Chapter

11

RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION

As the silt originates from the water shed, the characteristics of the catchment such its
areal extent, soil types, land slopes, vegetal cover and climatic conditions like temperature,
nature and intensity of rainfall, have a great significance in the sediment production in the
form of sheet erosion, gully erosion and stream, channel erosion. In regions of moderate rainfall, sheet erosion is the dominant source of total sediment load while in arid and semi-arid
regions, gullying and stream-channel erosion furnish the greater part of the load.
Experiments have shown that the erosive power of water, flowing with a velocity V,
varies as V 2 while the transporting ability of water varies as V 6. Sediment moves in the
stream as suspended load (fine particles) in the flowing water, and as bed load (large particles), which slides or rolls along the channel bottom. Sometimes, the particles (small particles
of sand and gravel) move by bouncing along the bed, which is termed as saltation, which is a
transitional stage between bed and suspended load. The material, which moves as bed load at
one section may be in suspension at another section.
The suspended sediment load of streams is measured by sampling the water, filtering to
remove the sediment, drying and weighing the filtered material.
Sediment load, (ppm) =

weight of sediment in the sample

106
weight of sediment laden water sample

The samplers may be of depth-integrating type or point samplers. Point samplers are
used only where it is not possible to use the depth integrating type because of great depth of
high velocity, or for studies of sediment distribution in streams. The sample is usually collected in pint bottle held in a sample of stream-lined body so as not to disturb the flow while
collecting a representative sample.
The relation between the suspended-sediment transport Qs and stream flow Q is given
by
Qs = KQ n
log Qs = log K + n log Q

...(11.1)
...(11.1 a)

and is often represented by a logarithmic plot of Qs vs. Q (Fig. 11.1); Qs = K when Q = 1, and n
is the slope of the straight line plot and 2 to 3.
The sediment rating curve from a continuous record of stream flow provides a rough
estimate of sediment inflow to reservoirs and the total sediment transport may be estimated
by adding 10-20% to the suspended sediment transport to allow for the bed load contribution.

When the sediment-laden water reaches a reservoir, the velocity and turbulence are
greatly reduced. The dense fluid-solid mixture along the bottom of the reservoir moves slowly
in the form of a density current or stratified flows, i.e., a diffused colloidal suspension having
a density slightly different from that of the main body of reservoir water, due to dissolved
minerals and temperature, and hence does not mix readily with the reservoir water (Fig. 11.2).
Smaller particles may be deposited near the base of the dam. Some of the density currents and
settled sediments near the base of the dam can possibly be flushed out by operating the sluice
gates. The modern multipurpose reservoirs are operated at various water levels, which are
significant in the deposition and movement of silt in the reservoir.

The total amount of sediment that passes any section of a stream is referred to as the
sediment yield or sediment production. The mean annual sediment production rates generally
range from 250-2000 tons/km2 or 2.5-18 ha-m/100 km2 and the Indian reservoirs are losing a
storage capacity of 0.5-1% annually.

The following figures give a general idea of the silt carried by some of the big rivers in
the world during floods:
River

Silt content (% by weight)

Colorado (USA)

1.00

Mississippi-Missouri (USA)

0.20

Yangatze (China)

0.04

Yellow river (China)

4.00

Indus (Pakistan)

0.42

Sutlej (India)

1.67

Nile (Egypt)

0.15

Krishna (India)

1.00

Cauvery (India)

0.14

Tungabhadra (India)

0.67

Sone (India)

0.56

The sedimentation rate worked out by experts for different projects in India are given
below:
Project

Annual sedimentation rate

(ham/100 km 2)

Bhakra

6.00

Hirakund

3.89

Gandhisagar

10.05

Nizamsagar

6.57

Panchet

9.92

Maithon

13.02

Ramganga

17.30

Tungabhadra
Mayurakshi

6.00
20.09

Tawa

8.10

Dantiwada

6.32

Manchkund

2.33

The useful life of a reservoir gets reduced due to sediment deposition causing a decrease in its
storage capacity.The factors affecting the pattern of sediment deposition in reservoirs are:
(i) sediment load (i.e., sediment inflow rate)
(ii) sediment size (i.e., gradation of silt)
(iii) compaction of sediment
(iv) river inflow pattern
(v) river valley slope
(vi) shape of reservoir
(vii) capacity of reservoir (its size and storage period)

(viii) vegetal growth at the head

(ix) outlets in the dam (their types, location and size)
(x) reservoir operation
(xi) upstream reservoirs, if any.
It has been found by experience that a low sediment inflow rate, large fraction of fine
particles, steep slope, no vegetation at head of reservoir, low flow detention time in the reservoir
(by operation of outlets of suitable size at different levels), possibly series of upper tanks or
reservoir upstream (where deposition occurs) do not favour sediment deposition and compaction.
The silt carried in the rainy season may be excluded from the reservoir by means of scouring
sluices slightly above the deep river-bed, which discharge the heavily silt-laden water at high
velocity. The percent of the inflowing sediment, which is retained in a reservoir is called the
trap efficiency and it is a function of the ratio of reservoir capacity to total annual sediment
inflow, since a small reservoir on a large stream passes most of its inflow quickly (giving no
time for the silt to settle) while a large reservoir allows more detention time for the suspended
silt to settle. The relation between trap efficiency of reservoir vs. capacity-inflow ratio is shown
in Fig. 11.3 (Brune, 1953), on the basis of data from surveys of existing reservoirs. The rate at
which the capacity of a reservoir is reduced by sediment deposition depends on
(i) the rate of sediment inflow, i.e., sediment load.
(ii) the percentage of the sediment inflow trapped in the reservoir, i.e., trap efficiency.
(iii) the density of the deposited sediment.

In estimating the useful life of a reservoir, the correct prediction of the density of the
deposited sediment is an important factor. Lane and Koelzer (1943) gave the equation for the
dry specific weight t after time t years as
t

where

+ K log10 t

= initial specific weight

K = a constant for the rate of compaction

...(11.2)

If the deposited sediment consists of a mixture of materials like sand, silt and clay, a
weighted average specific weight is calculated as (Lane and Koelzer).
...(11.2 a)
t = 1 x1 + ( 2 + K2 log t) x2 + ( 3 + K3 log t) x3
where
t = average specific weight of reservoir sediment after t years
1, 2, 3 = specific weight of sand, silt and clay after t years
K1, 2, 3 = constant for the rate of compaction of sand, silt and clay, respectively (K1 0, for
sand)
x1, 2, 3 = fractional part of total sediment, of sand, silt and clay, respectively
t = time in years ( 1 yr)
The useful capacity of reservoir lost each year by sediment deposition is
Vs = Qs trap
...(11.3)
where Vs = volume of useful capacity of reservoir lost each year
Qs = annual sediment inflow into the reservoir
trap = trap efficiency of the reservoir
while allocating space for the dead storage in the reservoirs (i.e., to provide space for sediment
deposition during the life of the project) the trap efficiency is taken as at least 95% and rarely
below 90%. Sediment deposits in the upper end of the reservoirs generally become covered by
vegetation resulting in heavy evapotranspiration loss of the available water, which is more
critical in arid regions.
Example 11.1 A proposed reservoir has a capacity of 400 ha-m. The catchment area is 130 km 2
and the annual stream flow averages 12.31 cm of runoff. If the annual sediment production is
0.03 ha-m/km2, what is the probable life of the reservoir before its capacity is reduced to 20% of
its initial capacity by sediment deposition. The relation between trap efficiency and capacityinflow ratio is given below.
Capacity-inflow
C
ratio,
I

Trap
efficiency,
trap

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.0

(%)

87
93
95
95.5
96
96.5
97
97.5

Capacity-inflow
C
ratio,
I

Trap
efficiency,
trap

0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07

(%)

2
13
20
27
31
36
38
43
52
60
68
74
77
80
82

Solution The useful life may be computed by determining the number of years required for
each incremental loss of reservoir capacity (i.e., for the decreasing values of capacity-inflow
ratios) upto the critical storage volume of 400 0.20 = 80 ha-m as tabulated below:
Trap efficiency

Loss of

Capacity*

inflow

(ha-m)

ratio

for the

Ave. for

C
I

C
ratio
I

*increment

400

0.25

94

320

0.20

93

93.5

3.64

80

22.0

240

0.15

90

91.5

3.57

80

22.4

160

0.10

87

88.5

3.45

80

23.2

80

0.05

77

82.0

3.20

80

trap

(%)

No. of years

Capacity

Annual**

reservoir

for the

sediment

capacity

capacity

trapped
V s = Qs

C
trap

(ha-m)

loss
C

Vs

25.0
Total = 92.6
say, 93 yr

*Average annual inflow, I =

12.31 130 106

= 1600 ha-m
100
104

C
400
=
= 0.25
I
1600
**Annual sediment inflow into the reservoir
For reservoir capacity C = 400 ha-m,

Qs = 0.03 130 = 3.9 ha-m

Note: If the average annual sediment inflow Qs is given in tons, say Qs = 43600 tons and for
= 93.5% (for the first incremental loss), assuming a specific gravity of 1.12 for the sediment deposits, annual sediment trapped Ws = 43600 0.935 = 40750 tons.
trap

Vs =

Ws

40750 1000 kg
3

40750 3
m = 3.64 ha-m.
1.12

1.12 1000 kg/m

s
Usually the specific gravity of sediments deposits ranges from 1 to 1.4.

Sediment deposition in reservoirs can not be actually prevented but it can be retarded by
adopting some of the following measures:
(i) Reservoir sites, which are prolific sources of sediment should be avoided.
(ii) By adopting soil-conservation measures in the catchment area, as the silt originates
in the watershed. See art 8.7 in Chapter 8.
(iii) Agronomic soil conservation practices like cover cropping, strip cropping, contour
farming, suitable crop rotations, application of green manure (mulching), proper control over
graze lands, terracing and benching on steep hill slopes, etc. retard overland flow, increase
infiltration and reduce erosion.

(iv) Contour trenching and afforestation on hill slopes, contour bunding gully plugging
by check dams, and stream bank stabilisation by the use of spurs, rivetments, vegetation, etc.
are some of the engineering measures of soil conservation.
(v) Vegetal cover on the land reduces the impact force of rain drops and minimises
erosion.
(vi) Sluice gates provided in the dam at various levels and reservoir operation, permit
the discharge of fine sediments without giving them time to settle to the bottom.
(vii) Sediment deposits in tanks and small reservoirs may be removed by excavation,
dredging, draining and flushing either by mechanical or hydraulic methods and sometimes
may have some sales value.

I Match the items in A with the items in B

A
(i) Gullying and stream

B
(a)

V6

Channel erosion
(ii) Measurement of suspended sediment

(b) V 2

(iii) Erosive power of water

(c) Capacity-inflow ratio

(iv) Transporting capacity of water

(d) Soil conservation

(v) Saltation

(e) Bouncing along bed

(vi) Trap efficiency

(vii) Sedimentation control

(f) Semi-arid regions

(g) Point samplers

II Say true or false; if false, give the correct statement:

(i) While sheet erosion is dominant in regions of moderate rainfall, gullying and stream channel
erosion are characteristic of arid and semi-arid regions.
(ii) Density current is a stratified flow along the bottom of the reservoir and mixes readily with
the reservoir water.
(iii) The per cent of the inflowing sediment in a stream retained by a reservoir is called the trap
efficiency of the reservoir.
(iv) The trap efficiency of a reservoir is a function of the ratio of the reservoir capacity to the
average annual sediment inflow, and as this ratio decreases the trap efficiency increases.
(v) Silting of reservoirs can be controlled by
(a) proper agronomic practices.
(b) adopting soil-conservation measures.
(c) by providing sluice gates at various levels in the dam and proper reservoir operation.

(false: ii, iv)

III Choose the correct statement/s:
Siltation of reservoir can be reduced by
(i) proper reservoir operation.
(ii) providing sluice gates at different levels.
(iii) land management.

(iv) gully plugging, check dams and contour bunds in the catchment area.
(v) strip cropping, contour farming and afforestation of hill slopes.
(vi) providing dead storage.
(vii) all the above steps.

(except vi)

(a) What are the factors which contribute for silt in a natural stream?
(b) How will you determine the quantity of silt deposited in a reservoir?

(c) Recommend the measures for controlling the silt entry into reservoirs.
2

(a) How would you determine the sediment load carried by a stream?
(b) What do you understand by density current?
(c) Explain the terms:
(i) Saltation
(ii) Suspended load
(iii) Bed load
(iv) Contact load
(a) Briefly give the theory of distribution and transporation of suspended material and derive
the formula connecting the concentration of sediment and settling velocity under equilibrium conditions.
(b) Explain how sedimentation in a reservoir can be controlled.
(Hint: for Q 3 (a) supplementary reading)

(a) Describe a method by which silt accumulation in a reservoir can be computed and its useful
life determined.
(b) An impounding reservoir had an original storage capacity of 740 ha-m. The catchment area
of the reservoir is 100 km2, from which the annual sediment discharge into the reservoir is
at the rate 0.1 ha-m/km2. Assuming a trap efficiency of 80%, find the annual capacity loss of
the reservoir in percent per year.
(1.3%/year)

5 A proposed reservoir has a capacity of 600 ha-m. The catchment area is 147 km 2 and the annual
streamflow averages 17 cm of runoff. If the annual sediment production is 0.035 ha-m/km 2 what
is the probable life of the reservoir before its capacity is reduced to 20% of its initial capacity by
sediment deposition. The relation between trap efficiency and capacity-inflow ratio is given
below:

Capacity
ratio
Inflow

Trap
efficiency
(%)

Capacity
ratio
Inflow

Trap
efficiency
(%)

0.1

87

0.01

43

0.2

93

0.02

60

0.3

95

0.03

68

0.4

95.5

0.05

77

0.5

96.0

0.07

82

0.6

96.5

0.7

97

1.0

97.5
(97 yr)