as increasing the number farmers markets in
20462784.
underserved areas and increasing their use by residents
through the Health Bucks program. This program oers [9] Hendrickson D, Smith C, Eikenberry N (October
$2 coupons purchasing fresh fruits and vegetables at par2006). Fruit and vegetable access in four low-income
ticipating farmers markets. This program was intended to
food deserts communities in Minnesota.
Agriculreduce barriers to access based on aordability. Through
ture and Human Values (Springer) 23 (3): 37183.
this program, EBT sales at farmers markets more than
doi:10.1007/s10460-006-9002-8.
doubled from $40,000 in 2007 to over $89,000 in 2008.
The program is being expanded into upstate New York as [10] Ford, Paula B.; David A. Dzewaltowski. et al. (2008).
Disparities in Obesity Prevalence Due to Variation in the
the Fresh Bucks program.[44]
Retail Food Environment: Three Testable Hypotheses.
Another proposed solution involves increased local food

Nutrition Reviews 66 (4): 21628. doi:10.1111/j.1753production and distribution in urban centers. The New
4887.2008.00026.x. PMID 18366535.
York City Regional Foodshed is an initiative examining
the local food production capacity of the New York City [11] Morland, K.; Wing, S.; Diez Roux, A.; Poole, C. (2002).
Neighborhood characteristics associated with the locaMetropolitan Region.[45]
tion of food stores and food service places. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 22 (1): 2329.
doi:10.1016/s0749-3797(01)00403-2. PMID 11777675.
15.9 See also

Food desert in West Oakland, California
15.10 References
[1] USDA Denes Food Deserts | American Nutrition Association
[2] Story, Mary; Kaphingst, Karen M.; Robinson-O'Brien,
Ramona; Glanz, Karen (2008). Creating Healthy Food
and Eating Environments: Policy and Environmental Approaches. Annual Review of Public Health 29: 253
72. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090926.
PMID 18031223.
[12] Haider, Steven J.; Bitler, Marianne (March 2009). An

Economic View of Food Deserts in the United States.
Understanding the Economic Concepts and Characteristics of Food Access. National Poverty Center.
[13] Furey, Sinead; Strugnell, Christopher; McIlveen, Heather
(2001). An Investigation of the Potential Existence of
'Food Deserts in Rural and Urban Areas of Northern Ireland. Agriculture and Human Values 18 (4): 447457.
[14] Ming-Chen Yeh and David L. Katz. Food, Nutrition, and
the Health of Urban Populations. In Cities and the Health
of the Public (Nicholas Freudenberg, Sandro Galea, and
David Vlahov, eds.). Vanderbilt University Press (2006),
pp. 106-127. ISBN 0-8265-1512-6.
[15]
[3] http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/18/health/research/
pairing-of-food-deserts-and-obesity-challenged-in-studies.
html
Ver Ploeg, Michele (June 2009). Access to Aordable

and Nutritious FoodMeasuring and Understanding Food
Deserts and Their Consequences: Report to Congress.
USDA. ISBN 978-1-4379-2134-2.
15.10. REFERENCES
[16] Bauer, K. W. (2004, January 201).

Price
and Availability Matter.
From The New York
Times:
http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/
2011/01/23/can-wal-mart-make-us-healthier/
access-to-healthy-foods-and-lower-prices-matter
83
[29] Examining the Impact of Food Deserts on Public Health

in Detroit, Mari Gallagher Research & Consulting Group,
2007. Retrieved from http://www.marigallagher.com/
projects/4/
[30] Women and Children Last (In the Food Desert), Mari Gallagher Research & Consulting Group, 2007
[17] Policy Link and The Food Trust (2010). The grocery
gap: who has access to health food and why it mat[31] Leone, Angela F.; Rigby, Samantha; Betterley, Connie;
ters. Retrieved from: http://www.policylink.org/atf/cf/
Park, Sohyun; Kurtz, Hilda; Johnson, Mary Ann; Lee,
%7B97C6D565-BB43-406D-A6D5-ECA3BBF35AF0%
Jung Sun (2011). Store Type and Demographic Inu7D/FINALGroceryGap.pdf
ence on the Availability and Price of Healthful Foods,
Leon County, Florida, 2008. Preventing Chronic Disease
[18] United States Department of Agriculture-Economic Re8
(6): A140. PMC 3221579. PMID 22005633.
search Service. Food desert locator. Available at: http:
//www.ers.usda.gov/data/fooddesert/index.htm.
[19] United States Department of Agriculture-Economic Research Service. Rural income, poverty, and welfare report. Available at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/
IncomePovertyWelfare/.
[20] Rural Assistance Center. (2011). Aging.
[21] CensusScope. (2011). [Map illustration of percentage of
Americans 65+]. Demographic Maps: An Aging Population. Retrieved from http://www.censusscope.org/us/
map_65plus.html
[22] Sharkey, Joseph R; Johnson, Cassandra M; Dean, Wesley
R (2010). Food Access and Perceptions of the Community and Household Food Environment as Correlates of
Fruit and Vegetable Intake among Rural Seniors. BMC
Geriatrics 10: 32. doi:10.1186/1471-2318-10-32. PMC
2892496. PMID 20525208.
[23] Bitto, Ella Annette; Morton, Lois Wright; Oakland,
Mary Jan; Sand, Mary (2003).
Grocery Store
Access Patterns In Rural Food Deserts.
Journal
for the Study of Food and Society 6 (2): 3548.
doi:10.2752/152897903786769616.
[24] Quandt, SA; McDonald, J; Arcury, TA; Bell, RA; Vitolins, MZ (2000). Nutritional self-management of elderly widows in rural communities. The Gerontologist 40 (1): 8696. doi:10.1093/geront/40.1.86. PMID
10750316.
[25] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2009).
Motor VehicleRelated Death RatesUnited States,
1999-2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 58
(7): 1615. PMID 19247261.
[26] Marshall, Teresa A., et al. Inadequate nutrient intakes
are common and are associated with low diet variety in
rural, community-dwelling elderly. The Journal of nutrition 131.8 (2001): 2192-2196.
[27] Cannuscio, Carolyn C., Eve E. Weiss, and David A. Asch.
The contribution of urban foodways to health disparities. Journal of Urban Health 87.3 (2010): 381-393.
[28] Examining the Impact of Food Deserts on Public Health
in Chicago, Mari Gallagher Research & Consulting
Group, 2006. Retrieved from http://www.marigallagher.
com/projects/4/
[32] Morland, K.; Diez Roux, A. V.; Wing, S. (2006).

Supermarkets, other food stores, and obesity: The
atherosclerosis risk in communities study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 30 (4): 333339.
doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2005.11.003.
[33] Correll, Michael (2010). Getting Fat on Government
Cheese: The Connection Between Social Welfare Participation, Gender, and Obesity in America. Duke Journal
of Gender Law & Policy 18: 4577.
[34] Fast Food Restaurants and Food Stores. Journalists Resource.org.
[35] Smith, Chery; Morton, Lois W. (2009).
Rural
Food Deserts: Low-income Perspectives on Food
Access in Minnesota and Iowa.
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 41 (3): 17687.
doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2008.06.008. PMID 19411051.
[36] Review: Research on Availability of Healthy Food in
Food Deserts. Web-based document at DataHaven with
summary of numerous recent studies on food desert impacts on health.. DataHaven. 2011-01-31. Retrieved
2011-02-01.
[37] Martin, Carolyn Thompson; Kayser-Jones, Jeanie; Stotts,
Nancy; Porter, Carol; Froelicher, Erika Sivarajan (2006).
Nutritional Risk and Low Weight in Community-Living
Older Adults: A Review of the Literature (19952005)".
The Journals of Gerontology: Series A 61 (9): 92734.
doi:10.1093/gerona/61.9.927. PMID 16960023.
[38] Jensen, Gordon L.; Friedmann, Janet M. (2002). Obesity Is Associated with Functional Decline in CommunityDwelling Rural Older Persons. Journal of the American
Geriatrics Society 50 (5): 91823. doi:10.1046/j.15325415.2002.50220.x. PMID 12028181.
[39] Neckerman, K. M., Bader, M., Purciel, M., & Yousefzadeh, P. (2009). Measuring Food Access in Urban Areas. Built Environment and Health . Neighborhood Revitalization. (2011). Retrieved 3 10, 2011, from The
District of Columbia: http://dmped.dc.gov/DC/DMPED/
Programs+and+Initiatives/Neighborhood+Revitalization
[40] Hale, James; Knapp, Corrine; Bardwell, Lisa; Buchenau,
Michael; Marshall, Julie; Sancar, Fahriye; Litt, Jill
S. (2011). Connecting food environments and health
through the relational nature of aesthetics: Gaining insight through the community gardening experience. Social Science & Medicine 72 (11): 185363.
84
doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.044. PMC 3114166.

PMID 21596466.
[41] Meals on Wheels Association of America. (2011). The
rural initiative. Retrieved from http://www.mowaa.org/
page.aspx?pid=244.
[42] http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2010pres/02/
20100219a.html
[43] Schwartz, A. (2011).
High school students build
a farmers market in a food desert.
Co-exist.
Available at:
http://www.fastcoexist.com/1678622/
high-school-students-build-a-farmers-market-in-a-food-desert
[44] Michele Ver Ploeg (2010). Access to Aordable and Nutritious Food: Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts
and Their Consequences: Report to Congress. DIANE
Publishing. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4379-2134-2. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public
domain.
[45] http://www.urbandesignlab.columbia.edu/?pid=nyc_
foodshed

Annotated bibliography of literature on food environments
Chapter 16
Polyculture
Holistic management
Polyculture is agriculture using multiple crops in the

same space, in imitation of the diversity of natural
ecosystems, and avoiding large stands of single crops, or
monoculture. It includes multi-cropping, intercropping,
companion planting, benecial weeds, and alley cropping.
It is the raising at the same time and place of more than
one species of plant or animal.
16.1 Details
Home gardens
Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture
Monoculture
Nurse crop
16.3 References
Polyculture, though it often requires more labor, has several advantages over monoculture:
The diversity of crops avoids the susceptibility of
monocultures to disease. For example, a study in
China reported in Nature showed that planting several varieties of rice in the same eld increased
yields by 89%, largely because of a dramatic (94%)
decrease in the incidence of disease, which made
pesticides redundant.[1]
[1] (August 17, 2000.) Genetic Diversity and Disease Control

in Rice Nature 406, 718 - 722.
16.4 External links
The greater variety of crops provides habitat for

more species, increasing local biodiversity. This is
one example of reconciliation ecology, or accommodating biodiversity within human landscapes. It
is also a function of a biological pest control program.
Polyculture is one of the principles of permaculture.
16.2 See also

Agroecology
Aquaponics
Benecial weeds
Companion planting
Forest gardening
Heirloom plant
85
Crop rotation and polyculture

Polycultures in the Brazilian drylands
Polyculture and disease prevention
PolyCultures: Food Where We Live
Integrated Polyculture Farming System
Chapter 17
Urban forest
See also: Urban forestry
ter, and shading homes and businesses to conserve enAn urban forest is a forest or a collection of trees ergy. They are critical in cooling the urban heat island
eect, thus potentially reducing the number of unhealthful ozone days that plague major cities in peak summer
months.
In many countries there is a growing understanding of the
importance of the natural ecology in urban forests. There
are numerous projects underway aimed at restoration and
preservation of ecosystems, ranging from simple elimination of leaf-raking and elimination of invasive plants to
full-blown reintroduction of original species and riparian
ecosystems.
A skyscraper surrounded by trees in Atlanta, which is known as

the city in a forest and possesses the highest percentage of tree
coverage of any major United States city
In Adelaide, South Australia(a city of 1.3 million), Premier Mike Rann (2002 to 2011) launched a major urban forest initiative in 2003 to plant 3 million native trees
and shrubs by 2014 on 300 project sites across the metro
area. The projects range from large habitat restoration
projects to small amenity gardens and local biodiversity
projects. Thousands of Adelaide citizens have participated on well publicised community planting days. Sites
include parks, reserves, transport corridors, schools, water courses, coastline council land and other public open
space. Only indigenous trees and shrubs native to the particular local area are planted to ensure genetic integrity.
Premier Rann said the project aimed to beautify and cool
the city and make it more liveable; improve air and water quality and reduce Adelaides greenhouse gas emissions by 600,000 tonnes of C02 a year. He said it was
also about creating and conserving habitat for precious
wildlife and preventing species loss.[1]
The largest man-made urban forest in the world is located
in Johannesburg, the capital of the Gauteng province in
South Africa.[2][3][4]
that grow within a city, town or a suburb. In a wider

sense it may include any kind of woody plant vegetation growing in and around human settlements. In a narrower sense (also called forest park) it describes areas 17.1 Benets
whose ecosystems are inherited from wilderness leftovers
or remnants. Care and management of urban forests is The benets of urban trees and shrubs are many, incalled urban forestry.
cluding beautication, reduction of the urban heat island
Urban forests play an important role in ecology of human eect, reduction of stormwater runo, reduction of air
habitats in many ways: they lter air, water, sunlight, pro- pollution, reduction of energy costs through increased
vide shelter to animals and recreational area for people. shade over buildings, enhancement of property values,
They moderate local climate, slowing wind and stormwa- improved wildlife habitat, and mitigation of overall ur86
17.1. BENEFITS
87
The USDA Guide[7] notes on page 17 that Businesses
ourish, people linger and shop longer, apartments and
oce space rent quicker, tenants stay longer, property
values increase, new business and industry is attracted by
trees. The physical eects of treesthe shade (solar regulation), humidity control, wind control, erosion control,
evaporative cooling, sound and visual screening, trac
control, pollution absorption and precipitationall have
economic benets.
17.1.3 Air pollution reduction
Forest has grown around abandoned rail line in city of Yonkers
ban environmental impact.[5]
17.1.1
Social, psychological, recreational,

wildlife
As cities struggle to comply with air quality standards,

the ways that trees can help to clean the air should not be
overlooked. The most serious pollutants in the urban atmosphere are ozone, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfuric oxides (SOx) and particulate pollution. Ground-level ozone,
or smog, is created by chemical reactions between NOx
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence
of sunlight. High temperatures increase the rate of this
reaction. Vehicle emissions (especially diesel), and emissions from industrial facilities are the major sources of
NOx. Vehicle emissions, industrial emissions, gasoline
vapors, chemical solvents, trees and other plants are the
major sources of VOCs. Particulate pollution, or particulate matter (PM10 and PM25), is made up of microscopic solids or liquid droplets that can be inhaled and
retained in lung tissue causing serious health problems.
Most particulate pollution begins as smoke or diesel soot
and can cause serious health risk to people with heart and
lung diseases and irritation to healthy citizens. Trees are
an important, cost-eective solution to reducing pollution
and improving air quality.
The presence of trees reduces stress, and trees have long

been seen to benet the health of urban dwellers.[6] The
shade of trees and other urban green spaces make place
for people to meet and socialize and play. The Biophilia
hypothesis argues that people are instinctively drawn
to nature, while Attention Restoration Theory goes on
to demonstrate tangible improvements in medical, academic and other outcomes, from access to nature. Proper Trees reduce temperatures and smog
planning and community involvement are important for
With an extensive and healthy urban forest air quality can
the positive results to be realized.
be drastically improved. Trees help to lower air temperaTrees and shrubs provide nesting sites and food for birds
tures and the urban heat island eect in urban areas (see:
and other animals. People appreciate watching, feeding,
'Trees are energy savers for more information on this prophotographing, and painting urban wildlife and the encess). This reduction of temperature not only lowers environment they live in. Urban trees, shrubs and wildlife
ergy use, it also improves air quality, as the formation of
help people maintain their connection with nature.
ozone is dependent on temperature.
17.1.2
Economic benets
The economic benets of trees and various other plants

have been understood for a long time. Recently, more of
these benets are becoming quantied. Quantication of
the economic benets of trees helps justify public and private expenditures to maintain them. One of the most obvious examples of economic utility is the example of the
deciduous tree planted on the south and west of a building
(in the Northern Hemisphere), or north and east (in the
Southern Hemisphere). The shade shelters and cools the
building during the summer, but allows the sun to warm
it in the winter after the leaves fall.
As temperatures climb, the formation of ozone increases.

Healthy urban forests decrease temperatures, and
reduce the formation of ozone.
Large shade trees can reduce local ambient temperatures by 3 to 5 C
Maximum mid-day temperature reductions due to
trees range from 0.04 C to 0.2 C per 1% canopy
cover increase.
In Sacramento County, California, it was estimated
that doubling the canopy cover to ve million trees
88
CHAPTER 17. URBAN FOREST
would reduce summer temperatures by 3 degrees. Carbon sequestration

This reduction in temperature would reduce peak
ozone levels by as much as 7% and smoggy days by Urban forest managers are sometimes interested in the
50%.
amount of carbon removed from the air and stored in their
forest as wood in relation to the amount of carbon dioxide
Lower temperatures reduce emissions in parking lots released into the atmosphere while running tree maintenance equipment powered by fossil fuels.
Temperature reduction from shade trees in parking lots
lowers the amount of evaporative emissions from parked
cars. Unshaded parking lots can be viewed as miniature
heat islands, where temperatures can be even higher than
surrounding areas. Tree canopies will reduce air temperatures signicantly. Although the bulk of hydrocarbon emissions come from tailpipe exhaust, 16% of hydrocarbon emissions are from evaporative emissions that
occur when the fuel delivery systems of parked vehicles
are heated. These evaporative emissions and the exhaust
emissions of the rst few minutes of engine operation are
sensitive to local microclimate. If cars are shaded in parking lots, evaporative emissions from fuel and volatilized
plastics will be greatly reduced.
Cars parked in parking lots with 50% canopy cover
emit 8% less through evaporative emissions than
cars parked in parking lots with only 8% canopy
cover.
Due to the positive eects trees have on reducing
temperatures and evaporative emissions in parking
lots, cities like Davis, California, have established
parking lot ordinances that mandate 50% canopy
cover over paved areas.
Cold Start emissions
Interception of particulate matter

In addition to the uptake of harmful gases, trees also act
as lters intercepting airborne particles and reducing the
amount of harmful particulate matter. The particles are
captured by the surface area of the tree and its foliage.
These particles temporarily rest on the surface of the tree,
as they can be washed o by rainwater, blown o by high
winds, or fall to the ground with a dropped leaf. Although
trees are only a temporary host to particulate matter, if
they did not exist, the temporarily housed particulate matter would remain airborne and harmful to humans. Increased tree cover will increase the amount of particulate
matter intercepted from the air.
Large evergreen trees with dense foliage collect the
most particulate matter.
The Chicago study determined that trees removed
approximately 234 tonnes of particulate matter less
than 10 micrometres (PM10) in 1991.
Large healthy trees greater than 75 cm in trunk diameter remove approximately 70 times more air
pollution annually (1.4 kg/yr) than small healthy
trees less than 10 cm in diameter (0.02 kg/yr).
The volatile components of asphalt pavement evaporate

more slowly in shaded parking lots and streets. The shade 17.2 Biogenic volatile organic comnot only reduces emissions, but reduces shrinking and
pounds
cracking so that maintenance intervals can be lengthened.
Less maintenance means less hot asphalt (fumes) and less
heavy equipment (exhaust). The same principle applies to One important thing to consider when assessing the urban forests eect on air quality is that trees emit some
asphalt-based roong.
biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs). These
are
the chemicals (primarily isoprene and monoterpenes)
Active pollutant removal
that make up the essential oils, resins, and other organic
Trees also reduce pollution by actively removing it from compounds that plants use to attract pollinators and repel
the atmosphere. Leaf stomata, the pores on the leaf sur- predators. As mentioned above, VOCs react with nitroface, take in polluting gases which are then absorbed by gen oxides (NOx) to form ozone. BVOCs account for
water inside the leaf. Some species of trees are more sus- less than 10% of the total amount of BVOCs emitted in
ceptible to the uptake of pollution, which can negatively urban areas. This means that BVOC emissions from trees
aect plant growth. Ideally, trees should be selected that can contribute to the formation of ozone. Although their
take in higher quantities of polluting gases and are resis- contribution may be small compared with other sources,
BVOC emissions could exacerbate a smog problem.
tant to the negative aects they can cause.
A study across the Chicago region determined that trees Not all species of trees, however, emit high quantities of
removed approximately 17 tonnes of carbon monoxide BVOCs. The tree species with the highest isoprene emis(CO), 93 tonnes of sulfur dioxide (SO2), 98 tonnes of sion rates should be planted with caution:
nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), and 210 tonnes of ozone (O3 ) in
1991.
Casuarina (Beefwood)
17.4. REFERENCES
Eucalyptus
Liquidambar (Sweetgum)
89
Forest Park one of the largest urban forests in the
United States located in Portland, Oregon.
Platanus (Plane)
Pittsburgh Parks Conservancy a non-prot that assists local governments since 1996 in maintaining a
network of urban greenbelts.
Populus (Poplar)
Green belt
Quercus (Oak)
Jacksonville, Florida home to the largest urban

park system in the United States.
Nyssa (Tupelo or Black gum)
Robinia (Black locust)

Salix (Willow)
Trees that are well adapted to and thrive in certain environments should not be replaced just because they may be
high BVOC emitters. The amount of emissions spent on
maintaining a tree that may emit low amounts of BVOCs,
but is not well suited to an area, could be considerable
and outweigh any possible benets of low BVOC emission rates.
Trees should not be labeled as polluters because their total benets on air quality and emissions reduction far outweigh the possible consequences of BVOC emissions on
ozone concentrations. Emission of BVOCs increase exponentially with temperature. Therefore, higher emissions will occur at higher temperatures. In desert climates, locally native trees adapted to drought conditions
emit signicantly less BVOCs than plants native to wet
regions. As discussed above, the formation of ozone is
also temperature dependent. Thus, the best way to slow
the production of ozone and emission of BVOCs is to reduce urban temperatures and the eect of the urban heat
island. As suggested earlier, the most eective way to
lower temperatures is with an increased canopy cover.
These eects of the urban forest on ozone production
have only recently been discovered by the scientic community, so extensive and conclusive research has not yet
been conducted. There have been some studies quantifying the eect of BVOC emissions on the formation of
ozone, but none have conclusively measured the eect
of the urban forest. Important questions remain unanswered. For instance, it is unknown if there are enough
chemical reactions between BVOC emissions and NOx
to produce harmful amounts of ozone in urban environments. It is therefore, important for cities to be aware that
this research is still continuing and conclusions should not
be drawn before proper evidence has been collected. New
research may resolve these issues.
17.3 See also

North Saskatchewan River valley parks system
North Americas largest expanse of urban parkland,
located in Edmonton, Alberta.
Atlanta known as the city in a forest.
Jeerson Memorial Forest largest municipal urban forest in the United States
Koutnjak large urban forest in Belgrade, Serbia
Banjica Forest urban forest in Belgrade, Serbia,
41.6 ha. Protected due to diversity of bird species.
Million Tree Initiative
Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Mumbai, India; the
largest national park in the world located within city
limits.
Tijuca Forest the largest urban forest in the world,
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Toronto ravine system
Urban forestry
Urban reforestation
17.4 References
17.4.1 Notes
[1] Center for National Policy, Washington DC What States
Can Do-Part 7, Plant Forests, 23 July 2012; and www.
milliontrees.com.au
[2] http://www.gauteng.net/guide/green_tourism/
[3] http://www.joburg.org.za/index.php?option=com_
content&task=view&id=1553&Itemid=201
[4] http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/africa/11/18/
johannesburg.urban.forest/index.html
[5] W.G. Wilson (2011). Constructed Climates: A primer
on urban environments. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 0-226-90146-7.
[6] Maller, Cecily; Townsend, Mardie; St Leger, Lawrence
(March 2008). Healthy parks, healthy people: The health
benets of contact with nature in a park context. Deakin
University and Parks Victoria.
[7] Craig W. Johnson, Fred A. Baker, Wayne S. Johnson
(1990). Urban & Community Forestry, a Guide for the
Interior Western United States. USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Region, Ogden, Utah.
90
17.4.2
CHAPTER 17. URBAN FOREST
Bibliography
Nowak, D. (2000). Tree Species Selection, Design,

and Management to Improve Air Quality Construction Technology. Annual meeting proceedings of the
American Society of Landscape Architects (available
online, pdf le).
Nowak, D. The Eects of Urban Trees on Air Quality
USDA Forest Service (available online, pdf le).
Nowak, D. (1995). Trees Pollute? A Tree Explains
It All. Proceedings of the 7th National Urban Forest
Conference (available online, pdf le).
Nowak, D. (1993). Plant Chemical Emissions.
Miniature Roseworld 10 (1) (available online, pdf
le).
Nowak, D. & Wheeler, J. Program Assistant,
ICLEI. February 2006.
McPherson, E. G. & Simpson, J. R. (2000). Reducing Air Pollution Through Urban Forestry. Proceedings of the 48th meeting of California Pest Council
(available online, pdf le).
McPherson, E. G., Simpson, J. R. & Scott, K.
(2002). Actualizing Microclimate and Air Quality
Benets with Parking Lot Shade Ordinances. Wetter
und Leben 4: 98 (available online, pdf le).
17.5 External links

Urban Forestry South
Center for Urban Forest Research
Urban Forest Ecosystems Institute
Urban Forestry
USDA Forest Service Northeastern Area
Chapter 18
Green roof
Traditional sod roof, in Ljungris, Sweden

Green roof of City Hall in Chicago, Illinois.
lower urban air temperatures and mitigate the heat island eect.[1] There are two types of green roof: intensive roofs, which are thicker, with a minimum depth of
12.8 cm, and can support a wider variety of plants but
are heavier and require more maintenance, and extensive
roofs, which are shallow, ranging in depth from 2 cm to
12.7 cm, lighter than intensive green roofs, and require
minimal maintenance.[2]
The term green roof may also be used to indicate roofs
that use some form of green technology, such as a cool
roof, a roof with solar thermal collectors or photovoltaic
Traditional sod roofs can be seen in many places in the Faroe panels. Green roofs are also referred to as eco-roofs,
oikosteges, vegetated roofs, living roofs, greenroofs and
Islands.
VCPH[3] (Horizontal Vegetated Complex Partitions).
A green roof or living roof is a roof of a building that
is partially or completely covered with vegetation and
a growing medium, planted over a waterproong mem- 18.1 Environmental benets
brane. It may also include additional layers such as a root
barrier and drainage and irrigation systems. Container Green roofs are used to:
gardens on roofs, where plants are maintained in pots, are
not generally considered to be true green roofs, although
Reduce heating (by adding mass and thermal resisthis is debated. Rooftop ponds are another form of green
tance value)
roofs which are used to treat greywater.
Green roofs serve several purposes for a building, such A 2005 study by Brad Bass of the University of Toronto
as absorbing rainwater, providing insulation, creating a showed that green roofs can also reduce heat loss and enhabitat for wildlife, increasing benevolence and decreas- ergy consumption in winter conditions.[5]
ing stress of the people around the roof by providing
Reduce cooling (by evaporative cooling) loads on a
a more aesthetically pleasing landscape, and helping to
91
92
CHAPTER 18. GREEN ROOF

Increase agricultural space
With green roofs, water is stored by the substrate
and then taken up by the plants from where it is returned to the atmosphere through transpiration and
evaporation.
Green roofs not only retain rainwater, but also moderate the temperature of the water and act as natural
lters for any of the water that happens to run o.
A modern green roof (California Academy of Sciences). Constructed for low maintenance by intentionally neglecting many
native plant species, with only the hardiest surviving varieties selected for installation on the roof.[4]
building by fty to ninety percent,[6] especially if it

is glassed in so as to act as a terrarium and passive
solar heat reservoir a concentration of green roofs
in an urban area can even reduce the citys average
temperatures during the summer
Green roof planted with dune plants from the shores of Lake
Reduce stormwater run o[7] see water-wise gardening
A study presented at the Green Roofs for Healthy Cities
Conference in June of 2004, cited by the EPA, found water runo was reduced by over 75% during rainstorms.
See the PDF at [8] for more information.
Natural Habitat Creation[9] see urban wilderness
Filter pollutants and carbon dioxide out of the air
which helps lower disease rates such as asthma[10]
see living wall
Filter pollutants and heavy metals out of rainwater
Help to insulate a building for sound; the soil helps to
block lower frequencies and the plants block higher
frequencies[11]
If installed correctly many living roofs can contribute to LEED points
Ontario, SUNY-ESF, Syracuse, NY
Many green roofs are installed to comply with local regulations and government fees, often regarding stormwater
runo management.[12] In areas with combined sewerstormwater systems, heavy storms can overload the
wastewater system and cause it to ood, dumping raw
sewage into the local waterways. Green roofs decrease
the total amount of runo and slow the rate of runo
from the roof. It has been found that they can retain up
to 75% of rainwater, gradually releasing it back into the
atmosphere via condensation and transpiration, while retaining pollutants in their soil.[13] Often, phosphorus and
nitrogen are in this category of environmentally harmful
substances even though they are stimulating to the growth
of plant life and agriculture. When these substances are
added to a system, it can create mass biological activity
since they are considered limiting factors of plant growth
and by adding more of them to a system, it allows for
more plant growth.[14] Elevation 314, a new development
in Washington, D.C. uses green roofs to lter and store
18.2. COSTS AND FINANCIAL BENEFITS
93
some of its storm water on site, avoiding the need for extensive green roof costs $3552368/m2 ($33220/ft2)
pensive underground sand lters to meet D.C. Depart- however, since most of the materials used to build the
ment of Health storm-water regulations.
green roof can be salvaged it is estimated that the cost of
roof is generally one third of the initial
[15]
Combating the urban heat island eect is another rea- replacing a green[19]
installation
costs.
son for creating a green roof. Traditional building materials soak up the suns radiation and re-emit it as heat, With the initial cost of installing a green roof in mind,
making cities at least 4 degrees Celsius (7 F) hotter there are many nancial benets that accompany green
than surrounding areas. On Chicagos City Hall, by con- roong.
trast, which features a green roof, roof temperatures on
a hot day are typically 1.44.4 degrees Celsius (2.58.0
Green roong can extend the lifespan of a roof by
F) cooler than they are on traditionally roofed buildover 200% by covering the waterproong memings nearby.[16] Green roofs are becoming common in
brane with growing medium and vegetation, this
Chicago, as well as in Atlanta, Portland, and other United
shields the membrane from ultra-violet radiation and
States cities, where their use is encouraged by regulaphysical damage.[20] Further, Penn State Univertions to combat the urban heat-island eect. Green roofs
sitys Green Roof Research Center expects the lifesare a type of low impact development.[17] In the case of
pan of a roof to increase by as much as three times
Chicago, the city has passed codes oering incentives
after greening the roof.[21]
to builders who put green roofs on their buildings. The
It is estimated that the installation of a green roof
Chicago City Hall green roof is one of the earliest and
could increase the real estate value of an average
most well-known examples of green roofs in the United
house by about 7%.[22]
States; it was planted as an experiment to determine the
eects a green roof would have on the microclimate of
Reduction in energy use is an important property
the roof. Following this and other studies, it has now been
of green roong. By improving the thermal perestimated that if all the roofs in a major city were greened,
formance of a roof, green roong allows buildings
urban temperatures could be reduced by as much as 7 deto better retain their heat during the cooler wingrees Celsius.[18]
ter months while reecting and absorbing solar raGreen roofs also provide habitats for plants, insects, and
diation during the hotter summer months, allowanimals that otherwise have limited natural space in cities.
ing buildings to remain cooler. A study conducted
Even in high-rise urban settings as tall as 19 stories, it has
by Environment Canada found a 26% reduction in
been found that green roofs can attract benecial insects,
summer cooling needs and a 26% reduction in winbirds, bees and butteries. Rooftop greenery completer heat losses when a green roof is used.[23] With
ments wild areas by providing stepping stones for songrespect to hotter summer weather, green roong is
birds, migratory birds and other wildlife facing shortages
able to reduce the solar heating of a building by reof natural habitat.
ecting 27% of solar radiation, absorbing 60% by
the vegetation through photosynthesis and evapotranspiration, and absorbing the remaining 13% into
the growing medium. Such mitigation of solar ra18.2 Costs and nancial benets
diation has been found to reduce building temperatures by up to 20 C and reduce energy needs for
air-conditioning by 25% to 80%. This reduction in
energy required to cool a building in the summer is
accompanied by a reduction in energy required to
heat a building in the winter, thus reducing the energy requirements of the building year-round which
allows the building temperature to be controlled at a
lower cost.[24]
Roof gardens provide residents of an apartment complex in

Tongyang Town, Tongshan County, Hubei with fresh produce
A properly designed and installed extensive green-roof

system can cost $108248/m2 ($1023/ft2) while an in-
Depending on the region in which a green roof is

installed, incentives may be available in the form of
stormwater tax reduction, grants, or rebates. The
regions where these incentives will most likely be
found are areas where failing storm water management infrastructure is in place, urban heat island effect has signicantly increased the local air temperature, or areas where environmental contaminants
in the storm water runo is of great concern.[25] An
example of such an incentive is a one-year property
tax credit is available in New York City, since 2009,
94

for property owners who green at least 50% of their
roof area.[26]
18.3 Disadvantages
The main disadvantage of green roofs is that the initial
cost of installing a green roof can be double that of a
normal roof.[27] The additional mass of the soil substrate
and retained water places a large strain on the structural
support of a build. This makes it unlikely for intensive
green roofs to become widely implemented due to a lack
of buildings that are able to support such a large amount
of added weight as well as the added cost of reinforcing buildings to be able to support such weight.[28] Some
types of green roofs do have more demanding structural standards especially in seismic regions of the world.
Some existing buildings cannot be retrotted with certain kinds of green roof because of the weight load of the
substrate and vegetation exceeds permitted static loading.
Depending on what kind of green roof it is, the maintenance costs could be higher, but some types of green roof
have little or no ongoing cost. Some kinds of green roofs
also place higher demands on the waterproong system
of the structure, both because water is retained on the
roof and due to the possibility of roots penetrating the
waterproof membrane. Another disadvantage is that the
wildlife they attract may include pest insects which could
easily inltrate a residential building through open windows.
18.4 Types
An intensive and an extensive green roof
Section of a Gudbrandsdal type sod roof with elaborate turf

log. Drawing by Roede.
Green roofs can be categorized as intensive, semiintensive, or extensive, depending on the depth of planting medium and the amount of maintenance they need.
Extensive green roofs traditionally support 10-25 pounds
of vegetation per square foot (50120 kg/m2 )[29] while
intensive roofs support 80-150 pounds of vegetation per
square foot (390730 kg/m2 ).[30] Traditional roof gardens, which require a reasonable depth of soil to grow
large plants or conventional lawns, are considered intensive because they are labour-intensive, requiring irrigation, feeding, and other maintenance. Intensive roofs are
more park-like with easy access and may include anything
from kitchen herbs to shrubs and small trees.[31] Extensive green roofs, by contrast, are designed to be virtually self-sustaining and should require only a minimum of
maintenance, perhaps a once-yearly weeding or an application of slow-release fertiliser to boost growth. Extensive roofs are usually only accessed for maintenance.[31]
They can be established on a very thin layer of soil (most
use specially formulated composts): even a thin layer of
rockwool laid directly onto a watertight roof can support
a planting of Sedum species and mosses. Some green
roof designs incorporate both intensive and extensive elements. To protect the roof, a waterproong membrane is
often used, which is manufactured to remain watertight in
extreme conditions including constant dampness, ponding water, high and low alkaline conditions and exposure
to plant roots, fungi and bacterial organisms.[32]
Advances in green roof technology have led to the development of new systems that do not t into the traditional
classication of green roof types. Comprehensive green
roofs bring the most advantageous qualities of extensive
and intensive green roofs together. Comprehensive green
roofs support plant varieties typically seen in intensive
green roofs at the depth and weight of an extensive green
roof system.[33]
18.6. BROWN ROOFS
95
Another important distinction is between pitched green

roofs and at green roofs. Pitched sod roofs, a traditional
feature of many Scandinavian buildings, tend to be of a
simpler design than at green roofs. This is because the
pitch of the roof reduces the risk of water penetrating
through the roof structure, allowing the use of fewer waterproong and drainage layers.
18.5 History
On the green roof of the Mountain Equipment Co-op store in

Toronto, Canada.
Switzerland, the Netherlands, Norway, Italy, Austria,

Hungary, Sweden, the UK, and Greece.[34] The City of
Linz in Austria has been paying developers to install
green roofs since 1983, and in Switzerland it has been
a federal law since the late 1990s. In the UK, their uptake has been slow, but a number of cities have developed policies to encourage their use, notably London and
Sheeld.
Re-creation of Viking houses in Newfoundland
Sod roofs on 18th century farm buildings in Heidal, Norway.
Modern green roofs, which are made of a system of manufactured layers deliberately placed over roofs to support
growing medium and vegetation, are a relatively new phenomenon. However, green roofs or sod roofs in Northern
Scandinavia have been around for centuries. The modern
trend started when green roofs were developed in Germany in the 1960s, and has since spread to many countries. Today, it is estimated that about 10% of all German roofs have been greened.[21] Green roofs are also
becoming increasingly popular in the United States, although they are not as common as in Europe.
Rooftop water purication is also being implemented

in green roofs. These forms of green roofs are actually treatment ponds built into the rooftops. They
are built either from a simple substrate (as being done in Dongtan[35] ) or with plant-based ponds
(as being done by WaterWorks UK Grow System[36]
and Waterzuiveren.be[37] Plants used include calamus,
Menyanthes trifoliata, Mentha aquatica, etc.[38] )
Several studies have been carried out in Germany since
the 1970s. Berlin is one of the most important centers of green roof research in Germany. Particularly
in the last 10 years, much more research has begun.
About ten green roof research centers exist in the US
and activities exist in about 40 countries. In a recent
study on the impacts of green infrastructure, in particular
green roofs in the Greater Manchester area, researchers
found that adding green roofs can help keep temperatures down, particularly in urban areas: adding green
roofs to all buildings can have a dramatic eect on maximum surface temperatures, keeping temperatures below
the 19611990 current form case for all time periods and
emissions scenarios. Roof greening makes the biggest
dierencewhere the building proportion is high and the
evaporative fraction is low. Thus, the largest dierence
was made in the town centers.[39]
18.6 Brown roofs
A number of European Countries have very active as- Industrial browneld sites can be valuable ecosystems,
sociations promoting green roofs, including Germany, supporting rare species of plants, animals and inverte-
96
brates. Increasingly in demand for redevelopment, these

habitats are under threat. Brown roofs, also known
as biodiverse roofs,[40] can partly mitigate this loss of
habitat by covering the at roofs of new developments
with a layer of locally sourced material. Construction
techniques for brown roofs are typically similar to those
used to create at green roofs, the main dierence being
the choice of growing medium (usually locally sourced
rubble, gravel, soil, etc...) to meet a specic biodiversity
objective.[41] In Switzerland, it is common to use alluvial
gravels from the foundations; in London, a mix of brick
rubble and some concrete has been used. The original
idea was to allow the roofs to self-colonise with plants,
but they are sometimes seeded to increase their biodiversity potential in the short term. Such practices are derided
by purists.[42] The roofs are colonised by spiders and insects (many of which are becoming extremely rare in the
UK as such sites are developed) and provide a feeding
site for insectivorous birds. Laban, a centre for contemporary dance in London, has a brown roof specically designed to encourage the nationally rare black redstart.[43]
A green roof, 160m above ground level, and claimed to
be the highest in the UK and Europe and probably in the
world to act as nature reserve, is on the Barclays Bank
HQ in Canary Wharf.[44] Designed combining the principles of green and brown roofs, it is already home to a
range of rare invertebrates.
18.7 Examples by country

18.7.1
Australia
Green roofs have been increasing in popularity in Australia over the past 10 years. Some of the early examples
include the Freshwater Place residential tower in Melbourne (2002) with its Level 10 rooftop Half Acre Garden, CH2 building housing the Melbourne City Council
(2006) Australias rst 6-star Green Star Design commercial oce building as certied by the Green Building
Council of Australia, and Condor Tower (2005) with a
75-square-metre lawn on the 4th oor.
In 2010, the largest Australian green roof project was
announced. The Victorian Desalination Project [45] will
have a living tapestry of 98,000 Australian indigenous
plants over a roof area spanning more than 26,000 square
metres. The roof will form part of the desalination plants
sophisticated roof system, designed to blend the building
into the landscape, and provide acoustic protection, corrosion resistance, thermal control, and reduced maintenance. The green roof was designed by ASPECT Studios,
ARM / pecvkvonhartel architecture, and will be installed
by Fytogreen Australia [46]
Melbourne.[47]
18.7.2 Canada
The green roof on top of the Canadian War Museum in Ottawa

looks like a wheateld, with the towers of Canadas Parliament
visible in the distance
The city of Toronto approved a by-law in May 2009,[48]

mandating green roofs on residential and industrial buildings. There is criticism from Green Roofs for Healthy
Cities that the new laws are not stringent enough, since
they will only apply to residential building that are a minimum of six storeys high. By 31 January 2011, industrial buildings were required to render 10% or 2,000m of
their roofs green.[49] Toronto City Hall's Podium roof was
renovated to include a 32,000 square foot rooftop garden,
the largest publicly accessible roof in the city. The green
roof was opened to the public in June 2010.[50]
In 2008, the Vancouver Convention Centre installed a
six-acre living roof of indigenous plants and grasses on
its West building, making it the largest green roof in
Canada.[51] The new Canadian War Museum in Ottawa,
opened in 2005, also features a grass-covered roof.
During the renovation of the Hamilton City Hall in
Hamilton, Ontario that spanned from 2007 to 2010,
many eorts were taken to enhance the environmentally
friendly nature of the structure, which included the addition of a grass-covered roof.[52]
18.7.3 Costa Rica

Living Green roofs have been built and grown at Saint
Michaels Sustainable community since 2012. Native
plants, mostly owers chosen for the environment, maximum shade and mass provide a colorful and functional
living roof. .[53]
Since 2008, City Councils and inuential business groups 18.7.4 Egypt
in Australia have become active promoting the benets of green roofs. The Blueprint to Green Roof Mel- In Egypt, soil-less agriculture is used to grow plants on the
bourne is one program being run by the Committee for roofs of buildings. No soil is placed directly on the roof
18.7. EXAMPLES BY COUNTRY

itself, thus eliminating the need for an insulating layer; instead, plants are grown on wooden tables. Vegetables and
fruit are the most popular candidates, providing a fresh,
healthy source of food that is free from pesticides.[54]
A more advanced method, (aquaponics), being used experimentally in Egypt, is farming sh next to plants in
a closed cycle. This allows the plants to benet from
the ammonia excreted by the sh, helping the plants to
grow better and at the same time eliminating the need for
changing the water for the sh, because the plants help to
keep it clean by absorbing the ammonia. The sh also get
some nutrients from the roots of the plants.
18.7.5
France
97
were quality issues recorded. The FLL formed a committee that is focused on modern green roof technology.
FLL stands for Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau e.V. (FLL)or in English: The
German Landscape Research, Development and Construction Society. The FLL is an independent non-prot
organization. It was founded in 1975 by eight professional organizations for the improvement of environmental conditions through the advancement and dissemination of plant research and its planned applications.
The FLL green roof working group is only one of 40 committees which have published a long list of guidelines and
labor instructions. Some of these guidelines also available
in English including the German FLL-Guideline for the
Planning, Execution and Upkeep of Green-Roof Sites.
The results of the research and synthesis done by FLL
members are constantly updated and promulgated utilizing the same principles which govern the compilation of
DIN standards and are published as either guiding principles or labor instructions.
The current Green Roof Guideline was published in
2008. There is also an introduction to FLL to download
at a FLL member and promoter.[56] Today most elements
of the German FLL are part of standards and guidelines
around the world (FM Global, ASTM, NRCA, SPRI etc..
Green roof planted with native species at L'Historial de la

Vende, a new museum in western France
In France, an 8,000 square metres (86,000 sq ft) extensive, cable-supported green roof has been created on the
International School in Lyon.[55] Another huge green roof
of roughly 8,000 square metres (86,000 sq ft) has been incorporated into the new museum L'Historial de la Vende
which opened in June 2006 at Les Lucs-sur-Boulogne.
18.7.6
Germany
Long-held green roof traditions started in the early industrialization period more than 100 years ago exist in Germany. In the 70s, green roof technology was elevated
to the next level. Serious storm-water issues made cities
think about innovative solutions, preferably with living
plants. Modern green roof technology with high performance, lightweight materials were utilized to grow hardy
vegetation even on roofs that can hardly support any additional load. In the 80s modern Green Roof Technology was common knowledge in Germany while it was
practically unknown in any other country in the world.
In Stuttgart, with one of the most innovative Department
of Parks and Recreation and with the worlds oldest horticultural Universities, modern green roof technology was
perfected and implemented on a large scale.
With the rst green roof industry boom in Germany there
Fachvereinigung Bauwerksbegrnung (FBB) was

founded in 1990 as the second green roof association
after DDV (Deutscher Dachgaertner Verband) in 1985.
FBB was founded as an open forum for manufacturers
and planners, merchants and operators in 1990. The
organization was born from the then-visionary idea
of understanding the relationship between nature and
constructions not as oppositional, but as an opportunity.
Both the green roong and conventional roong industries are equally represented. The FBB has developed
to become an innovative lobbying group with a strong
market presence, internationally known through its
cooperation with other European associations. Today, approximately 100 member companies use the
multifaceted services oered by FBB, which oers a
greater degree of market expertise and competitiveness.
Kompetenz im Markt.
Today, about 10,000,000m (or 100,000,000 square feet)
of new green roofs are being constructed each year. According latest studies about 3/4 of these are extensive;
the last 1/4 are roof gardens. The cities with the most
green roofs in Germany are Berlin and Stuttgart. Surveys
about the status of regulation are done by the FBB. Nearly
one third of all German cities have regulations to support green-roof and rain-water technology. Green-roof
research institutions are located in several cities as including Hannover, Berlin, Geisenheim and Neubrandenburg.
Germany is the country with the most green roofs in the
world and it is the country with the most advanced knowledge in modern green roof technology. Green Roofs in
Germany are part of the 2 3 years apprentice educations
98
system of landscaping professionals. Since green roof are 18.7.8

common knowledge and common sense it is interesting
to take a look at the German Wikipedia page for green
roofs there is no need to describe projects, case studies or related research. The green roof technology was
implemented before the internet age.
18.7.7
Iceland
Greece
Sod roof Church at Hof, Iceland
Sod roofs are frequently found on traditional farmhouses

and farm buildings in Iceland.[60]
18.7.9 Israel
The oikostegi, a green roof on the Treasury building in Athens
The Greek Ministry of Finance has now installed a green

roof on the Treasury in Constitution Square in Athens.[57]
The so-called oikostegi (Greek oiko, pronounced
eeko, meaning building-ecological, and stegi, pronounced
staygee, meaning roof-abode-shelter) was inaugurated in
September, 2008. Studies of the thermodynamics of the
roof in September 2008 concluded that the thermal performance of the building was signicantly aected by the
installation.[58] In further studies, in August 2009, energy
savings of 50% were observed for air conditioning in the
oor directly below the installation. The ten-oor building has a total oor space of 1.4 hectares. The oikostegi
covers 650m, equalling 52% of the roof space and 8%
of the total oor space. Despite this, energy savings totalling 5,630 per annum were recorded, which translates to a 9% saving in air conditioning and a 4% saving in heating bills for the whole building.[59] An additional observation and conclusion of the study was that
the thermodynamic performance of the oikostegi had improved as biomass was added over the 12 months between
the rst and second study. This suggests that further improvements will be observed as the biomass increases still
further. The study also stated that while measurements
were being made by thermal cameras, a plethora of benecial insects were observed on the roof, such as butteries, honey bees and ladybirds. Obviously this was not
the case before installation. Finally, the study suggested
that both the micro-climate and biodiversity of Constitution Square, in Athens, Greece had been improved by the
oikostegi.
The book of 2 Kings in the Hebrew Bible mentions the

grass on the housetops (2 Kings 19:26) suggesting this
as an ancient practice.
18.7.10 Switzerland
Switzerland has one of Europes oldest green roofs, created in 1914 at the Moos lake water-treatment plant,
Wollishofen, Zrich. Its lter tanks have 30,000 square
metres (320,000 sq ft) of at concrete roofs. To keep the
interior cool and prevent bacterial growth in the ltration
beds, a drainage layer of gravel and a 15-cm (6-in) layer
of soil was spread over the roofs, which had been waterproofed with asphalt. A meadow developed from seeds
already present in the soil; it is now a haven for many plant
species, some of which are now otherwise extinct in the
district, most notably 6,000 Orchis morio (green-winged
orchid). More recent Swiss examples can be found at
Klinikum 1 and Klinikum 2, the Cantonal Hospitals of
Basel, and the Sihlpost platform at Zrichs main railway
station.
18.7.11 Sweden
What is claimed[61] to be the worlds rst green roof
botanical garden was set up in Augustenborg, Malm
in May 1999. The International Green Roof Institute
(IGRI) opened to the public in April 2001 as a research
station and educational facility. (It has since been renamed the Scandinavian Green Roof Institute (SGRI), in
view of the increasing number of similar organisations
around the world.) Green roofs are well-established in
Malm: the Augustenborg housing development near the
18.7. EXAMPLES BY COUNTRY
99
SGRI botanical garden incorporates green roofs and extensive landscaping of streams, ponds, and soak-ways between the buildings to deal with storm water run-o.
The new Bo01 urban residential development (in the
Vstra Hamnen (Western Harbour) close to the foot of
the Turning Torso oce and apartment block, designed
by Santiago Calatrava) is built on the site of old shipyards
and industrial areas, and incorporates many green roofs.
In 2012, the shopping mall Emporia with its 27,000
square metre roof garden, was opened. The size of the
roof garden is approximately equivalent to 4 soccer elds,
which makes it one of the biggest green roof parks in Europe that is accessible to the public.
An intensive roof garden in Manhattan
18.7.12
United Kingdom
In 2003 English Nature concluded that 'in the UK policy makers have largely ignored green roofs.[62] However, British examples can be found with increasing frequency. A notable early roof garden was built above the
Derry & Toms Department Store in Kensington, London
in 1938.[63] More recent examples can be found at the
University of Nottingham Jubilee Campus, and in London at Sainsburys Millennium Store in Greenwich, the
Horniman Museum and at Canary Wharf. The Ethelred
Estate, close to the River Thames in central London, is
the British capitals largest roof-greening project to date.
Toxteth in Liverpool is also a candidate for a major roofgreening project.
In the United Kingdom, intensive green roofs are sometimes used in built-up city areas where residents and
workers often do not have access to gardens or local
parks. Extensive green roofs are sometimes used to blend
buildings into rural surroundings, for example by RollsRoyce Motor Cars, who has one of the biggest green roofs
in Europe (covering more than 32,000m on their factory
at Goodwood, West Sussex.[64]
The undulating green roof of the California Academy of Sciences, under construction in San Francisco in 2007.
lennium Park Garage, Chicagos 24.5-acre (99,000 m2 )

Millennium Park is considered one of the largest intensive
green roofs.[67] Other well-known American examples include Chicagos City Hall and the former Gap headquarters, now the headquarters of YouTube, in San Bruno,
CA. Recently, the American Society of Landscape ArThe University of Sheeld has created a Green Roof chitects retrotted their existing headquarters building in
Centre of Excellence and conducted research, particu- Washington, D.C. with a green roof designed by landlarly in a UK context, into green roofs.[65] Dr Nigel Dun- scape architect Michael Van Valkenburgh.[68]
nett of Sheeld University published a UK-centric book
Another example of a green roof in the United States is
about green roong in 2004 (updated 2008).[66]
the Ballard Library in Seattle. This green roof has over
Fort Dunlop has the largest green roof in the UK since its 18,000 plants to help with insulation and reduce runo.
redevelopment between 2004 and 2006.
The plants used on the roof include Achillea tomentosa (woolly yarrow), Armeria maritima (sea pink, sea
thrift), Carex inops pensylvanica (long-stoloned sedge),
18.7.13 United States
Eriophyllum lanatum (Oregon sunshine), Festuca rubra
One of the largest expanses of extensive green roof is (red creeping fescue), Festuca idahoensis (Idaho fescue),
to be found in the US, at Ford Motor Company's River Phlox subulata (creeping phlox), Saxifraga caespitosa
Rouge Plant, Dearborn, Michigan, where 42,000 square (tufted saxifrage), Sedum oreganum (Oregon stonecrop),
metres (450,000 sq ft) of assembly plant roofs are cov- Sedum album (white stonecrop), Sedum spurium (two-row
ered with sedum and other plants, designed by William stonecrop), Sisyrinchium idahoense (blue-eyed grass),
McDonough; the $18 million assembly avoids the need Thymus serpyllum (wild thyme), Triteleia hyacinthina
of what otherwise would be $50 million worth of me- (fools onion).
chanical treatment facilities on site.
Built over Mil- The new California Academy of Sciences building in
100
San Franciscos Golden Gate Park has a green roof that
provides 2.5 acres (10,000 m2 ) of native vegetation designed as a habitat for indigenous species, including the
threatened Bay checkerspot buttery. According to the
Academys fact sheet on the building,[69] the building consumes 3035% less energy than required by code.
An early green-roofed building (completed in 1971) is
the 358,000 sq ft (33,300 m2 ) Weyerhaeuser Corporate
Headquarters building in Federal Way, Washington. Its
5-story oce roof system comprises a series of stepped
terraces covered in greenery. From the air, the building
blends into the landscape.
The largest green roof in New York City was installed
in midtown Manhattan atop the United States Postal Service's Morgan Processing and Distribution Center. Construction on the 109,000 sq ft (10,100 m2 ) project began in September 2008, and was nished and dedicated
in July 2009. Covered in native vegetation and having
an expected lifetime of fty years, this green roof will
not only save the USPS approximately $30,000 a year in
heating and cooling costs, but will also signicantly reduce the amount of storm water contaminants entering
the municipal water system.[70][71]
The 14,000 square feet of outdoor space on the seventh oor of Zeckendorf Towers, formerly an undistinguished rooftop lled with potted plants, make up the
largest residential green roof in New York.[72][73][74] The
roof was transformed in 2010 as part of Mayor Michael
Bloomberg's NYC Green Infrastructure campaign, and
supposedly serves to capture some of the rain that falls
on it rather than letting it run o and contribute to ooding in the adjacent Union Square subway station.[72]
Some cost can also be attributed to maintenance. Extensive green roofs have low maintenance requirements
but they are generally not maintenance free. German
research has quantied the need to remove unwanted
seedlings to approximately 6 seconds/m/year.[75] Maintenance of green roofs often includes fertilization to increase owering and succulent plant cover. If aesthetics
are not an issue, fertilization and maintenance are generally not needed. Extensive green roofs should only be fertilized with controlled-release fertilizers in order to avoid
pollution of the storm water. Conventional fertilizers
should never be used on extensive vegetated roofs.[76][77]
German studies have approximated the nutrient requirement of vegetated roofs to 5gN/m. It is also important
to use a substrate that does not contain too many available nutrients. The FLL guidelines specify maximumallowable nutrient content of substrates.[78]
One of the oldest American green roofs in existence is
atop the Rockefeller Center in Manhattan, built in 1936.
This roof was primarily an aesthetic undertaking for the
enjoyment of the Centers workers, and remains to this
day, having been refurbished in 1986. [79]
18.8 See also

Arcology
Blue roof
Eco-village
Energy-ecient landscaping
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Low impact development
Rainwater harvesting
Ralph Hancock, designer, The Rockefeller Center
Roof Gardens
Roof garden
Sod roof, traditional roof in Scandinavia
Sustainable city
Subtropical climate vegetated roof
18.9 References
[1] Vandermeulen, Valerie; Verspecht, A., Vermeire, B., Van
Huylenbroeck, G., Gellynck, X. (November 30, 2011).
The use of economic valuation to create public support for green infrastructure investments in urban areas. Landscape and Urban Planning 103 (2): 198
206. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.07.010. Retrieved
28 February 2014.
[2] Volder, Astrid; Dvorak (February 2014). Event size,
substrate water content and vegetation aect storm water retention eciency of an un-irrigated extensive green
roof system in Central Texas. Sustainable Cities and Society 10: 5964. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2013.05.005. Retrieved
27 February 2014.
[3] Vegetated Complex Partition research presentation on
Aurlien P. JEAN research website
[4] California (magazine of the University of California
Alumni Association), Sept/Oct 2008, cover and pp. 52
53
[5] University of Toronto News@UofT Green roofs in
winter: Hot design for a cold climate. 17 November
2005. Archived from the original on 11 April 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
[6] Living Roofs designer
living_roofs.php
http://www.roofgreening.ca/
[7] http://www.roofgreening.ca/content/Improved_Final.
pdf
[8] http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/
GreenRoofsCompendium.pdf
[9] http://www.roofgreening.ca/content/Habitat_Final.pdf
18.9. REFERENCES
[10] http://www.roofgreening.ca/content/AirQuality_Final.
pdf
[11] Green Roofs for Healthy Cities: About Green Roofs.
www.greenroofs.org
[12] Earth Pledge (2005). Green Roofs : Ecological Design and
Construction. Atglen, PA: Schier Pub.
[13] U.S. EPA. Green Roofs Heat Island Eect. Retrieved
10 June 2008.
[14] Sharpley, A.N. (September 2003). Agricultural Phosphorus and Eutrophication.
[15] Here Comes Urban Heat. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
[16] Plant-Covered Roofs Ease Urban Heat. Retrieved 10
June 2008.
[17] Urban Waterways. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
[18] Is that a Garden on Your Roof? - Enterprise The Future
of Energy - MSNBC.com. Archived from the original on
23 May 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
[19] Sproul, Julian; Wan, Mandel, Rosenfeld (March 2014).
Economic comparison of white, green, and black at
roofs in the United States. Energy and Buildings 71:
2027. doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.11.058. Retrieved 27
February 2014.
[20] Carter, Timothy; Keeler (May 2008). Life-cycle cost
benet analysis of extensive vegetated roof systems.
Journal of Environmental Management 87 (3): 350
363. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.01.024. Retrieved 27
February 2014.
[21] Penn State Green Roof Research: About Green Roofs.
Retrieved 10 June 2008.
[22] Bianchini, Fabricio; Hewage (December 2012).
Probabilistic social cost-benet analysis for green
roofs: A lifecycle approach. Building and Environment
58: 152162.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.07.005.
Retrieved 27 February 2014.
[23] Green Roofs for Healthy Cities About Green Roofs.
Retrieved 10 June 2008.
[24] Saadatian, Omidreza; Sopian, K.; Salleh, E.; Lim, C. H.;
Riat, S.; Saadatian, E.; Toudeshki, A.; Sulaiman, M. Y.
(July 2013). A review of energy aspects of green roofs.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 23: 155168.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.02.022. Retrieved 27 February
2014.
101
[28] Currie, Beth; Bass, B. (December 2008). Estimates of

air pollution mitigation with green plants and green roofs
using the UFORE model. Urban Ecosystems 11 (4):
409422. Retrieved 27 February 2014.
[29]
[30] Green Roof.
2012-08-15.
Raingardennetwork.com.
Retrieved
[31] Seattle Department of Planning and Development (12

February 2007, 3 November 2008). City Green Building Green Roofs. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[32] The Vinyl Roong Division of the Chemical Fabrics
& Film Association (22 June 2012). Green (Planted)
roofs.
[33] Omni Ecosystems (9 March 2013).
Green Roofs.
Comprehensive
[34] European Federation of Green Roof Associations

EFB. Efb-greenroof.eu. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
[35] Dongtan green roofs lter water.
[36] WWUK rooftop water purication with plants.
[37] waterzuiveren.be. Building water-purifying roofponds.
[38] Description of plants used in water-purifying rooftop
ponds.
[39] Gill, S.E., J.F. Handley, A.R. Ennos and S. Pauleit.
Adapting Cities for climate Change: The Role of the
Green Infrastructure. Built Environment Vol 33 No. 1,
page 122-123.
[40] Brown Roofs and Biodiversity.
[41] Biodiverse Roofs.
[42] Creating Brown Roof Habitats.
[43] Case Study Laban Dance Centre, Deptford SE8.
[44] Green roof case study Barclays Bank HQ, Canary
Wharf.
[45] Aquasure Victorian Desalination Project
[46] Fytogreen web site
[47] Growing Up - Blueprint to green roof Melbourne
[48] Toronto Makes Green Roofs the Law, Approves Controversial Bike Lanes.
[25] Anderson, Jerey A.; Rugh, C. L.; Fernandez, R. T.;

Xiao, L. (May 2005). Green Roof Stormwater Retention. Journal of Environmental Quality 34 (3): 1036
1044. doi:10.2134/jeq2004.0364. Retrieved 27 February
2014.
[49] Council approves stringent green-roof rules. Globe and

Mail (Canada). 23 August 2012.
[26] 'Tax Credits For Green Rooftops In NYC', Environmental

Leader, 29 June 2008. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
[51] Vancouver Convention Centre Expansion Project.
[27] Getter, Kristin L.; Rowe, D. Bradley (2006). The Role

of Extensive Green Roofs in Sustainable Development.
HortScience 41 (5): 12761285.
[50] Toronto City Halls Podium Green Roof. City of

Toronto. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 27 June 2013.
[52] City Hall Reno Photo Tour: Part 2.

[53] http://www.saintmichaelscostarica.com.
empty |title= (help)
Missing or
102
[54] Al-Ahram Weekly | Environment | May your roof be

green. Weekly.ahram.org.eg. 8 June 2005. Retrieved
25 April 2012.
[55] Chic Sustainability. Greenroofs.com. 14 March 2006.
Retrieved 25 April 2012.
[56] Green Roof Technology_Casestudies.
[57] "
". Mnec.gr. 20 April 2012. Retrieved
25 April 2012.
[58] " ...
". Mech.ntua.gr. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
[59] "". Oikosteges.gr. 24 September 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
[60] Greenroofs101: History. Greenroofs.com. Retrieved
2012-08-15.
[61] Green Roof Augustenborgs Botanical Roof Garden
History. Greenroof.se. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
[62] Grant, G., Engleback, L., and Nicholson, B., Green Roofs:
their existing status and potential for conserving biodiversity in urban areas [Report No. 498], Publisher: English
Nature Reports (2003)
[63] London Gardens Online. London Gardens Online. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
[64] Rolls-Royce Motor Cars / The Company Environmental
[65] About TGRC. The Green Roof Centre. Retrieved 25
April 2012.
[66] Dunnett, N., Kingsbury, N., Planting Green Roofs and
Living Walls, Publisher: Timber Press (2004)
[67] Nelson, Bryn (15 April 2008). Green roofs popping up in
big cities - Business - Going Green. MSNBC. Retrieved
25 April 2012.
[68] ASLA Green Roof Demonstration Project.
[69] California Academy of Sciences Newsroom. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
[70] USPS News Release: U.S. Postal Service Opens First
Green Roof. 22 July 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
[71] Green Roof: Morgan Processing and Distribution Center
(P&DC)" (PDF). Archived from the original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
[72] One Union Square East Opens Citys Largest Residential Green Roof, Zeckendorf Towers press release of 15
November 2010.
[73] Zeckendorf Towers Unveils Citys Largest Green Roof,
DNAinfo, 16 November 2010.
[76] Emilsson, T., Czemiel Berndtsson, J., Mattsson, J-E and

Rolf, K., 2007 Eect of using conventional and controlled release fertilizer on nutrient runo from various
vegetated roof systems, Ecological Engineering, Volume
29, Issue 3, Pages 260271, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecoleng.2006.01.001
[77] Czemiel Berndtsson, J., Emilsson, T. and Bengtsson, L.,
2006 The inuence of extensive vegetated roofs on runo
water quality, Science of The Total Environment, Volume
355, Issues 13, Pages 4863, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.scitotenv.2005.02.035
[78] Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung Landschaftsbau e.V., http://www.fll.de
[79] Greenroofs.com Projects - Rockefeller Center Roof Gardens. Greenroofs.com Projects - Rockefeller Center
Roof Gardens. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 July 2014. <http:
//www.greenroofs.com/projects/pview.php?id=666>.

Snodgrass, E. and McIntyre, L., The Green Roof
Manual: A Professional Guide to Design, Installation, and Maintenance Publisher: Timber Press
(2010).
Dunnett, N. and Kingsbury, N., Planting Green
Roofs and Living Walls Publisher: Timber Press
(updated 2008).
Miller-Klein, Jan. Gardening for Butteries, Bees
and other benecial insects ISBN 978-0-95552880-4 has large section on green and brown roofs and
brownelds, including how to make your own, with
contributions from several UK practitioners.
Scholz-Barth, Katrin. Harvesting $ from Green
Roofs: Green Roofs Present a Unique Business Opportunity with Tangible Benets for Developers.
Urban land 64.6 (2005): 837.
Roland Appl, Reimer Meier, Wolfgang Ansel:
Green Roofs Bringing Nature Back to Town.
Publisher:
International Green Roof AssoISBN
978-3-9812978-1-2,
ciation
IGRA,
http://www.greenroofworld.com/bestellform/
bestellformular.php?lang=EN
Jorg Breuning / Peter Philippi.
PDF-File
"Introduction of the German FLL-Guideline
for the Planning, Execution and Upkeep of Green
Roof Sites
[74] A New Roof That Works for a Living, The New York
Times, 23 December 2010.
Fire and Wind on Extensive Green Roofs. Link to

PDF Fire and Wind Link to Web Fire and Wind
[75] Kolb, W. and T. Schwarz (2002). Gepegtes grn auf

dem dach. Deutscher Gartenbau (7): 3234.
Diversity of Fauna on Green Roofs , Diversity of

fauna

Princes Trust Award '2008 East Midlands Enterprise Award' goes to green roong company,
Sustainable Green Roof Systems
Wong, E., Hogan, K., Rosenberg, J., and Denny,
A. Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of
Strategies Climate Protection Partnership Division
in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys Ofce of Atmospheric Programs. (October 2008).
Chapter 3: Green Roofs. Link to PDF Green Roofs

Media related to Green roofs (sustainability) at
Wikimedia Commons
Green roof at DMOZ
103
Chapter 19
Earthship
earth-rammed tire walls provide thermal mass that naturally regulates the interior temperature during both cold
and hot outside temperatures.
Internal, non-load-bearing walls are often made of a
honeycomb of recycled cans joined by concrete and are
referred to as tin can walls. These walls are usually thickly
plastered with adobe. Tin can walls can also be used on
top of the tire walls (can and concrete bond beams)
as an alternative to wooden shoes. An alternative to
these concrete bond beams are wooden bond beams with
wooden shoes. The wooden shoes are made using wooden
shimming blocks (of 6x6x8' dimensions) placed on top of
the wooden bond beam (the latter is basically just 2 layers of 2x12 lumber bolted on concrete anchors; concrete
anchors are poured blocks of concrete located inside the
top tyres). Re-bar is used to nail the wooden shoes to
the wooden bond beam. The tire walls are additionally
strengthened by using concrete in the tires on the ends
(called concrete half blocks). The roof is made using
trusses or vigas (wooden support beams) which rest on
the wooden shoes (or tin can walls) placed on the wooden
(or concrete) bond beams. The roof as well as the north,
east and west facing walls of an Earthship are also heavily
insulated to prevent heat loss.
South and East view of an Earthship passive solar home
19.1 History
Earthship typical oorplan
An Earthship is a type of passive solar house that is made

of both natural and recycled materials (such as earth-lled
tires), designed and marketed by Earthship Biotecture
of Taos, New Mexico. The term is a registered trademark
of Michael Reynolds.
Earthships are primarily designed to work as autonomous
buildings using thermal mass construction and a natural
cross ventilation that is assisted by thermal draught (Stack
eect) to regulate indoor temperature. Earthships are designed to be "o-the-grid ready homes, minimizing their
reliance on both public utilities and fossil fuels.
Earthships are built to use available local resources, especially energy from the sun. For example, windows on
sun-facing walls admit lighting and heating, and the build- Michael Reynolds rst building, the Thumb House, was built
ings are often horseshoe-shaped to maximize natural light in the early 1970s. It included features incorporated into later
and solar-gain during winter months. The thick and dense Earthship designs.
104
19.2. SYSTEMS
105
The Earthship as it exists today, began to take shape in

the 1970s. Mike Reynolds, founder of Earthship Biotecture, a company that specializes in designing and building Earthships, wanted to create a home that would do
three things; rst, it would be sustainable architecture,
using material indigenous to the local area as well as recycled materials wherever possible. Second, the homes
would rely on natural energy sources and be independent
from the grid, therefore being less susceptible to natural disasters and free from the electrical and water lines
that Reynolds considered unsightly and wasteful. Finally,
it would be economically feasible for the average person
with no specialized construction skills to be able to create.
ket (leaving perhaps 75 million scrap tires available for

reuse as whole tires).[1] The method by which scrap tires
are converted into usable bricks (the ramming of the
earth) is simple and aordable but labour-intensive.
The earth-rammed tires of an Earthship are usually assembled by teams of two people working together as part
of a larger construction team. One member of the two
person team shovels dirt, which usually comes from the
building site, placing it into the tire one scoop at a time.
The second member, who stands on the tire, uses a sledge
hammer to pack the dirt in. The second person moves in
a circle around the tire to keep the dirt even and avoid
warping the tire. These rammed earth tires in an Earthship are made in place since they can weigh as much as
300 pounds and therefore can be dicult to relocate.
Additional benets of the rammed earth tire are its high
load-bearing capacity and its resistance to re.
A fully rammed tire, which is about 2 feet 8 inches wide,
is massive enough to surpass conventional requirements
for structural load distribution to the earth. Because the
tire is full of soil, it does not burn when exposed to re. In
1996 after a re swept through many conventional homes
in New Mexico, an Earthship discovered in the aftermath was relatively unharmed.[2] Only the south-facing
wall and the roof had burned away.
A building being built of cans in the 1970s
windows
roof (may be partly or

entirely earth covered)
water from roof
collects in storage tank
tyres rammed
with earth
wing walls: to prevent

east-west movement
vertical wood decking placed

over horizontal beams
The design used with most earthships. A large series of windows

and the use of tires characterize the earthsheltered building
Eventually, Reynolds vision took the form of the common U-shaped earth-lled tire homes seen today. The
earth-rammed tire is used in the vast majority of Earthships, but the design is not limited to tires any dense
material with a potential for thermal mass, such as concrete, adobe, earthbags, or stone could theoretically be
used to create a building similar to an Earthship.
Currently, Earthships are in use in almost every state in

the United States and Canada, as well as many European
countries. The colder climates require the use of strong
insulation on the outside of the tire walls, which was not
common in earlier designs. Earthships are continually being built around the world by Taos based Earthship Biotecture. In addition, books, plans and training sessions
(Earthship Academy) are made available by Reynolds.
This owner builder approach together with the use of
inexpensive materials has inspired people worldwide to
build their own passive solar homes.
19.2 Systems
The Earthship was designed as a structure that would be
free of the constraints of centralized utilities, on which
most modern shelters rely. Earthships must be able to
create their own utilities, and to use readily available sustainable materials. In order to be entirely self-sucient,
the Earthship needs to be able to handle the three systems
of water, electricity, and climate.
Rammed-earth and tires are easily accessible and allow

19.3 Water
for owner build structures and use of untrained labour.
Scrap tires are plentiful around the world and easy to
come by; there are an estimated 2 billion tires throughout 19.3.1 Collection
the United States. As of 1996, as many as 253 million
scrap tires were being generated each year in the United Earthships are designed to catch and use water from the
States, with 70% being reclaimed by the scrap tire mar- local environment without bringing in water from a cen-
106
CHAPTER 19. EARTHSHIP

Water from the low end of the botanical cell is then directed through a peat-moss lter and collected in a reservoir or well. This reclaimed water is then passed once
more through a greywater board and used to ush conventional toilets.
Often, greywater made at earthships is not polluted

enough to justify treatment (its pollution being usually just soap, which is often not environmentally damaging). At earthships, plants are placed at outlets of xtures to regain the water and the nutrients lost (e.g. from
the soaps). Usually, a single plant is placed directly in
front of the pipe, but mini drain-elds are also sometimes
used. The pipe is made large enough (5,08 cm) so that
the formation of underground gas (from the greywater) is
avoided. This is done with kitchen and bathroom sinks,
and even showers, washing machines, and dishwashing
machines. The plants are usually placed indoors with
the sinks and outdoors with the washing/dishwashing maA domestic rainwater harvesting system
chines and shower (to avoid indoor oods). Also, with
the latter, larger drain-elds are used instead of a mere
tralized source. Water used in an Earthship is harvested plant being placed before an outlet.[5]
from rain, snow, and condensation. As water collects on
the roof, it is channeled through a silt-catching device and
into a cistern. The cisterns are positioned so they gravity- 19.3.3 Black water
feed a WOM (water organization module) that lters out
bacteria and contaminants and makes it suitable for drinking. The WOM consists of lters and a DC-pump that are
screwed into a panel. Water is then pushed into a conventional pressure tank to create common household water
pressure.
Water collected in this fashion is used for every household activity except ushing toilets. The water used for
ushing toilets has been used at least once already: frequently it is ltered waste-water from sinks and showers, The water system with integrated ush toilet, as used in most
and described as Greywater.
earthships
19.3.2
Greywater
Greywater, used water that is unsuitable for drinking, is

used within the Earthship for a multitude of purposes.
First, before the greywater can be reused, it is channeled
through a grease and particle lter/digester and into a
30"60 deep rubber-lined botanical cell,[3] a miniature
living machine, within the Earthship. With embedded
plants, this lter also potentially can be used to produce
food (for example, by using a fruit tree). Oxygenation,
ltration, transpiration, and bacteria-encounter all take
place within the cell and help to cleanse the water.[4]
Within the botanical cell, ltration is achieved by passing
the water through a mixture of gravel and plant roots. Because of the nature of plants, oxygen is added to the water as it lters, while nitrogen and phosphate is removed.
Note that plant root cells do not produce oxygen but consume it; only the leaves of plants produce oxygen. Water
taken up through the plants and transpired at their tops
helps to humidify the air. In the cell, bacteria will naturally grow and help to cleanse the water.
Black water, water that has been used in a toilet, was

usually not created within many of the earliest earthships as the use of conventional toilets was discouraged.[6]
Early designs advocated composting toilets, which use no
water at all. The new greywater treatment system design (as used in Nautilus and Helios) created by Michael
Reynolds, ush toilets have found a place in the earthship
and the general water system has been redesigned according to the new 6-step process.[7][8]
When the newly included ush-toilets are used, blackwater is not reused within the Earthship. Instead, blackwater is sent to a solar-enhanced septic tank with leach-eld
and planter cells (the whole being often referred to as the
incubator). The solar-enhanced septic tank is a regular septic tank which is heated by the sun and glazed
with an equator-facing window. The incubator stores the
suns heat in its concrete mass, and is insulated, to help
the anaerobic process. Water from the incubator is channeled out to an exterior leach eld and then to landscaping
planter cells (spaces surrounded by concrete in which
plants have been put). The cells are similar to the botani-
19.6. HEATING PROBLEMS
107
cal cell used in greywater treatment and are usually placed the day and radiate heat during the night, keeping the injust before and under the windows of the earthship.
terior climate relatively comfortable all day.
In cases where it is not possible to use ush-toilets operating on water, dry solar toilets are advocated, instead of
regular composting toilets. If this is the case, no black
water is formed and the use of an incubator is thus (usually) not necessary. Instead, regular planters (plants
used for sucking up water/nutrients) are then used. When
using regular planters as well, no chemical soaps or detergents can be used.
In addition to high thermal mass, some Earthships may

be earth-sheltered. The benets of earth-sheltering are
twofold because it adds to the thermal mass and, if the
Earthship is buried deep enough, allows the structure to
take advantage of the Earths stable temperature.
The Earthship is designed in such a way that the sun provides heating, ventilation, and lighting. To take advantage
of the sun, an Earthship is positioned so that its princiThe space where the WOM (water organization module), pal wall, which is nonstructural and made mostly of glass
graywater pump panel, pressure tank, (rst set of) batter- sheets, faces directly towards the equator. This positionies, and POM (power organising module) are stored is in ing allows for optimum solar exposure.
a small room referred to as the systems package.
To allow the sun to heat the mass of the Earthship, the
solar-oriented wall is angled so that it is perpendicular to
light from the winter sun. This allows for maximum ex19.4 Electricity
posure in the winter, when heat is wanted, and lesser exposure in the summer, when heat is to be avoided. Some
Earthships are designed to collect and store their own en- Earthships, especially those built in colder climates, use
ergy from a variety of sources. The majority of electrical insulated shading on the solar-orientated wall to reduce
energy is harvested from the sun and wind. Photovoltaic heat loss during the night.[4]
panels and windturbines located on or near the Earthship
generate DC energy that is then stored in several types
of deep-cycle batteries. The space in which the batteries 19.5.1 Natural ventilation
are kept is usually a special, purpose-built room placed on
the roof. Additional energy, if required, can be obtained
from gasoline-powered generators or by integrating with
the city grid.
In an Earthship, a Power Organizing Module is used to
take stored energy from batteries and invert it for AC use.
The Power Organizing Module is a prefabricated system
provided by Earthship Biotecture that is simply attached
to a wall on the interior of the Earthship and wired in
a conventional manner. It includes the necessary equipment such as circuit breakers and converters. The energy
run through the Power Organizing Module can be used
to run any house-hold appliance including washing machines, computers, kitchen appliances, print machines,
and vacuums. Ideally, none of the electrical energy in
an Earthship is used for heating or cooling.
Natural convection cooling an Earthship
The earthships usually use their own natural ventilation

system. It consists of cold(er) air coming in from a front
(hopper) window, especially made for this purpose and
owing out through (one of) the skylights that are placed
on the earthship. As the hot air rises, the system creates
a steady airow - of cooler air coming in, and warmer air
blowing out.
19.5 Climate
The interior climate of an Earthship is stabilized by taking advantage of natural phenomena. Mainly, the Earthship is designed to use the properties of thermal mass
and passive solar heating and cooling. Examples are
large front windows with integrated shades, trombe walls
and other technologies such as skylights or Steve Baer's
Track Rack solar trackers (doubling as an energy generation device and passive solar source).
The load-bearing walls of an Earthship, which are made
from steel-belted tires rammed with earth, serve two purposes. First, they hold up the roof, and second, they provide a dense thermal mass that will soak up heat during
19.6 Heating problems

Earthships rely on a balance between the solar heat gain
and the ability of the tire walls and subsoil to transport
and store heat. The design intends to require little if any
auxiliary heat. Some earthships have suered from overheating and some from overcooling.
Some earthships appear to have serious problems with
heat loss. In these cases heat appears to be leaking into
the ground constantly during the heating season and being lost. This situation may have arisen from the mistaken belief that ground-coupled structures (building in
108
thermal contact with the ground) do not require insulation. The situation may also be due to large climatic differences between the sunny, arid, and warm Southwest
(of the USA) where earthships were rst built and the
cloudier, cooler, and wetter climates where some are now
being built. Malcolm Wells, an architect and authority
on earth-sheltered design, recommends an imperial Rvalue 10 insulation between deep soils and heated spaces.
Wellss insulation recommendations increase as the depth
of the soil decreases.
In very limited and specic situations, uncommon during the heating season, thermal mass can marginally increase the apparent R-value of a building assembly such
as a wall. Generally speaking thermal mass and R-value
are distinct thermodynamic properties and should not be
equated. Thermal performance problems apparently seen
in some earthship designs may have occurred because of
thermal mass being erroneously equated to R-value. The
imperial R-value of soil is about 1 per foot.[9]
19.7 Europe

by Daren Howarth, Kevan Trott and Michael Reynolds
and funded by the UK Environment Agency and the Energy Savings Trust. The successful application was for
sixteen one, two, and three-bedroom earthship homes on
this site. Expected to have a sale price of 250 - 400,000
pounds,[11] the homes are all designed according to basic
earthship principles developed in the United States and
adapted to the UK. 15,000 tires will be recycled to construct these homes (the UK burns approximately 40 million tires each year). The plans include the enhancement
of habitats on the site for lizards that already live there,
which is the reasoning behind entitling the project The
Lizard. This would have been the rst development of
its kind in Europe.[12]
The rst ocial Earthship home in mainland Europe with
ocial planning permission approval was built in a small
French village called Ger. The home, which is owned
by Kevan and Gillian Trott, was built in April 2007 by
Kevan, Mike Reynolds and an Earthship Crew from Taos.
The design was modied for a European climate and is
seen as the rst of many for the European arena. It is
currently used as a holiday home for eco-tourists.[13]
Further adaptation to the European context was undertaken by Daren Howarth and Adrianne Nortje in Brittany,
France. They obtained full planning permission in 2007
and nished the Brittany Groundhouse as their own home
during 2009. The build experience and learning is documented in the UK Grand Designs series and in their
book.[14]
Meanwhile earthships have been built or are being built

in Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, The Netherlands,
United Kingdom, Sweden, Estonia and Czech Republic.
A good overview of the earthships built in Europe can
Brighton Earthship, UK
be found on the web page of European Earthship Builder
United,[15] together with information on earthships being
In 2000, Michael Reynolds and his team came to build
built.[16] A good chronological overview on the earthships
the rst residential earthship in Boingt (Belgium). While
built in Europe by Michael Reynolds can be found in the
water, power module, solar panels and the team were on
article 'Europe'.[17]
their way to Europe, the mayor of Boingt put his veto on
the building permit. Josephine Overeem, the woman who The rst ocial earthship district (23 earthships) in Euwanted to build the earthship, and Michael Reynolds de- rope is currently being developed in Olst (the Nethercided to do a demonstration model in her back yard at lands). Building will start in spring 2012.[18] In Belgium,
her residence in Strombeek (Belgium). CLEVEL[10] in- 1 earthship hybrid is also being built, intended as demonvited Reynolds from Belgium to Brighton in the UK, and stration buildings. Since it is illegal to use tires in Belgium
orchestrated plans for the earthship in Brighton, started (for risk of leaking toxic metals like lead and zinc),[19] the
in 2003. This was the beginning of a series of trips made project uses earthbags to build their earthship instead.
by Reynolds and the construction of earthships in the UK, The Earthships built in Europe by Michael Reynolds
France and the Netherlands.
aren't always performing as promised and some show
problems with moisture and mould.[20] Some research
into performance was done by the University of Brighton
on the Brighton Earthship.[21] which was then used to create the most detailed thermal monitoring ever carried out
on an earthship (reported with a series of design recommendations to make earthships more eective in dierIn 2007, CLEVEL and Earthship Biotecture obtained
ent climatic conditions in the book Earthships: building a
full planning permission to build on a development site
zero carbon future for homes [22] )
overlooking the Brighton Marina in the UK. The application followed a six-month feasibility study, orchestrated
In 2004, the very rst Earthship in the UK was opened
at Kinghorn Loch in Fife, Scotland. It was built by volunteers of the SCI charity. In 2005, the rst earthship in
England was established in Stanmer Park, Brighton with
the Low Carbon Trust.
19.11. GALLERY
19.8 Africa
The rst earthship in South Africa was built by Angel
and Yvonne Kamp from 1996 to 1998. They rammed
a total of 1,500 tires for the walls. The earthship, near
Hermanus, is located in a 60 hectare private nature reserve which is part of a 500000 hectare area enclosed
in a game fence and borders the Walker Bay Nature
Reserve.[23]
The second earthship in South Africa is a recycling
centre in Khayelitsha run as a swop shop concept.
The centre was nished in December 2010.[24] Another
low cost house built with tyres is in development in
Bloemfontein.[25][26]
A project nearing completion in South Africa is a combined living quarters for 4 to 5 people, a bed and breakfast, and an information/training centre in Orania.[27]
This earthship is based on the global earthship model and
is built with a foundation of tyres, has roof bearing walls
built with earthbags, and interior walls built with cob,
cans and plastic bottles. This earthship adheres to all six
principles of an earthship. This is the largest earthbag
earthship in the world.[28]
A residential house is in the planning phase for
Swaziland.[29]
In 2011, construction began on the Goderich Waldorf
School of Sierra Leone. The school was the rst educational institution to use earthship architecture. Although
Mike Reynolds and a team of interns helped complete
the rst two classrooms, the majority of the building was
built by community members who had been trained in
Reynolds building techniques.[30][31]
A new project will commence in Malawi in October
2013.[32]
109
19.11 Gallery
E.V.E project (Earthship Village Economies) under
construction.
Front face of a Global model Earthship.
Vaulted Earthship entrance.
An Earthship interacts with the elements as part of
the ecosystem.
Earthships are made of earth-rammed tires, cement,
steel, bottles and cans.
Earthships collect rainwater on the roof that runs
into a catchment gutter.
Earthship inside greenhouse.
Bottle walls are used in earthships mainly as non
load bearing interior walls, as in this bathroom
(Taos, NM, USA).
Interior of the Solaria Earthship with sun coming in
from the south facing windows (Taos, NM, USA).
19.12 See also

Solar thermal energy
Hurricane-proof building
Permaculture
Repurposing
Spaceship Earth
Peter Vetsch
19.13 Notes
19.9 Argentina
NaveTierra MDQ[33] is a Mar del Plata-based project
activating people and resources to build a demonstration NaveTierra (Spanish preferred contraction for Earthship). Until land for the project is acquired, knowledge is
developed and put to work towards assembling the puzzle
at the Estacin Permacultural (Permacultural Station).
[1] Verde, Tom (December 2, 1996). At Heart of Dispute,

Tires by the Acre. The New York Times.
[2] Earthship Biotecture (25 March 2009). An Earthship
goes through the Hondo Fire!".
[3] botanical cell
[4] Reynolds, Mike (2000). Comfort In Any Climate. Taos,
NM: Solar Survival Press. ISBN 0-9626767-4-8.
[5] Plants placed at xtures in earthships
[6] Earthship Volume 2:Systems and components
19.10 Documentary
The lm Garbage Warrior is about Earthships and
Reynolds struggle with the law.
[7] New water purication system process at Helios house:

overview with pictures
[8] Wastewater path
[9] Kansas State University Extension Service
110
[10] CLEVEL
[11] http://ecohomenews.wordpress.com/2010/10/18/
docking-into-mother-earthship/
[12] Earthship Homes development (archived from the original
on 2007-12-13).
[13] Kevin Telfer, Super green European breaks (26 April
2008 ), The Guardian.
[14] Groundhouse
[15] European Earthship Builders United - European earthship
map
[16] European Earthship Builders United - European projects
map
[17] Article - Europe
[18] Web site Aardehuis - The project
[19] EOS magazine, march 2012
[20] Article - Performance
[21] Source: Thermal behaviour of an earth sheltered autonomous building the Brighton Earthship, Dr. Kenneth
Ip and Prof. Andrew Miller, Centre for Sustainability of
the Built Environment - University of Brighton - United
Kingdom
[22] Hewitt, M. and Telfer, K. (2007). Earthships: building a
zero carbon future for homes. ISBN 978-1-86081-972-8
[23] Views of walker bay and South Africas rst earthship.
property24.com.
[24] E, Michael (November 11, 2010). khayelitsha earthship:
help set sail for a new housing destination. UrbanSprout.
Retrieved 14 May 2013.
[25] Everson, Ludwig (December 22, 2012). Aardskip.com
supports Qala Tala to create earthship RDP housing.
aardskip.blogspot.com. aardskip.com. Retrieved 14 May
2013.
[26] Qala Tala Project. Growing Tomorrow (AgriTV). The
Weekly. January 18, 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
19.14 References
Hewitt, M. and Telfer, K. (2007). Earthships: building a zero carbon future for homes. ISBN 978-186081-972-8
Klippel, James H. http://www.garrellassociates.
com/EcoDesign.html, green page
Howarth, D. & Nortje, A. (2010). Groundhouse
Build & Cook. ISBN 978-0-9566947-0-6
EARTHSHIP VOL.1 - HOW TO BUILD YOUR OWN.
M.REYNOLDS - 1990
EARTH-SHELTERED HOUSES. HOW TO BUILD AN

AFFORDABLE UNDERGROUND HOME. R.ROY 2006
COMPLETE BOOK OF UNDERGROUND HOUSES.

R.ROY - How to Build a Low-cost Home - 1994

Schirber, Michael. Making Earthships Mainstream on Going Green at msnbc.com, November
12, 2007.
Raets, W.J.L., Flagship Design Guides - General Pre-Building and Design, June 15, 2012

Ocial website
Earthship Europe
Earthship Belgium
Earthship Denmark
[27] Where in the world is Project Aardskip?". aardskip.com.

Earthship Biotecture: The New Norm? on HonestBlue
[28] Top Travel in Orania.
Earthship Brighton
[29] Harding, Stewart. Archive for the Swaziland Project

Category. earthships.co.za. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
[30] Elliot, Sam (March 21, 2012). Ten Days in Africa.
earthship.com. Earthship Biotecture. Retrieved 14 May
2013.
[31] Hughes, Amanda. University of Cincinnati alum builds
homes with recycled materials. UC Magazine (May
2009). Retrieved 14 May 2013.
[32] Nardone, Jeane (April 5, 2013). Earthship Malawi,
Africa Join Us!". earthship.com. Earthship Biotecture.
[33] Proyecto NaveTierra MDQ website. Retrieved 19 April
2013.
Chapter 20
Transit-oriented development
is a common estimate for the distance people will walk to
get to a rail station. The half-mile ring is a little more
than 500 acres (2.0 km2 ) in size.[1]
Transit-oriented development is sometimes distinguished
by some planning ocials from "transit-proximate development" (see, e.g., comments made during a Congressional hearing [2] ) because it contains specic features
that are designed to encourage public transport use and
dierentiate the development from urban sprawl. Examples of these features include mixed-use development
that will use transit at all times of day, excellent pedestrian facilities such as high quality pedestrian crossings,
The local government of Arlington County, Virginia encourages narrow streets, and tapering of buildings as they become
transit-oriented development within 1 4 to 1 2 mile (400 to 800 m) more distant from the public transport node. Another
from the Countys Washington Metro rapid transit stations, with key feature of transit-oriented development that dierenmixed-use development, bikesharing and walkability.
tiates it from transit-proximate development is reduced
amounts of parking for personal vehicles.
A transit-oriented development (TOD) is a mixed-use
Opponents of compact, or transit oriented development
residential and commercial area designed to maximize
typically argue that Americans, and persons throughout
access to public transport, and often incorporates features
the world, prefer low-density living, and that any polito encourage transit ridership. A TOD neighborhood typcies that encourage compact development will result in
ically has a center with a transit station or stop (train stasubstantial utility decreases and hence large social weltion, metro station, tram stop, or bus stop), surrounded
fare costs.[3] Proponents of compact development argue
by relatively high-density development with progressively
that there are large, often unmeasured benets of comlower-density development spreading outward from the
pact development[4] or that the American preference for
center. TODs generally are located within a radius of
low-density living is a misinterpretation made possible in
one-quarter to one-half mile (400 to 800 m) from a tranpart by substantial local government interference in the
sit stop, as this is considered to be an appropriate scale
land market.[5][6]
for pedestrians, thus solving the last mile problem.
20.1 Description
Many of the new towns created after World War II in
Japan, Sweden, and France have many of the characteristics of TOD communities. In a sense, nearly all com- 20.2 TOD in cities
munities built on reclaimed land in the Netherlands or
as exurban developments in Denmark have had the local
equivalent of TOD principles integrated in their planning, Many cities throughout the world are developing TOD
including the promotion of bicycles for local use.
policy.
Portland, Montreal, San Francisco, and
In the United States, a half-mile-radius circle has become Vancouver among many other cities have developed, and
the de facto standard for rail-transit catchment areas for continue to write policies and strategic plans which aim
TODs. A half mile (800 m) corresponds to the distance to reduce automobile dependency and increase the use of
someone can walk in 10 minutes at 3 mph (4.8 km/h) and public transit.
111
112
20.2.1
CHAPTER 20. TRANSIT-ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT
Latin America
discussion and agreement..
20.2.2 North America
Aerial view of Rosslyn-Ballston corridor in Arlington,

Virginia. High density, mixed use development is
Curitibas BRT corridors run along high-density devel- concentrated within mile from the Rosslyn, Court
oped areas
House and Clarendon Washington Metro stations (shown
in red), with limited density outside that area.
Land use planning allowed high density to develop along

Curitibas BRT corridors
Guatemala City, Guatemala

In an attempt to control rapid growth of Guatemala City,
the long-time Mayor of Guatemala City lvaro Arz
implemented a plan to control growth based on transects along important arterial roads and exhibiting transitoriented development (TOD) characteristics. This plan
adopted POT (Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial) aims to
allow the construction of taller, mixed-use building structures right by large arterial roads; the buildings would
gradually decrease in height and density the farther they
are from arterial roads.[7] This is simultaneously being
implemented along with a bus rapid transit (BRT) system
called Transmetro.
Street-level view of the area around the Ballston

Metro Station also in Arlington, Virginia. Note
the mixed-use development (from left to right: ground
oor retailunder apartment building, oce buildings,
shopping mall (at the end of the street), apartment building, oce building with ground oor retail), pedestrian
oriented facilities including wide sidewalk, and bus stop
facility in the center distance. Parking in this location is
limited, relatively expensive, and located underground.
Arlington County, Virginia

Curitiba, Brazil
One of the earliest and most successful examples of TOD
is Curitiba, Brazil.[8] Curitiba was organized into transport corridors very early on in its history. Over the years,
it has integrated its zoning laws and transportation planning to place high-density development adjacent to highcapacity transportation systems, particularly its BRT corridors. Since the failure of its rst, rather grandiose,
city plan due to lack of funding, Curitiba has focused on
working with economical forms of infrastructure, so it
has arranged unique adaptations, such as bus routes (inexpensive infrastructure) with routing systems, limited access and speeds similar to subway systems. The source of
innovation in Curitiba has been a unique form of participatory city planning that emphasizes public education,
For over 30 years, the government has pursed a

development strategy of concentrating much of its new
development within 1 4 to 1 2 mile (400 to 800 m) from
the Countys Washington Metro rapid transit stations and
the high-volume bus lines of Columbia Pike.[9] Within
the transit areas, the government has a policy of encouraging mixed-use and pedestrian- and transit-oriented
development.[10] Some of these "urban village" communities include: Rosslyn, Ballston, Clarendon, Courthouse,
Pentagon City, Crystal City, Lyon Village, Shirlington,
Virginia Square, and Westover
In 2002, Arlington received the EPA's National Award
for Smart Growth Achievement for Overall Excellence
in Smart Growth" the rst ever granted by the
agency.[11]
20.2. TOD IN CITIES

In September 2010, Arlington County, Virginia, in partnership with Washington, D.C., opened Capital Bikeshare, a bicycle sharing system.[12][13][14] By February
2011, Capital Bikeshare had 14 stations in the Pentagon
City, Potomac Yard, and Crystal City neighborhoods in
Arlington.[12] Arlington County also announced plans to
add 30 stations in fall 2011, primarily along the densely
populated corridor between the Rosslyn and Ballston
neighborhoods, and 30 more in 2012.[15]
113
New Jersey
New Jersey has become a national leader in promoting

transit oriented development. The New Jersey Department of Transportation established the Transit Village
Initiative in 1999 oering multi-agency assistance and
grants from the annual $1 million fund to any municipality with a ready to go project specifying appropriate
mixed land-use strategy, available property, station-area
management, and commitment to aordable housing, job
growth, and culture. Transit village development must
also preserve the architectural integrity of historically signicant buildings. Since 1999 the state has made 28
San Francisco Bay Area, California
Transit Village designations, which are in dierent stages
The San Francisco Bay Area includes nine counties and of development:
101 cities, including San Jose, San Francisco, Oakland Pleasantville (1999), Morristown (1999), Rutherford
and Fremont. Local and regional governments [16] en- (1999), South Amboy (1999), South Orange (1999),
courage transit-oriented development to decrease trac Riverside (2001), Rahway (2002), Metuchen (2003),
congestion, protect natural areas, promote public health Belmar (2003), Bloomeld (2003), Bound Brook (2003),
and increase housing options. The region has designated Collingswood (2003), Cranford (2003) Matawan (2003),
Priority Development Areas and Priority Conservation New Brunswick (2005), Journal Square/Jersey City
Areas. Current population forecasts [17] for the region (2005), Netcong (2005), Midtown Elizabeth (2007),
predict that it will grow by 2 million people by 2035 due Burlington City (2007), Orange (2009), Montclair
to both the natural birth rate and job creation, and esti- (2010), Somerville (2010), Linden (2010), West Windmate that 50% of this growth can be accommodated in sor (2012), Dunellen (2012), and Plaineld (2014).[19][20]
Priority Development Areas through transit-oriented development.
Major transit village projects have been developed over Vancouver, British Columbia
the past 20 years at several stations linked to the Bay
Area Rapid Transit (BART) system. In their 1996 book,
Transit Villages in the 21st Century, Michael Bernick
and Robert Cervero identied emerging transit villages
at several BART stations, including Pleasant Hill / Contra Costa Centre, Fruitvale, Hayward and Richmond.[18]
Salt Lake City Metro Area, Utah
Greater Vancouver has had a strong history of creating

new development around its SkyTrain lines and also created the concept of regional town centres on the major
stations and transit corridors. Of note is the Metrotown
area of the suburb of Burnaby, British Columbia near the
Metrotown SkyTrain Station. The areas around stations
have spurred the development of billions of dollars of
high-density real estate, with multiple highrises near the
many stations.
The Salt Lake City Metro Area has seen a strong pro- Toronto, Ontario
liferation of transit-oriented developments due to the
construction of new transit lines within the Utah Transit Authority's TRAX, FrontRunner and streetcar lines.
New developments in West Valley, Farmington, Murray,
Provo, Kaysville, Sugarhouse and downtown Salt Lake
City have seen rapid growth and construction despite the
economic downturn. The population along the Wasatch
Front has reached 1.7 million and is expected to grow
50% over the next two decades. At 29.8%, Utahs population growth more than doubled the population growth
of the nation (13.2%), with a vast majority of this growth
occurring along the Wasatch Front.
Transportation infrastructure has been vastly upgraded in
the past decade as a result of the 2002 Olympic Winter
Games and the need to support the growth in population.
This has created a number of transit-oriented commercial
Vicinity of Finch subway station, Toronto
and residential projects to be proposed and completed.
114
Toronto has a longstanding policy of encouraging new
construction along the route of its primary Yonge Street
subway line. Most notable are the development of the
Yonge and Eglinton area in the 1960s and 1970s; and
the present development of the 2 km of the Yonge Street
corridor north of Sheppard Avenue, which began in the
late 1980s. In the period since 1997 alone the latter
stretch has seen the appearance of a major new shopping
centre and the building and occupation of over twenty
thousand new units of condominium housing. Since the
opening of the Sheppard subway line in 2002, there is
a condominium construction boom along the route on
Sheppard Avenue East between Yonge Street and Don
Mills Road.
Calgary, Alberta

Edmonton, Alberta
Most of the suburban high rises were not along major
rail lines like other cities until recently, when there has
been incentive to do so. Century Park is a growing condo
community in southern Edmonton at the south end of
Edmontons LRT. It will include low to high rise condos, recreational services, shops, restaurants, and a tness centre. Edmonton has also had a transit-proximate
development for some time in the northeastern suburbs
at Clareview which includes a large park and ride, and
low rise apartments among big box stores and associated power center parking. Edmonton is also looking into
some new TODs in various parts of the city. In the northeast, there are plans to redevelop underutilized land at
two sites around existing LRT, Fort Road and Stadium
Station.[21][22] In the west, there is plans to have some
medium density condos in the Glenora neighbourhood
along a future LRT route as well as a TOD in the southeast in the Strathearn neighbourhood along the same future LRT on existing low rise apartments.
Winnipeg, Manitoba
There is currently one TOD being built in Winnipeg
beside the rapid transit corridor. In phase two of the
southwest rapid transit corridor, there will be four more
TODs.[23]
Montreal, Quebec
According to the Metropolitan Development and Planning Regulation[24] of late 2011, 40% of new households
will be build as TOD neighbourhoods.
Aurora, Colorado
The city has developed within its plan as of 2007 standardization measures. For instance, streets width has
been set according to the position of the site.[25][26]
Bridgeland, Calgary
20.2.3 Asia and Oceania
Calgary is home to a very successful TOD community called The Bridges, located in the community of
Bridgeland. The Bridges is home to a diverse range of
condos, shops, services, and parks. Some other TODs
currently being constructed are London and Westbrook,
both high rise condo and retail communities in suburban
areas of the City. The City continues to create TOD policy for other Calgary communities. Calgary City Council
has allocated funding for the creation of six Station Area
Plans around the city, to guide increasing development
pressure around some of the light rail transit stations. On
June 9, 2008, Calgary City Council approved the rst station area plan in Calgarys history.
Hong Kong
In the mid-20th century, no railway was built until an area
was well developed. However, in recent decades, Hong
Kong has started to have some TODs, where a railway is
built simultaneously with residential development above
or nearby. Examples include:
LOHAS Park
Olympian City
Tung Chung
20.3. EQUITY AND HOUSING COST CONCERNS

Milton, Queensland
Milton, an inner suburb of Brisbane, has been identied as Queenslands rst transit-oriented development
under the Queensland Governments South East Queensland Regional Plan. Milton railway station will undergo
a multi-million dollar revamp as part of the development
of The Milton Residences to promote and encourage residents to embrace rail travel. This will include a new
ticketing oce, new public amenities, increased visibility across platforms and new and improved access points
o Milton Road and Railway Terrace.[27]
Melbourne, Victoria
Main article: Melbourne 2030
115
today. Recently, scholars and technicians have taken interest in the concept, however.[28]
Paris, France
Whereas the city of Paris has a centuries-long history, its
main frame dates to this 19th century. The subway network was made to solve both linkage between the ve
main train stations and local transportation assets for citizens. The whole area of Paris City is closer than 500
metres from the next subway station. Recent bicycle and
car rental systems (Velib and Autolib) also ease travel, in
the very same way that TOD emphasizes.So do the new
trams linking suburbs close to Paris proper, and tramline
3 around the edge of the city of Paris.
Melbourne, Victoria is expected to reach a population of Stedenbaan, The Netherlands

5 million by 2030 with the overwhelming majority of its
residents relying on private automobiles. Since the turn In the Southern part of the Randstad will be built a neigh[29]
of the century, sporadic eorts have been made by var- bourhood according to the principles of TOD.
ious levels of government to implement transit-oriented
development principles. However, a lack of commitment to funding public transport infrastructure, resulting 20.3 Equity and housing cost conto overcrowding and amending zoning laws has dramaticerns
cally slowed progress toward sustainable development for
the city.
One criticism of transit-oriented development is that it
has the potential to spur gentrication in low-income ar20.2.4 Europe
eas. In some cases, TOD can raise the housing costs
of formerly aordable neighborhoods, pushing low- and
moderate-income residents farther away from jobs and
transit. When this happens, TOD projects can disrupt
low-income neighborhoods.[30]
Karen Blixen Park, restad (Copenhagen), Denmark
The term transit-oriented development, as a US-born

concept, is rarely used in Europe, although many of the
measures advocated in transit-oriented development are
also stressed here. Many European cities have long been
built around transit systems and there has thus often been
little or no need to dierentiate this type of development
with a special term as has been the case in the US. An
example of this is Copenhagens Finger Plan from 1947,
which embodied many transit-oriented development aspects and is still used as an overall planning framework
When executed with equity in mind, however, TOD has

the potential to benet low- and moderate-income (LMI)
communities: it can link workers to employment centers, create construction and maintenance jobs, and has
the potential to encourage investment in areas that have
suered neglect and economic depression.[31] Moreover,
it is well recognized that neighborhood development restrictions, while potentially in the immediate neighborhoods best interest, contribute to regional undersupply
of housing and drive up the cost of housing in general
across a region. TOD development reduces the overall
cost of housing in a region by contributing to the housing supply, and therefore generally improves equitability
in the housing market. TOD also reduces transportation
costs, which can have a greater impact on LMI households since they spend a larger share of their income on
transportation relative to higher-income households. This
frees up household income that can be used on food, education, or other necessary expenses. Low-income people
are also less likely to own personal vehicles and therefore
more likely to depend exclusively on public transportation to get to and from work, making reliable access to
transit a necessity for their economic success.[32] Another
116
criticism aims the marginal percentage of people actually [10] http://www.arlingtonva.us/departments/CPHD/planning/

powerpoint/rbpresentation/rbpresentation_060107.pdf
using public transportation.[33]
20.4 See also

Americas Energy and Climate Symposium
Auto-oriented development
Principles of Intelligent Urbanism
Smart growth
Streetcar suburb
Transit-proximate development
Transit village
Urban consolidation
Value capture
20.5 References
[1] Erick Guerra and Robert Cervero (Spring 2013). Is a
Half-Mile Circle the Right Standard for TODs?". ACCESS, University of California, Berkeley (42). Retrieved
2013-06-07.
[2]
[3] Moore, Adrian.T.; Staley, Samuel.R.; Poole, Robert.W.
(2010).
The role of VMT reduction in meeting climate change policy goals. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 44 (8): 565574.
doi:10.1016/j.tra.2010.03.012.
[4] Winkelman, S.; Bishins, A. (2010). Planning for economic and environmental resiliance. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 44 (8): 575586.
doi:10.1016/j.tra.2010.03.011.
[5] Levine, Jonathan (2006). Markets and Choices in Transportation and Metropolitan Land Use. Washington: Resources for the Future. ISBN 978-1933115153.
[6] Boarnet, Marlon (Summer 2011). A Broader Context for Land Use and Travel Behavior, and a Research
Agenda. Journal of the American Planning Association
77 (3): 197213. doi:10.1080/01944363.2011.593483.
Retrieved 16 November 2014.
[7] ":::... Plan de Ordenamiento Territorial - T eres la Ciudad, Municipalidad de Guatemala, cumple ...:::" (in Spanish). Pot.muniguate.com. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
[8] Citizine Information, Zoning and Land Use in Curitiba
(Ingles)". January 2006. Retrieved 2008.
[9] Smart Growth : Planning Division : Arlington, Virginia.
Arlingtonva.us. 2011-03-07. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
[11] Arlington County, Virginia National Award for Smart

Growth Achievement 2002 Winners Presentation.
Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
[12] Matt Martinez (20 September 2010). Washington, D.C.,
launches the nations largest bike share program. Grist
(magazine). Retrieved 14 April 2011.
[13] J. David Goodman (20 September 2010). Bike Sharing
Expands in Washington. New York Times. Retrieved 14
April 2011.
[14] Arlington Joins DC in Bike-Sharing Program. MyFoxDC.com. 20 September 2010. Retrieved 14 April
2011.
[15] Arlington votes (sort of) to expand CaBi; more places
likely to follow. TheWashCycle. Retrieved 17 October
2011.
[16] San Francisco Bay Area Vision Project.
sion.org. Retrieved on 2013-12-06.
Bayareavi-
[17] Projections 2009. Abag.ca.gov (2008-05-15). Retrieved

on 2013-12-06.
[18] Michael Bernick, Robert Cervero (1996). Transit Villages
in the 21st Century. University of California, Berkeley:
McGraw Hill.
[19] FAQ. Transit Village Initiative. NJDOT. February 25,
2009. Retrieved 2012-08-08.
[20] http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/about/press/2014/
032814.shtm
[21] Old Town Fort Road Redevelopment. City of Edmonton. Retrieved 2010-10-21.
[22] Stadium Station Transit Oriented Development. City of
Edmonton. Retrieved 2010-10-21.
[23] Transportation Master Plan. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[24] Un premier plan damnagement durable pour le Grand
Montral | Voir vert - Le portail du btiment durable au
Qubec. Voirvert.ca. Retrieved on 2013-12-06.
[25] Missing Page or Old Bookmark @. Auroragov.org. Retrieved on 2013-12-06.
[26] Examples of Codes That Support Smart Growth Development | Smart Growth | US EPA. Epa.gov. Retrieved on
2013-12-06.
[27] Transit Oriented Development, Sustainable City Living
The Milton. Retrieved on 2013-11-20.
[28] https://www.colloquium.fr/ei/cm.esp?id=565&pageid=
_3ET0UVLVD
[29] http://www.thinkdeep.nl/documents/Papers/Hoeven.pdf
[30] Equitable Development Toolkit: Transit Oriented Development. 2008.
[31] Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco (2010).

Community Investments: Transit-Oriented Development.
[32] Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco (2010).
Equipping Communities to Achieve Equitable TransitOriented Development.
[33] Not The Great Transit Oriented Development Swindle?".
Fog City Journal (2009-02-05). Retrieved on 2013-1206.
20.6 External links

Transit-Oriented Development
Transit Oriented Development
Transit Oriented Development in Calgary, Alberta,
Canada
Transit oriented development growing in USA (in
Finnish)
TOD Standard: Version 2.0, Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), November 2013.
Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Community
Investments: Special Issue on TOD
American Planning Association: From Intentions to
Consequences: San Diego TOD Design Guidelines
and Rio Vista West Project: by Aseem Inam
Eect of Smart Growth Policies on Travel Demand,
Transportation Research Board, SHRP 2 Report S2C16-RR-1, 2014.
Multiple Factors Inuence Extent of TransitOriented Development, U.S. Government Accountability Oce, November 2014
117
118
20.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

20.7.1
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Forest gardening Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest%20gardening?oldid=642299391 Contributors: Ray Van De Walker, Anthere, Quercusrobur, Lquilter, Stan Shebs, Artost, Glenn, Marshman, Vardion, Alan Liefting, Everyking, Bobblewik, Serendeva, Pgan002,
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Daniel Cordoba-Bahle, Sustainableyes, Skier Dude, Madbishop, Jorfer, Woodsguy, Scott Roy Atwood, DASonnenfeld, Lightmouse, Der
Golem, Mild Bill Hiccup, XLinkBot, Edibleforests, Addbot, Granitethighs, Jarble, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Citation bot, Anna
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Erauch, Cmdrjameson, TheParanoidOne, Kazvorpal, Jwanders, Porphyra, Salix alba, Nirvana2013, Calvin08, CmdrObot, Jhml, Nocompost, R'n'B, Uncle Dick, Squids and Chips, ClueBot, XLinkBot, Addbot, Tassedethe, Tikar aurum, Luckas-bot, Apothecia, Anna Frodesiak, Rickproser, , LucienBOT, JobenCitySchlicka, MarcelB612, LESS Productions, Lopifalko, Look2See1, ClueBot NG,
Gob Lofa, Northamerica1000, Redddbaron and Anonymous: 22
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Earthship Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthship?oldid=643523657 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, William Avery, Ray Van De
Walker, Edward, Michael Hardy, Angela, Cherkash, Merovingian, David Edgar, Andycjp, Discospinster, Deirdre, FusionKnight, Kenwarren, Barista, David Schaich, Lbravo, Sbufe, MBisanz, Ebacherdom, Carders, Rosenzweig, Paleorthid, Wtmitchell, ReyBrujo, Roboshed,
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Carbon, Paskavittu, Chris Carter68 and Anonymous: 185
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Ray Van De Walker, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Mulad, Peregrine981, Darkcore, Dale Arnett, AlainV, Gidonb, Mushroom, Alan
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Punk oriley, Steve laeur, JALittau, Lucy Bloom, Difu Wu, Conorbrady.ie, MarisaRaya, EmausBot, Pingu.dbl96, Nudecline, ChuispastonBot, Frbsf, Matthew105, Tyson2kk, Compfreak7, JeromRP, Naagarik, LegacyOfValor, Njaohnt, Rustyrgould, An Errant Knight, Jianhui67, Jessempalmer, Monkbot, WyattAlex and Anonymous: 52
20.7.2
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wikipedia/commons/3/37/EXTERIOR_OF_AN_EXPERIMENTAL_ALL_ALUMINUM_BEER_AND_SOFT_DRINK_CAN_
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Garden City Development

Central place theory

Building the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Predictions of the theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Newer developments: a dynamic concept for CPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The importance of a City and other Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Making Central Place Theory operational

1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Unied settlement planning

Central Place Theory and Spatial Interaction Models

Moving away from the linear model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Creating the circular framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Emergence of the idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Energy must come from renewable sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The circular economy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Towards the Circular Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Regenerative versus sustainable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Preservation versus conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Size of regenerative systems

Summary of relationships in systems ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Closely related elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Earth systems engineering and management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Blue Economy

Core tenets and principles of design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Twelve design principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

People and permaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Intensive rotational grazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fruit tree management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mollison and Holmgren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Trademark and copyright issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Green economists and economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Green Energy Issues

Passive solar building design

Passive energy gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The solar path in passive design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Passive solar thermodynamic principles

Convective heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Radiative heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Site specic considerations during design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Design elements for residential buildings in temperate climates

Eciency and economics of passive solar heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Key passive solar building design concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Direct solar gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Indirect solar gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Isolated solar gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Special glazing systems and window coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Operable shading and insulation devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Exterior colors reecting - absorbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Landscaping and gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.10 Other passive solar principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.10.1 Passive solar lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.10.2 Passive solar water heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.11 Comparison to the Passive House standard in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.12 Design tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.13 Levels of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.2.1 Adaptation to climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3.2 Shade systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3.3 Crop-over-tree systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3.4 Alley cropping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.3.5 Strip cropping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .