I

CHAPTER

Art of the Ancient Near East

In public rvorks such as this stone stele (upright stone slab),
the artists of Mesopotamia cleveloped a suave and sophisticatecl symbolic visr-ral language-a kind of conceptual
"rt-th"t both celebrated and conrmnnicated the political
strtifcatiorl that gave older ancl seculity to their worcl.
Akkadiarr ruler Naram-Sin (n:led 2254-2218 ncE) is pictured proudly hele (rrc. z-r). His preeminence is signaled
directly by size: he is by far the largest persorl in this scene
of military tliumph, conforming to an artistic practice we
crll

hierarchic scale, where relative

size inclicates relative

importance. He is lso elevated well above the other fgures,

bolclly silhouettecl against blank grouncl. Even the shape of
the stone slab is an ctive part of the composition. Its tapering

top perfectly acconrmoclates the carved mountain within it,

ancl

Naram-Sin

is posed

to reflect the profle ofboth, increas-

ing his own sense of grander-rr by association. He clasps a

veritable arsenal of weaponry-sper, battleaxe, bow ancl
arrow-ancl the glancl helmet that crowns his head sprorlts
horns, an attribute heretofore reserved for gods. By wearing
it here, he is claiming divinity fbr himself. Art historian Irene
Winter has gone ever.r fulther, pointing co the eroticizecl pose
and presentation of Nalam-Sin, to the alluring display of a
well-formed male bocly. In ancient Mesopotamian culture,
male potency and vigor were directly related to mythical
heroism and powerful kingship. Thus every aspect of the

representation of this ruler speaks to his sacrecl and political

authority

as

lerdel of the

state.

This stele is more than an enrbleur of Nalam-Sin's

clivine right to rule, however. It also tells the story of one
of his important military victories. The lr-rler stands above a
crowded scene ellactecl by smaller figur:es. Those to the left,

in

to their ruler, represent his army, marching in cliagonal bancls up the hillside
into battle. The artist has included identifable native tlees
along the mountain pathway to heighten the sense that this
portrays an ctul evellt rther than a generic battle scene.
Before Naram-Sin, both along the right side of the stele and
smashecl under his forwrd striding leg, are representations
of the enemy, in this case the Lullubi people f'om eastern
Mesopotamia (moclern lran). One diminutive adversary has
taken a fatal spear to the neck, while cor-npanions behind and
belorv him beg for mercy.
Taller than most people who stand in front of it, and
carved of eye-catching pink stone, this sulnptuorls work of
ancient arl maintains the power to communicte with us
dressecl and posed

a fashion sir.nilar

forcefully ancl clirectly even rcross over four miilennia of historical clistance. 'W'e will discover in this chapter that powerful symbolism and dynamic story-telling are nol uuique to
this one stele; they are signal characterislics ofroyal arl in the
ancient Near Easl.

LEARN ABOUT IT
2.1 lnvestigate

a series of conventions for the podrayal

2.3

of human figures through the history of the ancient

Near East.

2.2 Explore the development of visual narrative to tell

stories of gods, heroes, and rulers in sculpted reliefs.

Survey the various ways rulers in the ancient Near East

expressed their power in portraits, historical narrative,

and great palace complexes.

2.4

Evaluate the way modern archaeologists have laid the

groundwork for the ad-historical interpretation of the
ancient cultures of the Near East.

((,.{fisten

to the chapter audio on myartslab.com

27

SUMER

THE FER.TILE CRESCENT

AND MESOPOTAMIA
\)ell before fan.r-ring coururttuities appealed

in Europe, people in

Asia Minor ar-rd the aucient Nell East wele rheady dorlestic:rting
glair-rs in an re kuowt-l toclay rs the Fertile Crescetlt (rvrre 2-1).
In the sixtl.r or fifth rniller-rnitu.n rcu, aglicullule developccl in the
alluvi:rl plains between the Tiglis u.rd Etrphrates rivers, which the
Grceks ca\\ed Mesopolnntia, n.'eantng the "lurd belweeu the rivers,"
now in plescnt-day Iraq. Becrttse of problenrs with perioclic flood-

ing as well as drougl-rt, thele wls a lleed for hlge-scrle systenls to

contlol the water supply. Meeting this neecl t-uay have cor-rllibuted
to tl-re developr-nent of tl-re fir'st cities.
l-Jetween 4000 and 3000 ct, a t.uajor ctrllulal shift seelns to
have taken pl:rce. Agricultulal villages evolied into ciLies simultaneonsly and inclependently in boch northel'll rud sottthertl Mesopotanrir. Tirese prospelotts cilies joirlecl with theil stlrrotlucliug

ceuitories to crete what arc kuown as city-states, eacl-r rvith its

owll gocls aud govertturent. Socirl l-rielalcl-ries-rltlers rtld rvolkels-emerged r,vich the developnrent of specialized skills beyond
those needecl for agricullr'rrrl wol'k, To grain n-rills ancl ovells were
rctded bdck and pottery kilns rnd textile xnd metal wolkshops.

'With extla goods :urd evett rrodest afllttence clute illcreased

n'ade

and contact with ohel cultltles.

Organizecl religior-r played an imporlant t'ole, ancl the peo-

ple who controlled rituals rncl the sacreci sites evetllurlly bec:ule
full-rir.ne pliests. The people of the ancient Nerr East wonhiped
r-rlnlerous gods aucl goddesses. (The n:ules of comparable deities
varied ovel tir-ne urd place-for exatllple, Itlanna, the Suurerian
goddess of feltility, love, and wxl', was equivaler.rt to the Iabylonians' Ishtar.) Evely city hacl its special ploteccive deity, and the fate

of the city ws seerl

as

depenclent on the powet'of that deity. Lrlge

architecttlrrl courplexes-chtslerc of eligiotts, :rcll-inislt'ative, ancl

sewice buildings-clevelopecl in erch city as centels of litual and
worship and also of governurettl'
Although lhe stone-free alluviai plain of southern Mesopotamia was prone to floods ancl citoughts, it was r fertile bed for
aglicr.rltr.rre

lnd

successive, intellinked societies. tsnt its wealth

:ind agricr.rlturrl lesources,

:rs

well as its ferv tutural

defenses,

r.nacle Mesopotrt.uia vulnet'able to political upherval. Over the

centtrries, lhe balance of porver shifted between tlorth atld soltth
and belweeu local porvels and outsicle illvadels. First the Stturet'-

ians cor-rtrollecl the south, filling theil ir.rcleper.rder-rt city-strtes

witl.r tl.re f'uits of new lechuology, developed literrcy, and
in'rplessivc' rt xrlc-l at'chitecltrrc'. Ther-r they rvele eclipsed by the
Akkadians, theil neighbors to the r'orth. When invaders fionr
f:rrthel nol'th il'r ttlrll conqtlerecl the Akkadians, the Sttl-uerirns
reg:rined power locally. During this period tl.re ciry-stales of Ur
and Lagash thtived ttuder sttottg lerders. The Amorites were
next to clominate the south. (Jnder chen-r ancl cheil king, Har-r-rr-r-rulabi, a r-ew, unifiecl sociery arose with its c:rpital in the ciry
of Babylon.

12a.

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR

EAST

The cities rrcl city-scates that devcloped along lhe livels of soucl.reln Mesopotat-uia betr'veen rbout 3500 llcl 2340 BcE re ktlowt.r
collectively as Strurer'. The Surtreiaus ate cl'edited r'vith iurportaut
technoiogical and cultttral rclvatlces. They rl'ray have invel'rted the
wagoll wheel and the plorv. ltrt perllaps their greatesc coutlibutiol- to larer civilizations was the iuveutiou in 3400-3200 c of
the fil'st ftol'nr of rvritterr scl'ipt.

WRITING Strtlelirns presseci cuneifotm ("rveclge-shaped")

syr-bos ito clay tablets rvith stylus, :r poitecl yyritig il-tstl'tt-

"Cur-reiform 'Writing," page

30). Thousar.rcls of sulviving Snureriau tablets have allowed
scl-rolals lo trace the glrdual evoltttiot-t of writing arld alilhmecic,
rnochel tool of coltllllefce, as rvell as ln orgauize d syster-n ofjusice. The world's first litelrry epic is Sumelirn in oligin, although

rnellt, to keep btrsiness records

(see

the fullest sulviving version of this tale is wlitter.r in Akkrclian, the

lar.rgtrage of Sunrer's r.reighbols to lhe north. The pir ttf Cilgamesh
:r legend:rly Suureriru kir-rg of Uruk ancl
'lflhen
Enkiclu dies, a clesporrclent I{ing
Enkidu.

records the adveutnres of

his con-rpar.rion

Gilgarrresh sets oLrt to finci lhe seclet of etelnl life fi'om the only
nran and wonlar who had snruivecl r grel flood sent by the gocls

lo destroy the world, becrttse the

gocls had

grnted lheul itlrt-uot'-

trlity. Gilgarresh r.rlrimately rccepts his orvn mort:rlity, rbrnclons

his quesr, aud relurns to Uluk, recogniziug the rlajestic city as his
lasling accomplishrnent.

eliaus' 1llost illpressive sulviving

rrchaeological remains are ziggurats, huge stepped strtlclLlres
with a temple or shriue on top. The first ziggtlrts uray have
cleveloped fi'om lhe prclice of repeated rebr-riclir-rg at a sacred
site, with lubbe f-orl olle strtlcttlre selvirlg rs the foturdation

THE ZIGGIIRAT The

Stttr.

for the nexl. Elevling the buiclings also prolectecl the sluines
fi'om floocling.
'Whatever the oligin of theil clesign, ziggurats lowering above
the flat plair-r proclaimecl the werlth, prestige, ancl stability of'a
city's rulels and glorifiecl its gods. Ziggtlrats functioned synrboli-

cally too, as lofty briclges betweeu lhe earth rncl the herveus-a
meeting place for hutttaus urcl their gods. They wele givett uatles
such ls "House of the Mounlain" ar-rcl "lJond betrveen Helvel't
and Earth."

IIRUK Two lalge tempie conlplexes in the 1,000-acre city

at lJruk (preser.rt-day Walka, Ir':rq) n'rark tl-re fr'st indepenclent
Sunrelian city-state. Oue rvas dedicrted to Itlatltlir, the gocldess
of love ancl war', while the othel corlplex belongecl to the
sky gocl Anu. Tl-re terr.rple platfom'r of Antr, built r'rp ir.r stages
over the cetttttries, r-rltin-rately rose to a height of about 40
feet. Arour.rcl 3100 c, r rvhitervashecl mucl-brick temple that
moclelu archaeologists refer lo as the'White Terlple rvas et'ecled
oll top of the platfor:m (rrc. z-z). This uorv-lttirled strtlitllre w:ls
a simple t'ectrugle rvith :rlt off-cerlter cloolt'ay that led inco a

MAP 2-1

THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

The green areas represent fertile land that could support early agriculture, notably the area
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the strips of land on either side of the Nile in Egypt.

Anu District of Uruk

1. White Temple

2. allar

processional stairs

4. NW terrace

,) /'--' /
'" 2 ,ll
,|,li

--ru
2-2 . RUINS AND PLAN OF THE ANU ZIGGURAT AND WHITE TEMPLE
Uruk (present-day Warka, lraq). c. 3400-3200 ece.
Many ancient Near Eastern cities still lie undiscovered. ln most cases an archaeological site in the region is signaled by
a large mound-known locally as atell, tepe, or huyuk-Thal represents the accumulated debris of generations of human
habitation. When properly excavated, such mounds yield evidence about the people who inhabited the site.

ABT OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST CHAPTER 2

29

TECHNIQUE I Cuneiform Writing

pictograph

Sumerians invented writing around 3400-3200 BcE, apparently as

an accounting system for goods traded at Uruk. The symbols were

c. 3100 ece

early cuneiform sgn later cuneiform sgn

c.700 sce
c.2400 BcE

M E.

pictographs, simple pictures cut into moist clay slabs with a pointed
tool. By the fourth millennium ece, the symbols had begun to evolve
from pictures into phonograms-represehttions of syllable soundsthus becoming a writing system as we know it. By 3000-2900, scribes
adopted a stylus, or writing tool, with one triangular end and one pointed
end that could be pressed easily and rapidly nto a wet clay tablet to

produce cuneiform writing.

These drawings demonstrate the shift from pictographs to cuneiform'
The c. 3100 ace drawing of a bowl (which means "bread" or "food") was
reduced to a four-stroke sign by about 2400 ece, and by about 700 ecE
to a highly abstract arrangement of vertical marks. By combining the
pictographs and, later, cuneiform signs, writers oeated composite signs;

H E*,

for example, a combination of the signs for "head" and "food" meant
"to eat."

symbols

iew the Closer

Look for cuneiform writinq in Sumeria on myartslab.com

large chamber containing an altar, and

spaces opened lo

each side.
Statues of gocls aud donors were placed

in Stturerian

lemples.

A striking life-size r.narble face fi'om Urr.rk (rrc. z-s) may represent
r temple gocldess. Ir coulcl have been attached to a wooclen head
full-size wooclen bocty. Now strippecl ofits original paint, wig,
rnd the inlay set in for brows and eyes, it apperrs as a stark white
mask. Shells may have beeu used for tre whites of the eyes and
on

lapis l:rzuli

fol the pr-rpis, and the hrir may have been gold'

A tall vessel of carved alabaster (a fine, white stone) found in

the ter.riple complex of Inanna al Uruk (erc- z-+) shows how early
Mesopotamian scttlplors told stories in stotle with great clrrity and
velve. The visual nalrative is organized inlo lhr:ee registers,
hoizor-rtal b:rds,

ar-rc1

or'

the story coudensed to its essential eletlleuts.

The lowest register shows iu a lowel strip rhe solrrces of life in the
r'atrlrl rvorld, begir.rnir.rg rvith wrler ancl plar.rts (v:rriously identifiec1 :rs d:rte prln'r ancl barley, r,vhcat ancl flax) ar.rd conlirltling irl a
supelir-nposed uppet scrip, r,vhere aitertlatit-tg ratlrs and e''ves lrrarch
sir-rgle file along r solid gror'rr-rcl-line. In the middle register r.rakecl
rcr c:r'ry b:rskets of foodstuffs, :rnd irl tl-re top regster, the gocldess Itr:rnrta accePts an offering 'oul tlvo st.rlding fgures. Itlallna
scrnds

in fi'on of the gxte to hel richly fllecl

shrir-re ancl storehottse,

iclentified by lwo reecl door poles hung rvith banners. The two
rnen rvho cc hcr' :ue thought to be first :r rlrked priest or colyle
presenting an offering-filled basket, follorved by a p:rrtially preserued, celenronialiy dlessed fgr-rre of the priest-king (not visible
in HeuRe z- ). The scelle 1114y represellt re-enctnent of the litual

T 3()

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR

EAST

2-3 . HEAD OF A ^,OMAN

From Uruk (present-day Warka, lraq)' c. 3300-3000 ece. Marble, height
approx. 8'(20.3 cm). lraq Museum, Baghdad.

marriage between the goddess and Dumuzi, her consort-a role

taken by the priest-king-tht took place during the New Year's
festival to ensure the fertiliry of clops, animals, and people, and thus

lhe continued survival of Uruk.

VOTM

FIGITRES Limestone statues clated

to about 2900-

2600 ncn from the Square Temple in Eshnunna (rrc. 2-s), exca-

valed in 1,932-1933, reveal another aspect of Sumerian religious

art. These votive figures of men and women-images dedicated
lo the gods-are directly relatecl to an ancient Near Eastern devotional practice in which individual worshipers conld set up irnages

of themselves in a shrine before a larger, more elaborate image

of a god. A simple inscription might identify the fgure as "One
who offers prayersl" Longer inscriptions might recount in detail
all the things the donor had accomplished in the god's honor. Each

sculpture served as a stand-in for the donor, locked in eye-contact

with the god, caught perpetually in the act of worship.
The sculptors of these votive statues followed conventions

(traditional ways of representing forms) that were irnportant in

Sumerian rt. Figures have srylized faces and bodies, dressed in
clothing that emphasizes pure cylindrical shapes. They stand solemnly, hands clasped in lespect, pelhaps a posture expected in
devotional contexts. The bold, staring eyes lnay be related to state;
ments

in contemporary Sumerian texts that

advise worshipers to

approach their gods ich an attentive gaze. As

with the face of

2-4 . CARVED VESSEL

the woman from Uruk, arched brows were inlaid with dark shell,

From Uruk (present-day Warka, lraq). c. 3300-3000 BcE. Alabaster,

height 36" (91 cm). lraq Museum, Baghdad.

stone, or bitumen lhat once emphsized the huge, wide-open eyes.

2-5 . TWELVE

VOTIVE

FIGURES
From the Square Temple,
Eshnunna (present-day Tell
Asmar, lraq). c. 2900-2600 ace.
Limestone, alabaster, and
gypsum, height of largest
figure approx. 30" (76.3 cm).
The Oriental lnstitute Museum,
University of Chicago.

ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST CHAPTER 2

31 I

A BRoADER LooK I n Lyre from a Royal Tomb in Ur

Sir Leonard Woolley's excavations at Ur
during the 1920s initially garnered international

assistants during 1 2 seasons of digging at

Ur, he and his wife Katherine reserved for

attention because of the association of this

ancient Mesopotamian city with the biblical
patriarch Abraham. lt was not long, however,

themselves the painstakingly delicate

before the exciting discoveries themselves

moved to center stage, especially 16 royal
burials that yielded spectacular objects crafted
of gold and lurid evidence of the human

sacrifices associated with Sumerian royal burial

practices, when retainers were seemingly
buried with the rulers they served.
Woolley's work at Ur was a joint venture
of the University of Pennsylvania Museum
in Philadelphia and the British Museum in

London, and in conformance with lraq's

Antiquities Law of 1922, the uncovered
arlifacts were divided between the sponsoring
institutions and lraq itself. Although Woolley
worked with a large team of laborers and

One of the most spectacular discoveries in

the royal burials at Ur was an elaborate lyre,
which rested over the body of the woman who
had presumably played it during the funeral
ceremony for the royal figure buried nearby
(Ftc' 2-7). Like nine other lyres Woolley found
at Ur, the wooden sound box of this one had

process of uncovering the most impodant

finds (rro. 2-6). Woolley's own account of
work within one tomb outlines the practice"Most of the workmen were sent away .. . so
that the final work with knives and brushes
could be done by my wife and myself in
comparative peace. Forten days the two of
us spent most of the time from sunrise to

long since deteriorated and disappeared, but

an exquisitely crafted bull's-head finial of gold

and lapis lazuli survived, along with a plaque

of carved shell inlaid with bitumen, depicting
at the top a heroic image of a man interlocked
with and in control of two bulls, and below

sunset lying on our tummies brushing and

blowing and threading beads in their order

them three scenes of animals mimicking

the activities of humans (rrc. 2-a)' On one

as they ly.. .. You might suppose that to f ind

three-score women all richly bedecked with
jewelry could be a very thrilling experience,
and so it is, ln retrospect, but I'm afraid that at
the moment one is much more conscious of

register, a seated donkey plucks the strings

of a bull lyre-similar to the instrument on

which this set of images originally appearedstabilized by a standing bear, while a fox
accompanies him with a rattle. On the reglster
above, upright animals bring food and drink for
a feast. A hyena to the left-assuming the role

the toil than of the thrill" (quoted in Zettler and

Horne, p. 31).

of a butcher with a knife in his belt-carries a

table piled high with meat. A lion follows, toting
a large jar and pouring vessel.
The top and bottom registers are

particularly intriguing in relation to the Eplc of

Gitgamesh, a 3,000-line poem that is Sumer's
great contribution to world literature' Rich
in descriptions of heroic feats and fabulous
creatures, Gilgamesh's story probes the
question of immortality and expresses the
heroic aim to understand hostile surroundings
and to find meaning in human existence.
Gilgamesh encounters scorpion-men, like
the one pictured in the lowest register,
and it is easy to see the hero himself in the
commanding but unprotected bearded figure
centered in the top register, naked except for
a wide belt, masterfully controlling in his grasp

the two powerfully rearing human-headed

bulls that flank him. Because the poem was
-.\t

hrtt
'i11t, t-*,"
*il*eo; '
_

r.l'{
lKrr,t

:-{f..
.*t

fq :'l
'*.r''_:*

{.'*{t r

'.:iF

|'

\, '/. /

filu+'

2-6.KATHERINEANDLEoNARDwooLLEY(ABoVE)EXoAVATINGATUR
!NIg3T,BESIDETWOARCHAEOLOGICALASSISTANTSlNONEOFTHE
ROYAL BURIALS
Archives of the University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia.

92

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAF

EAST

first written down 700 years after this lyre was

created, this plaque may document a very long
oral tradition.
On another level, because we know lyres
were used in funeral rites, could this imagery
depict a heroic image of the deceased in the

top register, and a funeral banquet in the realm

of the dead at the bottom? Cuneiform tablets
preserve songs of mourning, perhaps chanted

by priests accompanied by lyres at funerals.

One begins, "Oh, lady, the harp of mourning is

placed on the ground," a pariicularly poignant

statement considering that the lyres of Ur may
have been buried on top of the sacrificed bodies
of the women who originally played them.

2-7 . Tl{E GREAT LYRE WITH BULL'S

HEAD

From Royal Tomb (PG 789), Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, lraq). c. 26002500 sce, Wood with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, bitumen, and shell,
reassembled in modern wood supporl; height of head 14" (35.6 cm);
height of front panel '13" (33 cm); maximum length of lyre 551/2" (1 40 cm);
height of upright back arm 461/" (1 17 cm). University of Pennsylvania
Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.

2-8 . FRONT PANEL, THE SOUND BOX OF THE GREAT

LYRE

From Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, lraq). Wood with shell inlaid in bitumen,

height 13" x 41/z' (33 x 11 cm). University of Pennsylvania Museum of
Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.

ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST CHAPTER 2

33 I

Art as Spoils of War-Protection

or Theft?

ART AND ITS CONTEXTS

Art has always been a casualty in times of social unrest. One of the most
recent examples is the looting of the unguarded lraq National Museum
after the fall of Baghdad to U.S.-led coaiition forces in April 2003. Among
the many thousands of treasures that wele stoln is a precious marble
head of a woman from Warka, over 5,000 years old (see FlG. 2-3).
Fortunately it was later recovered. Also looted was a carved Sumerian
vessel (see Ftc.24],, eventually returned to lh museum two months

"To the victor," it is said, "belong the spoils"' But passionate

and continuous debate surrounds the question of whether this
notion remains valid in our own time, especially in the case of
revered cultural artifacts.

later, shattered into 14 pieces. The museum itself managed to reopen in

2009, but thousands of its antiquities are still missing'
Some of the most bitter resentment spawned by war has involved
the taking by the victors of art objects that held great value forthe
conquered population. Two historically pricelesq objects unearthed
in Elamite Susa, for

exampl*the Akkadian stele of Naram'8in

FrG. 2-1) and the Babylonian stele of Hammurabi (see rto.

(see

2-15)-were

not Elamite at all, but Mesopotamian. Both had been brought there as
military booty by an Elamite king, who added an inscription to the stele
of Naram-Sin claiming it for himself and his gods. Uncovered in Susa
during excavations organized by French archaeologist Jacques de
Morgan, both works were taken back to Paris at the turn of the twentieth
century and are now displayed in the Louvre, Museums around the world
contain such works, either snatched by invading armies or acquired as a
result of conquest.
The Rosetta Stone, the key to deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs, was
discovered in Egypt by French troops in 1799, fell into British hands
when they forced the French from Egypt, and ultimately ended up in
the British Museum in London (see rtc' 3-38). ln the early nineteenth
century, the Briton Lord Elgin purchased and removed classical Greek
sculpture from the Panhenon in Athens with the permission of the
Ottorhan authorities who governed Greece at the time (see "Who Owns
the Ar1?" page 133). Although his actions may indeed have protected
these treasures from neglect and damage in later wars, they have
remained installed in the British Museum, despite continuing protests
from Greece, Many German collections include works that were similarly
"protected" at the end of World War ll and are surfacing now. ln the
United States, Native Americans are increasingly vocal in their demands
that artfacts and human remaihs collected by anthropologists and
archaeologists be returned to them.

The maie figures, b:rre-chested and dressed in what appear lo be

sheepskin skirts, are stocky nd tltuscular, with heavy legs, large
feet, big shoulders, and cylincl'ical bodies. The female fignres are
as nlassive as the nlen. Theil long sheepskin skilts leveal stulcly legs

2-9 . FACE OF A WOMAN, KNOWN AS THE WARKA HEAD

Displayed by lraqi authorities on its recovery in 2003 by the lraq Museum
in Baghdad. The head is from Uruk (present-day Warka, lraq). c. 33003OOO BcE. Marble, height approx. 8" (20.3 cm).

intensely lifelike despite the clecoratively patterned blue beard createcl from the serniprecious gemstone, lapis lazuli' Since lapis lazuli
had to be imported from Afghanistan, the work cloctturents widespread tlade in the region rt lhis time.

and feet.
Snurerian artisans worked iu various precious nletais, ancl irr
bronze, oflen cor.nbining lhem with other materials. Many of these
creations wele decorrted

with-or

were iu the shape of-animals

or cotrrposite auiural-htttlan-bird creatures. A superb exatnple of

their skill is r lyre-a kind of iralp-fi'om lhe ciry of Ur (presentclay Muqaiyir', Iraq), lo the south of Uruk. This corrbines wood,
golcl, lapis lazuli, and shell ee Ftcis' 2-7, z-8). Projecting from the
base is a woocl-scr'rlpted head of a bearded bull overl:rid with gold,

94

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAF

EAST

CYLINDER SEALS About the time rvritten records rppeared,

Sumerians deveoped seals for iclentifying docutneuts ancl establishing property ownership. By 3300-3100 ncE, recorcl keepels
leclesigned the stamp seal as a cylincler. Rolled acloss doctlnlellts ol- clay lablets 01' over the sot clay :rpplied to a closltre
that needed se:rling-a jar lid, the knot securiug a bundle, ol the
cloor to a rooln-tire cylinders left a raised mirror irllage of the
clesign incised (cut) into their surface' Such sealing attesled lo the

2-1O

CYLINDER SEAL

AND ITS MODERN

IMPRESSION
From the tomb of Queen Puabi
(PG 800), Ur (present-day

Muqaiyir, lraq). c. 2600-2500 ece.

Lapis lazuli, height 1elro" (4 cm),
diameter

25/sz"

(2 cm). University

of Pennsylvania Museum of
Archaeology and Anthropology,
Philadelphia.

ulhenlicity or accuracy ofa cexl or ensrlred that no unaulhorized

less than 2 inches high, were generally macle
of a hald stone so that the tiny but intricate incised scenes would
not wear away during repeated use. Individuals often acquired
seals as signs of stacus or ol1 appointnent to a high administrative

DISK OF ENHEDUANNA A partially preserved circular relief

sculpture in alabaster, excavated at (Jr in 1927 by British archaeologist Leonard Woolley (see "A Lyre from a Royal Tomb in
Ur," page 32), is one of the most extraordinary surviving works
of ancient Near Eastern art (Ftc. 2-ir). An inscription on the back
identifies the centrally highlighted figure on the front-slightly

position, ancl the

larger than her compahions and wearing a flounced, fleeced wool

person could gain access to a room or container. Surlerian cyl-

inder seals, usually

seals

were buried with them, along with other

grment and the headgear of a high priestess-as Enheduanna,

inrportant possessions.

The lapis lazuli Cyl,lNDER SEAL in lcune 2-io is one of

over 400 that were found in excavations of the royal burials at
(Jr. It comes from the tolnb of a powerful royal woman known
as Puabi, and was found leaning against the right arm of her body.
The n-rodern clay impression of its incised design shows two registers of a convivial banqtret at which all the guests may be wonen,
with flinged skirts and long hair gathered up in buns behind cheir
necks. Two seated fgures in the upper registel raise heir glasses,
accompanied by standing servants, one of whom, at far left, holds
a fan. The single seated figure
a table piled

with food, while

in

rhe lower register sits in front

a figure behind her offers a cup

of
of

drink, presumably drawn from the jar she carries in her other hand,
reminiscent of the container held by the lion on the lyre plaque
(see rtc. z-o). Musical entertinrrent is provided by four wonlen
slancling to the far right.

AI(KAD
A people known

north of lJruk.
During the Sumerian period, they adopted Sumerian cultule, but
unlike the Sumerians, the Akkadians spoke a Semitic language (the
as the

Akkadians inhabited

ar1

area

family of languages that inclucles Arabic and Hebrew). Under

tlre powerful military ancl political figure Sargon I (ruled c.23322279 cr), chey conquered most of Mesopotamia. For more than

same

half a century, Sar:gon, "I{ing of the Four Quarters of the Worlcl,"

ruled this empile from his capital at Akkad, the actual site of which
is

yet to be discovered.

2-11

DISK OF ENHEDUANNA

From Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, lraq). c. 2300-2275 BcE. Alabaster,

diameter 10' (25.6 cm). University of Pennsylvania Museum of
Archaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia.

ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST CHAPTER 2

35 I

I and high priestess of the moon god Nanna

at his temple in Ur. Enhecluanna's name also appears in other
surwiving Akkadian inscriptions and most notably in association
with a series of poems and hymns dedicated to the gods Nauna
daughter of Sargon

and Inanna. Hers is the earliest recorded name of an author in

human history.
The procession portrayed on the front of the disk comlrremorates the dedication of Enhecluanna's donation of a dais (raised

platforrl) to the temple of Iuanua in Ur. The naked man in front

of her ponrs a rilual libation in fi-onl of a zggtrat, while Enheduanna and her two followers-probably female attendants-raise
their right hands before their frces in a common gesture of pious
greeting (e.g., see Ftc.2-14). Sargon's appointment of his daughter

to this irrportant religious oflce followed an established tradition,

but it may also have been the ruler's attempt to bolster his support a1ld asserl dynastic control in the southern parl of his domain,
largely populated by Sunrerians.

HEAD OF A RULER A life-size brouze head (rrc. 2-r2)-found

in the northern cily of Nineveh (present-day Ninua, Iraq) and
thought to date from the time of Sargon-is the earliest known
work of hollow-cast sculpture using the lost-wax casting proCasting," page 418). Its arlistic and technical
sophistication is nothing short of spectacular.
The facial features and hairsryle may reflecl a generalized ideal
cess (see "Lost-'W'ax

more than the unique likeness of a specifc individual, although

the sculpture was once identified as Sargon hinrself. The euorrnous
curling beard and elaborately braided hair (circling the head and
ending in a knot rt the back) indicrte both royalry and ideal male
appearance. The deliberate darnage to the left side of the face and

eye suggests that the head was symbolically mulilated at a later

date to clestroy its power. Specifcaliy, the ears and the inlaid eyes
appear to have been removed to cleprive the head of its ability to
hear and

see.

THE STELE OF NARAM-SIN The concept of imperial atthority was literally carved in stone by Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin
2/t its otigi(see rro. z-r). This 6Vz-foot-high stele (probabiy only
nal height) memorializes one of his military victories, and is one
of the first works of art crealed to celebrate a specific achieve-

ment of an individual ruler. The original inscription-framed in

a rectangular box just above the rtller's head-states lhat the stele
corrnlemorates Naram-Sin's victory over the Lullubi people of
the Zagros Mountains. l7atched over by solar deities (symbolized
by the rayecl suns at the top of the stele) and wearing the horned

helmet-crown herelofore associted only with gods, the hierarchically scaled king stancls proudly above his soidiers and his fallen
foes, boldly silhouetted against the sky nexl to the smooth surface

of

rnountain

This expression of physical prowess and political power was

erected by Naram-Sin in lhe courlyard of the temple of lhe sun
god Sharrash in Sippar, but it did nol stay lhere permanerltly. Dtuing the twelfth century BCE-over a thousand years after the end of
Akkrdian rule-Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte conquered Sippal and trar.rsported the stele of Naram-Sin back to his own capital
in Susa, whele he rededicated it to au Elamite god' He also adcled a

llew explanatory inscription-in a diagonrl bancl or-r the t-uottntain

in front of Narar-n-Sin-recottnling his own viclory and cl:rit-ning this monument-which is identifed specitcally with NararlSin-as slatenlent of his own military and polirical prowess. The
stele remained il-r Susa until the end of lhe nineteenth cenlury,

2-'t2 . HEAD OF A MAN (KNOWN AS AN AKKADIAN

RULER)
From Nineveh (present-day Ninua, lraq). c.2300-2200 ece. Copper alloy,
height 14316" (36.5 cm). lraq Museum, Baghdad.

36

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR

EAST

when il was excavaled by a French archaeologist and lraveled once

n1ore, this tiure appropriated for exhibition in Paris at lhe Louvre'

2-13

NANNA ZIGGURAT

Ur (present-day Muqaiyir, lraq). c.2100-2050

BcE.

UR AND LAGASH
The Akkadian Ernpire fell around 2180 cn to the Guri, a nountain people from the northeast. For a brief time, the Guti controlled most of the Mesopotanian plain, but ultimately Sumerian
people regained control of the region and expelled the Guri in

of I(ng lJrnammu of Ur. ,He

sponsored rnagnificent building campaigns, notably a zggurat
dedicated to the moon god Nanna, also called Sin (rro. 2-rs).
,tlthough located on the site of an earliel temple, chis imposing
structure-nlud-brick faced with kiln-dried brick set with birunlen-was not the accidental result of successive rebuilding. Its
base is a rectangle 205by 741. feet, with three sets of srairs converg21,12 ncn, under the leadership

ing at an imposing entrance gate atop the first of what were three
platforms. Each platform's walls slope outwald from top to base,
probably to prevent rainwater from for[ring puddles and eroding
the nrud-brick pavement below. The first two levels of the zggurat

and their retaining walls ale recen[ reconstructions.

One large Sumerian cify-state remained

independent

throughout this period: Lagash, whose capital was Girsu (presentlliver. Gudea, the ruler, built and
restorecl many tempies, and within them, following a venerable
Mesopotamian tradition, he placed volive statues representing

2/zfeet tall, his right shoulder is bare, and he wears a cap with a
wide brim carved with a pattern to represent fleece. He holds a
vessel in front of him, from which life-giving water flows in rwo
streams, each filled with leaping fish. The text on his garment srates

that he dedicated himself, the statue, ancl its temple ro the godivine poet and interprerer of dreams. The

dess Geshtinann, the

sculptor has emphasized the power centers of the human body: the
eyes, head, and smoothly muscled arms. Gudea's face is youthful
and serene, and his eyes-oversized and wide open-perpetually

confront the gaze of the deity with intense concentration.

BABYLON
For more than 300 years, periods of political turmoil alternated

with periods of stable governnent in Mesoporamia, until

the

Amorites (a Semitic-speaking people frorn the Syrian desert, to

the west) reunited the region under Hammurabi (ruled 17921750 ncn). Hammurabi's capital city was Babylon and his iubjects
were called Babylonians. Among Hammurabi's achievements was

day Telloh, h'aq), on the Tigris

written legal code that detailed the laws of his realm and the penalties for breaking them (see "The Code of Hammurabi," page 39).

hillself

THE HITTITES OF ANATOLIA

govenlor and embodiment oljust rule. The statrles [e

made of diolite, a very hard stone, and the dificuky of carving it
may have prorlptecl sculptors co Lrse conlpact, simplified forms for
the portraits. Or perhaps it was the desire for powerful, srylized
as

images that inspired the choice of this irlporced stone for rhis series

of statues. Twenty of them survive, rlaking Gudea

Outsicle Mesopotarnia, other cultures developed and flourished

in the ancient Near East. Anatolia (present-day Turkey) was home
to several independent cultures that had resisted Mesopotarnian
domination, but the Hittites-whose founders had rnoved into the

fauriliar figure

mountains and plateaus of central Anatolia from the east--were the

most powerful among lhem.

of Guder preserlt him as a strong, peaceful, pious luler

worthy of divine favor (rro. z-t+). 'Whether he is shown sirring or
standing, he wears a long garment, which provides ample, smooth
space for long cuneiform inscriptions. In this imposing statue, only

The Hittites escablished their capital at HatLlsha (near presentday Boghazkoy, Turkey) about 1600 cE, and the ciry thrived
until its destuction about 1200 ncl. Through trade and conquest,

in the study of ancient Near

h-rrages

Easter-n art.

the Hittites created an empire that stretched along the coast of the

ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST CHAPTER

37 I

Mediterlarreau ser itr the rt'ea of plesent-chy Sylir

ancl Lebauor-t, blir-rging theur ulo corlflict with the
Egyptian Er.npile, rvhich u'as expanding into the
s:ule regiot.t (see Chapter 3). The Hittites also urade
irrcnrsiot-ts into Mesopotrulia, aud their irlflltence was
felt throughotlt the region.

The Hictices mry have been the frsc people to

il-r irol, rvhich they useci for war'-chal'iot fit-

wolk

tings, rverpot-ts, chisels, :ttlcl h:rult-tlers. They rre l-rotecl

fol' the rlistr) of tl-reir finc t-uetahvolk ancl fol' their'

imposing prlace citaclels rvich clouble wrlls arrd foltified gateways, thll sttlvive today or-rly in lhe rnirrs of
archaeological sites. Or-re of the most moutluleutal of
these sites consists of tl-re foundllior-rs ar-rc1 base wrlls

of he Hittite strongholcl rt

H:rtttrsl-ra, rvl-ricl.r clate to

:rbout 1400-1 300 <;1. Local qullries suppiiecl stone

fol' the lower w1ls, and tl-re trpper rvalls, slairways,
ar-rd rvalku,:rys rvere filrisl-red irl brick.

The blocks of stoue used to fi-ltlre doot'rvays at

Hattusha u'cre decolated irl l-rigl-r lelief rvith a valiety
of gr.raldian figttt'es-soure of them T feet t:rll. Sore
rvele halhur-t-r:ur, halartinul creatut'es; others were
nlore nalLurlistically lendel'ed atliurals like the liorls at
che LION GATE (rrc. z-re). Calvccl fr-om the buildcotlsistent with rhe colossal scale of the
wall itself, the lions seern lo emerge f'or-n lhe gigantic
boulclers tl-rac folur the grte. Despite extrellle weathir-rg stoues aucl

eling, the lior-rs h:rve cudtuecl over tl-e rnillennia rrd

r-ruirrtain their sense of botl-r vigor urcl perllllence.

ASSYRIA
AboLrt 1400 cs, a people called the Assyliaus lose
to clonritrarrce in llortherll Mesopotan-ria. Atel'
.l
about 000 cr:, tl.rey beg:ur to conqlrel neighbor'ing regions. By the end of the nintl-r cenltrry rlr,

the Assyrians cotrtrolled urost of Mesopotatr-ria, ar-rd

by the eally sevettth celttLlly B(lE lhey hacl extencled
cheil influel-rce as far' \\est as Egypt. Soon aftelu'arcl
they succtturbed co internal weaktless atlcl exlelnal
enenries, rnci by 600

c theil

empire had collapsed.

Assylian lulers built l-ruge palaces atop high plrt-

fornrs inside r sel'ies of fortified cicies tl-rat servccl rl

one tilre ol auolhc'r as Assyr'an capicals. They decorrtecl tlrese Lrrlaces u'ith shallou' stonc' l'elie of battle
of Assyliln vctot'ies, of present:rtions of n'ibute to lhe king. ar.rd of religiotrs ir.r'ragery.

lnd

2-14 . VOTIVE STATUE OF GUDEA

From Girsu (present-day Telloh, lraq). c. 2090 ece. Diorite, height 29" (73'7 cm)'
Muse du Louvre, Paris.

the document related to the statue of Gudea

artslab.com

I3A

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR

EAST

hr.urtir-rg scelles.

KALHU
I)uling his leign

(U83-U59 Bclr, Assurnasirpal II

:rt I{all.ru (present-day Ninrc:rpital
established l.ris
ruci, Iraq), ou the east b:u.rk of tl-re Tigris l\iver', and

ART AND ITS CONTEXTS I fne Code of Hammurabi

Babylonian ruler Hammurabi's systematic codification of his people's
rights, duties, and punishments for wrongdoing was engraved on a black
basalt slab known as the sTELE oF HAMMURAeI (Hc. 2-is). This
imposing artifact, therefore, iS both a work of art that depicts a legendary
event and a precious historical dgcument that records a conversation
about justice betweeh god and mn.
At the top of the stele, we see Hammurabi standing in an attitude
of prayer before Shmash, the sun god and god ofjustice. Rays rise
from Shamash's shoulders as he sits, crowned by a conical horned cap,
on a backless throne, holding additional symbols of his power-the
measuring rod and the rope circle. Shamash gives the law to the king,
his intermediary, and the codes of justice flow forth underneath them in
horizontal bands of exquisitely engraved cuneiform signs. The idea of
god-given laws engraved on stone tablet will have a long tradition in the
ancient Near East. About 500 years later, Moses, the4awgiver of lsrael,
received two stone tablets containing the Ten Commandments from God
on Mount Sinai (Exodus 32:19).
A prologue on the front of the stele lists the temples Hammurabi has

restored, and an epilogue on the back glorifies him as a peacemaker, but

most of the stele "publishes" the laws themselves, guaranteeing uniform
treatment of people throughout his kingdom. Within the inscription,
Hammurabi declares that he intends "to cause justice to prevail in the
land and to destroy the wicked and the evil, that the strong might not
oppress the weak nor the weak the strong." Most of the 300 or so entries
that follow deal with commercial and property matters. Only 68 relate to
domestic problems, and a mere 20 deal with physical assault.
Punishments are based on the wealth, class, and gender ofthe
parties-the rights of the wealthy are favored over the poor, ctizens over
slaves, men over women. Most famous are instances when punishments
are specifically tailored to fit crimes-an eye for an eye, a tooth for a
tooth, a broken bone for a broken bone. The death penalty is decreed
for crimes such as stealing from a temple or palace, helping a slave to
escape, or insubordination in the army. Trial by water and fire could
also be imposed, as when an adulterous woman and her lover were

to be thrown into the water; if they did not drown, they were deemed
innocent. Although some of the punishments may seem excessive
today, Hammurabi was breaking new ground by regulating laws and
punishments rather than leaving them to the whims of rulers or officials.

2-15 . STELE OF HAMMURABI

Probably from Sippar; found at Susa (present-day Shush, lran).
c. 1792-1750 BcE. Basalt, height of stele approx. 7'4" (2.25 m);
height of figural relief 28" (71 .1 cm). Muse du Louvre, Paris.

the document related to the code of Hammurabi

artslab.com

ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST CHAPTER 2

3eI

2-16. LION GATE

Hattusha (near present-day Boghazkoy, Turkey). c. 1400 ace. Limestone'

rurdertook an ar.nbitious builcling program. His :u'chitects foltifiecl

the city witl.r mucl-brick rvalls 5 mlcs long ancl 42 feet high, ar-rd
his engineers constl.uctecl a crnal ch:rt irrigatecl fields ancl plovidecl
water for the expancled popr'rlation of the city. According to :rn
inscliption commelrorating the eveut, Asstlruasirpal gave a bar-rqnet for' 6(),574 people to celeblate the cleclication of the r-rern'capi-

they rvet'e released one by one it-tlo an enclosed are. The irllriedircy of this iurage urarks I shift ir-l Mesopotanliau alt, au'ay fi'otlr
: sense of tireless soletnity, rd torv:u'd a lllore dattlatic, evcu

tal in 863 ncr.

emotonal, iuvolvetleut rvith the evellt pol'trr)ed.

Mosr of the buildings

but

ir.r

I{lhu were made fronr mud blicks,

lin'restor-re ancl :rlabaster-nlore implessive

rnd

dur:ible

vvere nsed to velleer walls wch architecculal clecoralion. Coloss:rl gr,rarclirn fgr.ues flankec'l thc major portals (grarlcl etrtlrtlces,
ofter-r clecolatecl), and panels covcrecl the rvalls

rvith

scenes

irl low

(sculpced lelief r,vih fgLrlcs that projecc only slightll' fi'e1l1 x

recessecl backgrour.rcl) of the king participating ir.r leligior.rs rituals,

relief

\\at: canpilll-rs, rncl hun

ting expeclitor-rs.

THE LION HUNT In :r vivid lion-huntir.rg scene (rrc' e-tz),

Assulr.rasilpal II strncls ir.r a ch:rriol pr-rlled bv grlloping horses iud
cL'aws his bow rg:rr-rst :rn atlirckig lior-r, advar-rcing froln the rerl'
rvilh lrlor'vs aire:rcly protrucling fi'orll its bodl' Anothe' c'xpi'ing
.

ou lhe grottttcl unclet the hol'ses' Ths was probably a celer-notrial lrttttt, in which tl-re kir-rg, proleclecl by t-uen
with srvorcls ar.rcl shielcls, rode back and forth killng ar.rin'rais :rs

be:rst collapses

40

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR

EAST

ENEMIES CROSSING THE EUPHRATES TO ESCAPE

ASSYRIAN ARCHERS Iu anothet'prlace reliel, the scerre sl'rifts
[r'onr royal celenlorly to thc heat of b:rttle, set r'vitl-rin a dctailed
landsc:rpe (see "A Closer Look," prige 42). Thlee of tl-re Assyri:urs' errcuties-tu,o tlsil-l!l flot:rtioll der''ices lrracle ol inflted anin'r:rl skins-srviur acloss r lrgirlg river, l-etrerting fi'orn I vanguard
of Assyri:rn rr-chers rvho kcel at its banks lo launcl-r Cheil assanlt.
The scelte eyokes :r specifc evet fi-or1 tlTt cr clescibed i the
annrls of Assttrr]rsirp:rl. A.s the Assyrirlr killg oveltook the :rfrlry of
:11 eltellly leadel-I'rrrtred I(udrtr.ru lleaI thc rtrodel'n torvn of Aur,r,
botl-r leacler.and soldiel-s esclpecl irtro tl're Er-rphrates l{iver in an
xtteDlpl lo save tl'reir lives.

2-17 . ASSURNASIRPAL ll K|LLING

LTONS

From the palace complex of Assurnasirpal ll, Kalhu (present-day Nimrud, lraq). c. 875-860 ece.
Alabaster, height approx. 39'(99.1 cm). British Museum, London.

DUR SHARRUKIN
Sargon II (mled 72I-706 ncn) buik

a new Assyrian capital at D-rr

SharrLrkin (present-clay I{horsabad, Iraq).

of the capital,

citadel gate

On rhe norrhwesr

side

a walled citadel, or fortress, str.acldlecl the city wall

Nabu temple

(rrc. z-re). Within the citrclel, Sargon's palace cornplex (rhe

group of buildings where the luler govelned :urd r.esicled) stood on
a raisecl, fortified platfdrrl about 40 feet high-denlonsrrrirlg rhe
use

of

ar-t as

political propagrncla.

throne room

city wall

palace entrance

citadel gate

citadel wall

2-1A . RECONSTRUCTION
DRAWING OF THE CITADEL

AND PALACE COMPLEX OF

'/.,

7-

,\l

,,t<

4,

SARGON II
Dur Sharrukin (present-day Khorsabad,
lraq). c. 721-706 ece. The Oriental
lnstitute Museum, University of Chicago.

ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAH EAST CHAPTER 2

41 I

A CLOSER LOOK

These Assyrian archers are outftted in typical

fashion, with protective boots, shon "kilts," pointed

helmets, and swords, as well as bows and quivers of
arrows. Their smaller scale conveys a sense of depth
and spatial positioning in this relief, reinforced by the
size and placement of the trees.

Enemies Crossing the Euphrates to EscaPe

Assyrian Archers
The detailed landscape setting
documents the swirling water
of the river, its rocky banks,
and the airy environment of the
trees, one of which is clearly
described as a palm.

lf this is the ruler of the enemy ctadel,

bank and the overlapping

of the swimmers convey

he seems shocked into powerlessness

by the Assyrian invason. Note the
conlrast between his lax weapon and

a sense of depth receding

from the picture plane into

those deployed by the archers of the

pictorial space.

Assyrian vanguard.

The long robes of the three

enemy swimmers signal

The two lower swimmers were clearly taken by

surprise. Already engaged in their watery retreat,

This beardless swimmer is

probably a eunuch, manY of whom

Two figures raising their hands

in despair react to the bleak fate

their high status. They are

not ordinary foot soldiers

they are still blowing through "tubes" to inflate their

flotation devices. made from sewn animal skins.

served as high officials in ancient

Near Eastern courts.

of their arrow-riddled comrades

attempting to swim to safetY.

iew the Closer

Look for Enemes Crossing the Euphrates to Escape Assyrian Archers on myartslab.com

Guarcled by crvo towers, the palace complex was accessible

only by a wicle lan'rp leadir-rg up fi'om all open sqtlxre, alotincl

rvhich tl-re resiclences of mporturt govelnlllent and religious ofhcials were cluslered. Ieyor-rd the ramp r'vas lhe urrin cottrtyarcl,
r,vitl.r serwice buildings ou the rigl-rt and temples on the left. Tl-re
heart of the palace, protectecl by a reinfolced wall with only two
small, off-center doors, lay prst the main courryarcl. Within the
iner componncl rvas a secoltcl cottrlyalcl linecl with r-rarralive relief
panels showing lribute Lreaters. Visitors wotild heve waited

lo

see

the kig in this cour:fyard that fi-rctioecl rs rn open-rir lttclietlce

hall; once gllnted ccess to tre roy:rl thlotle rootu, they rvould h:rve
passed thror.rgh a stoue gate flar.rked, like tire olher gales of citadel
(rrc. 2-rs), by arvesome gr'r:rrcliar-r figr-rres. These colossal beings, knowu as larnassus, combined the bealded heacl of a
ancl palace

The oblique line of the river

42

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

man, the porverful body of a lion ol buli, the wings of an eagle,

and the hon.red l.readdress of a god.
In an open space betweell the palace cornplex and lerlrple
complex al Dul Sharrukin lose a ziggulat declarir.rg the migirt of
Assylia's kings ancl syntbolizirrg their clairr to empile. It plobably had sevetr leves, each rbout 18 feet high ancl p:rintecl a di
ferent color (see rtc z-re). The four levels still ren.raining were
once white, black, bltre, urcl red. Instead of separate flights of stairs
betrveeu the levels, a sir-rgle, squared-offspilal ramp rose coutiuttously arottud the exterior' [ronl the base.

NINEVEH
Assurbrnipal (r-uled 669-c. 627 ncr), king of the Assyrirr-rs three
gellertiolls rftel Sargon II, rl-rairlcained his crpital at Nineveh'

2-19 . GUAFIDIAN FIGURES AT GATE A OF THE CITADEL OF SARGON tt DURTNG tTS

EXCAVATION IN THE 1A4OS
Dur Sharrul<in (present-day Khorsabad, lraq)

721-706 ace

tlrt of Asstn-n:rsirrrl ll tu,o ccntlr-ics crrlcr', lrs pulrrce lvrrs

u,itll l;rb:rstcl plncls crr-vcc r'r,ith pctor-irr nlrr:ti\/t's irl
lou, rclcf. MosI s]rolv Assur-brr:riPul iurd l)is sub.iccts in buttlc or'
l.jl<c

clccor-tcrl

lrurtinu., brrt Ilrcr-c t-e occrsionu] sccncs r>f p.rl:tcc lifi'.

rr
lcluxinq

rrrrusLr:rly pc:rccfr1

ir l

cruch. :rrrl Ihc rrrccrr sits

lt

lrt'lcl

crrrltpc shou,s thc kilq rrrcl crrccrr

z-eo) 't'hc kirrg lcclincs olt i

plcusrrlc g:rr-dcn (rrc.

p:t1,s 11i1,1' 11r

ir l

clril- :rt llis fccl. u,]rilc u l)r.rsicilrl

rt-t'ivc E'9ltr tltc lcf

\\/ith Ir'rys of firocl, r'r,]rilc otltcl-s 1,;1, 1,llirlr to pr-otc('t tlrc royrl
coLrplc fiorr irsccts Tllc kinq Its trrkcl off ltis t'iclt uccklucc :utri
hurg it on lris couch, urd hc has id;rsiclc lrs lvcpons-slr'<>rd.
bour. rncl cluivcl of rr'r-ows t>n thc tlbc bchi:rd lrirn, br-rt this
rpprr-cntly tllnclrLil clonlcstic sccnc is rcturlly l vi('tor)/ cclcblltion.
,A grisy troplry, thc scrrclcrl hcrcl of his vrncLisrcd crcrry, h:rrus
r-rrsidc clorvn lonr l tl'cc rt rhc fr- lcfi.

tttsic 'l'lt'cc sc,uts

2-2O . ASSUREIANIPAL AND HIS QUEEN IN THE GARDEN

From the palace at Nineveh (present-day Ninua, lraq)

647 e. Alabaster,

heightapprox,21'(533 cm). British Museum, London.

All()l

tlll A\lclt l\l

t\t

I /\tl/\l,t

(iir\trt

43-

NEO-BABYLONIA

econor-nic hlrb of his

empile-irlto one of tl-re l-nost

splerldicl cities

At the cnd of

the seventh cerlttlly lr;1, Assylia rvas irlvacled by

f'ottt r,vestet'u llltl who rvere a11ied rvith the
people
Medes,
a
tl-re
I-abylonilis ancl lhe Scythiar-rs, a noulrclic people f'oul t'rortherlr
Asia (plesent-dry l\ussia :rncl Uklrine) . Irt 612 Bcr, the Medes'

of its

'W'hen the dusc hacl se ltled, Assylia was llo

ru-ny captured Nineveh.
ntole rud the Neo-Ilrbylor-rians-so naured beclttse they leclptured the splendor that had r-nalkecl abylor-r 12 centttt'ies eu-

city's pacron god, Mardtrk (rrc. z-2r)' This stleet, pavecl rvich
lrrge stoue slabs set ir-r r becl of bilumer-r, ws tlp lo (r(r feet wide at
solle points. It lru frour lhe Euphlates bliclge, thlough the temple
clistlict ;rnci palaces, and finrlly through the Isl.rtal Gate , tl-re ceremonial elltrallce to cl-re city. The Ishtar Grte's foru crenellated

legion that stletchecl fi'orl'r

r-noclem Turkey to l'rortherl Arrbia ancl f'orr Mesopotanlia to tl-re

ier

uncler.

Hamrnumbi-conllolled

zar

r-nost fir-uons

II (r'r-rled

Neo-Brbylor-riru rtller rvrs Nebuchrclnez-

605-562 BcE), nolor:ior.rs today fol I'ris sttpplessior.r of

tl.reJews, rs lecorcled ir.r the book of D:uriel in the Heblerv llible,

rvhere hc' uray have beett coufused r,vith l-re fir-r:rl Necy-ll:rbyloni:ul
lr.rler, Nabonidus.

tl.re

fol rllilitary defense) sylnboizect llabyloniar.r porver' (rrc. z-22). Beyoucl the Ishtar G:rte,
walls on either sicle of the roule-iike the gate itselF-rvele f,rced
r,vith clalk blue glazed bric-ks. Thc'gl:rzecl blicks consisted of a firr
of colored glass rdhering lo the stlrface of the bricks after fr'ing, r
process nsed siuce bout 1 600 scl. Against that bhre brckground,
tor,vels (creuellacions ale uotchecl r'valls

Mecliterranern Ser.

The

clay.

Brbylor.r stladclleci lhe Euplurtes lliver', its two seclions joined

by a bdge. The olcler, e:sterll sectol' ws tl'lversed by tl-re Ptocessional l7ry, tl-re route trkerl by leligious plocessions hol-roring

A !1'eat ptron of architectule ,

Nebncl'radr-rez-

zal II
his lealm, and llansforu-red Brbylon-tl-re cultul'al, politicr,

builc ter.r'rples dedicatecl to tl.re ll:rbylonar.r gods throughor-rt

ar-rd

specially rnoldecl lr,tt'qttoise, blue, ar.rd gold-colored bricks folnred

images of stlidir-rg ious, ntrscots of the goddess Isht1' :rs rvell as the
clrrgons thrt were :rssociatecl witl'r Matduk.

PERSIA
the sixth cellcury B(tr, lhe Persians, a folmerly
nomrdic, Ir-rdo-European-speaking people, begn
h-r

to seize power

of

Parsa,

ol

ir-r

Mesopotrmia. Froul the legion

Persis (present-dry Fals, Iran), they

established a vast e1l1pire. The lulers of this r-rerv

enrpire tlacecl theil'ancestry to a senlilegendary

Persian kir-rg named Achrer-uettes, aud cotlseqr.rer-rtly they rre knowu as the Achremenids.

The dr:urraic expausiort of the Achaernenids began in 559 cn with the rscensiou of a
remarkable lercler', Cylus II (Cylus the Gleat,
rulecl 559-530 rcr:). By the time of his de:rth,

the Persian Empile incluclecl Babylonir, Melia

(which slletched xcross preselll-clay r-rortheln
Iran lhrough Arratolia), aud some of the Aegean
islands

frr to the west. Only the Greeks

stood

fast against therr.r (see Chapter 5). When Drlius

(r-r-rlecl

521-486 rtct) took the tluone, he coulci

2-21 . RECONSTRUCTION DRAWING

BABYLON IN THE 6TH CENTURY

OF

BCE

The Oriental lnstitute Museum, University of Chicago.

The palace of Nebuchadnezzar ll, with its famous
Hanging Gardens, can be seen just behind and to the
right of the lshtar Gate, west of the Processional Way.
The Marduk Ziggural looms in the far distance on the
east bank of the Euphrates.

-44

CHAPTER 2 ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAF

EAST

2-22.

ISHTAR GATE AND THRONE

ROOM WALL

Reconstruction; originally f rom Babylon

(present-day Babil, lraq). c. 575 ece. Glazed
brick, height of gate originally 40' (12.2 m) with
towers rising 100' (30.5 m). Vorderasiatisches
Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin,
Preusslscher Kulturbesitz.
The lshtar Gate is decorated with tiers of
dragons (with the head and body of a snake,
the forelegs of a lion, and the hind legs of a bird
of prey) that were sacred to Marduk, with bulls
associated with Adad, the storm god, and with
llons associated with lshtar. Now reconstructed
in a Berlin museum, it is installed next to a panel
from the throne room in Nebuchadnezzar's
nearby palace, in which lions walk beneath
stylized palm trees.

rcsult

rvrs

a nerv nrulticultur':rl style of :rlt

that con-rbined u'r:rny diflerent traditiol-rsPelsian, Medin, Mesopotar.r.rian, Egyptiau,

and Greek.
h-r

Assyli:ur fashion, tl-re in-rperi:rl com-

plex at Persepolis w:ts sct on a raisecl pl:rtform, 40 fect high and nreasuring 1,500

by 900 feet, rccessible only via a

single

applo:rch nrade of rvidc, shallorv stcps chat

could be scerrded on holsc'back. Like

Egl,pti:ur urcl Greek cities, it \s l:id ollt
glid. l)alius livec'l to see the
conrpletion only of a tfesury, the Apldan:r
or' x rect:nglrial

(audience l-rall), ancl

very sr.r.ull palrce

eor

hin.rself. The APADANA, set above the lest

of the complex on a seconci telrrce (tc.

z-z+),h open polches on thlee sicles u.rd
ploclrirn:

"l

:ur-r

l)trius, gleat I{ing, I{ing of I{ings, I{ing of coun-

trics, I{ir.rg of this eutl-r."

An lble adniillistL'ator', l)ariLrs

to l-rold sevelal thous:urd people. Dar(r'nled 485-4(t5 rcE) adcied r splrwling paace
complex for l.rimsclf, enlalgeci the tleasnry builclng, and began :r
vst r-ew pr"rblic leception space, the Hrll of 100 Colunu'rs.
Tl're central stail of l)rrius's Apachn:r disphys relie of aninnl conrbrt, tiered r:urks of royrl gullcls (thc' "10,000 Inrnroltals"),
ar-rd delegacions of tlibr-rte-berels. Hele, liolrs :rttrck bulls on eithel'
side of t'he Pelsiar enelirls. Such rnir-nal conibrts (a theme found
sqrlire hall large elrollgh

ins's sor.r Xerxes

olgar-rizecl the Pelsian larrds

into

20 tributc-p:rying arcrs r-rnder Persian goverllor-s. He often left loc:rl

mlcrs in placc bencrtl'r the govelnors. This p1'rctice, along u'itlr

tolcr'uce for clivelse rrrrivc cr.rstonrs ancl r'cligiorrs. rvor thc Pelsiaus
tl-re lo1,ly of lllge nunrbers of t'heil subjects. Like n'rany powel'ul lulcrs, )lrius cleated p:rlaces :rncl citidels rs visible symbols of
l-ris:ruthority. He nrrde Sus:r his filsc capit;ri urd conunissioned a
32-acle rdnrinistrrtive componnd to be builr thele.
hl rbout 515 c;r, I):rlins began cor.rstluction of Palsr, a nerv
capital irl the Pcrsian houlelancl, tocla, klle1"r', by its Greek nanre:
PERSEPOLIS. lt is one of the best-pleserved and nrost impressive
ancent sites in tbe Near East (rrc. z-zs). l)arir.rs in-rpolced nateriitls, u'olkers, and r:'tists fi'om all over l-ris elllpirc. He even ordelecl
rvork to be executed in Egypt:rnd transpolted to l-ris capital. The

throughout the Neal East) en-rphasize the felocity of the lcaclers

lrnks of u,rlriors cover the wlls \\'ith repextecl
pittenls:rud scenr le:td), 6 clefencl tl're palace. The elegrut cllru,:rnd their nren.
ir-rg, balanced

conrposton,

urcl

sleek modeling of figules leflect

the Pelsians' knowleclge of Greek

ll't

:urd perhaps the nse of Gleek

altists. Othel lelie tl.rloughout Persepolis depict displays of alle-

ol economic prosper:ity. In one ex:rmple, once thc center'piece, l)alius holcls an ludience rvhile l-ris son lnd l-reir, Xcrxes,
gi:ince

ART OF TI Itr ANCItrNT NEAB EAST CHAPTER 2

45 I

rr- - t-1*,
>
f,l-'
t-{*f
: l-l:* -l"ta'
.,

p&
r*r

;f
L-.lL'f,t

i-

t,.,

f.ir-,n: il-_
,i;''

2-23 . AERIAL VIEW OF THE CEREMONIAL COMPLEX' PERSEPOLIS

lran.

51

8-c. 460 ece.

[il/atch

a video about Persepolls on myartslab.com

2-24 . APADANA
(AUDIENCE HALL)
OF DARIUS AND
XERXES
Ceremonial Complex,
Persepolis, lran.

518-c.460

446

CHAPTER 2 AFT OF THE ANCIENT NEAH ASI

BcE.

^t

,r

IY

2-25 . DARIUS AND XERXES RECEIVING TRIBUTE

Detail of a relief from the stairway leading to the Apadana, Persepolis, lran. 491-486 ece. Limestone, height 8'4" (2.54 ml.
Coudesy the Oriental lnstitute of the University of Chicago.

fWatctr

a video about

the process of sculpting in relief on myartslab.com

2-2s). Such pu.rels would

hrve looked quite diflelent when they wele fi'eshly pair-rted in
listens fi'om behind the thlone (rro.

blighr colols, with r-netal objects such as Darius's crown and necklace covered in gold leaf (sheets of hammeleci gold).
At its height, the Per:sian Empire extenclecl fror.r.r Afi'icr to
India. Frorn Pelsepolis, Darius in 490 c ancl Xerxes in 480 ucl
sent their anries west to collqler Greece, but r-nrir-rland Gleeks
sr"rccessfully resistecl

the unries of the Achaemenids,

preventir-g

them 'orl advancing,into Enrope. Incleecl, it was a Greek wl-ro

trltirnately put an end to their errpire. In 334 sc, Alexander the
Grert of Maceclonia (d.323 nce) crossed into Anatolia u.rd swept
through Mesopotamia, defeating Darius III and near'ly clestroying
Persepolis in 330 sc. Although the Achaer.nenicl Empire was at
an end, Persia eventnally revived, and the Persian style

in rt coll-

tinued to influence Greek altists (see Chapter' 5) :rnd r.rltrnately

becune one of the founclations of Islar.nic art (see Chrpter 9).

THINK ABOUT IT
2.1

2.2

Describe and characterize the way human figures

CROSSCURRENTS

are represented in the Sumerian votive figures of

Both of these works depict a

Eshnunna. What are the potential relationships

social gathering involving food

between style and function?

and drink, but they are vastly

Discuss the development of relief sculpture in the

ancient Near East. Choose two specific examples, one

from the Sumerian period and one from the Assyrian
period, and explain how symbols and stories are
combined to express ideas that were impodant to

H
FrG.

different in scale, materials, and

physical context. How do the
factors of scale and materials
contribute io the visual appearance of the scenes? How does

2-10

physical context and audience

affect the meaning of what is
portrayed?

these two cultures.

2.3

Select two rulers discussed in this chapter and explain

how each preserved his legacy through commissioned

works of aft and/or architecture.

2.4

How did the excavations of Sir Leonard Woolley

contribute to our understanding of the ad of the
ancient Near East?

Fc

,l-

2-2O

fstuAy and review on

myartslab.com

ART OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST CHAPTER 2

47
-

\,si

.l
<.Il-

'ffi:-ff\."

\
'

--lr'

"iflri,sr-

#:r+
\,

,I

JT

')

. FUNEHARY MASK OF TUTANKHAMUN

Fromthetombof Tutankhamun,Valleyof theKings.EighteenthDynasty(Tutankhamun,
3-1

with glass and semiprecious stones, heighi

211/a"

(54 5 cm), weight 24 pounds

(1

r.c. 1332-1322 ece),c. 1327acr Goldinlaid

1 kg). Egyptian Museum,

Cairo

(JE 60672)