IE~aluate the effecti~eness of

my approach and the validity of

my

Discuss my research in the

context of others' work
Explain the value of my
research
Distinguish between fact and

Select the right journal for

research
Find the time I need to

Work effectively with

Accept and use others'
advice
Conceive the detailed
, of a paper
Always find enough to write
about

I \ /

\..

Write with clarity

Write with style

Write the required amount
neither too much, nor too little

If you have several areas to work on, which of the following explains why they are
problematic?

V1

Lack of experience in writing about research

Lack of understanding of the processes of publishing research
Not giving writing priority in your daily work
Confidence with English language
The research is not far enough advanced to publish_ J"
The research findings are not important or significant
Lack of encouragement by others
Habitual procrastination

Incus Associates Ltd 2009

What can you do !9 ensure your ~~iting is productive!

These are some of the things people identify that help them be productive writers.

Find time to write every day, and if necessary get up earlier, or go to bed
half an hour later. Just write something each day.
Read something every day

integrate your reading and your writing

Be self-motivated, see writing as a personally important and fulfilling activity.

See writing as part of research, not an inconvenient add-on.
Identify where you are at your most productive or creative. 00 you like
solitude or a busy environment, peace or noise? Pen & paper or computer?
Are you a lark or an owl?
Learn to write in nibbles and in binges.
Write purposefully, have an objective, but if you can't, then just write ...
Learn techniques for beating writers block.
Always try to understand your audience - who are you writing for, and why
are you doing it? What do they want to read, and what do you want to tell
them?
Seek critical advice from peers and more experienced writers.
Writing is a cognitive process: it involves awareness and judgement which
depend upon your knowledge and experience. Persist because writing gets
better in every way the more you do .

... TRY THIS LATER - FOR ONE MONTH

1) Set aside some dedicated time perhaps 20 to 30 minutes to write a log about
your research every day. You could use a diary, a journal, a blog, a web-site, for
example. Write about ideas, meetings, what you are doing, what you'd plan to do;
anything, in fact.
2) Buy and read a quality newspaper once a week: some Saturday papers are
fantastic value and contain good writing in English. As a suggestion, try The
Guardian or The Telegraph.
3) Read some fiction. It exposes you to living language and shows how words can be
used with power and effect. This can be especially valuable if you are not a native
speaker of English. If so, you might prefer to read short stories.

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In~IJs Assn~i;ltp.s

I Ir:I 7009

___~_ _ _ _vy~ich journal?

................_ - - - - - -

Quality, prestige and impact

Original research is published in journals, and to a lesser extent in conference
proceedings and monographs. Traditions vary with the academic discipline. Original
papers that have been subjected to rigorous and expert peer-review are held in
higher esteem than un-reviewed articles. 1

Everyone aspires to publish in prestigious journals, but what gives prestige to a

particular journal?
High impact is usually sought. The impact of your article will depend upon
the journal circulation and reputation. The number of times your paper is
cited will depend upon the perceived quality of the research it reports. From
this, people might assess whether your paper (that is, your research)
achieves international, national or local standing.
The impact factor for a journal is usually calculated from the number of
citations over one year of papers published in the previous two years, divided
by the number of articles published in the two-year period. There are other
measures, including an immediacy index which measures how quickly
articles becomes cited, and a citation half-life which reflects how long a
paper continues to be cited.
Be aware that these metrics are often misunderstood and misinterpreted.
Nonetheless, if you publish in widely read journals that have high standards in
publishing quality, your work will more likely achieve your goal of stimulating and
influencing others. These measures of impact affect decisions of employers and
research funders.
For your subject area, there are recognised specialist journals. There are also multi
disciplinary journals, and those of high standing can be very difficult to publish in.
lSI's Web of Knowledge gives you access to such information in the Sciences and
Arts. Access through http://www.thomsonreuters.com/

Submitting to your chosen journal

You will almost certainly know through your own reading which journals publish your
sort of study and which are most highly regarded. When you have selected an
appropriate journal, read the instructions to authors to familiarise yourself with the
format of printed or electronic manuscript required and the processes it will be
subjected to in review.

I In the sciences especially. papers published in Journals are generally valued more than those in multi
authored books, although there are some highly prestigious review series in which publication is only by
invitation.

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Incus Associates Ltd 2009

Most journals now accept, or require, manuscripts to be submitted online. For an

example of an on-line manuscript submission process, go to one of the many BMC
journal websites such as http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcimmunollifora/
Publishing is highly competitive, so if your manuscript does not meet the journal's
requirements, you can expect summary rejection.
Peer review & Referees
If you are asked to nominate referees - not uncommon nowadays - take advice from
colleagues especially those who have successfully published in particular journals
about their experience with the submission and review process and time taken to
publication. Traditionally, journals draw upon a panel of their own experienced
referees.
The role of the referee is to ensure the article meets the journal's technical
requirements, but most importantly to determine if the paper and the research it
reports meet the standards of quality and interest the journal aspires to. Referees
are generally given specific guidance (often a check-list) against which they review
your paper.
Be prepared to receive written comments from the referees and a response from the
Editor indicating whether your paper can be published, and whether it requires
modification according to the referees' comments.
As much as the peer-review process is intended to be objective and balanced, it
involves judgement and opinion, so do not be surprised if referees do not share your
belief that your paper is worthy of immediate publication without alteration.
You may receive detailed comments and criticisms that run to many pages. To
survive the impact these might have they can appear highly critical or damning at
first reading - here are some s~ggestions.
Don't delay: deal with the comments as soon as possible.
Read and re-read referees' reports very carefully. Find out what they agree
on, and if they disagree on specific points.
Discuss with your co-authors the meaning of the comments one-by-one, and
your possible responses to them.
Be willing to accept and respond positively to criticism. If referees want
changes that will improve your paper, use them and be thankful.
Be prepared to compromise. If required to make changes in order to have the
paper accepted, decide if the consequence (no publication) of resisting the
changes is acceptable.

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Incus Associates Ltd 2009

 Be prepared to argue your case, Editors will use their judgement if you
provide an argued case, based on evidence, to reject requests for a specific
change in your manuscript.
Rewrite the manuscript and resubmit it with supporting information if that is
needed,
Prepare yourself for a second cycle which may include criticism from referees
who did not see the first version, Editors may call upon new opinions where
the balance between your view and the earlier referees' views has not been
resolved,
Be prepared also for the editor to insist on changes to make the manuscript
adhere to the journal house style,

Audience
The notes above tell you three things:
1. You are writing for a particular audience
2. This audience has expectations about your writing and your research
3. The review process seeks to make you meet those expectations

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Incus Associates Ltd 2009

From conce

to structure

The way we carry out our research will determine how we write about it: an original
research paper will therefore reflect the research it reports in its structure and
argument.
Remember that such a paper tells a story in a very general sense. It is written in a
formal style and obeying rules not used in other areas of writing, but most research
papers follow the universal sequence in story telling moving from problem through
action to resolution. In spite of these constraints on style, good original papers
have a distinct and understandable narrative to them.
You may find it helpful to conceptualise the research you want to write about before
planning and drafting your paper. Here is one way of looking at the research
framework or cycle which - at least in part - will fit most research you will encounter.

Framework of research

RESEARCH
PROBLEM

ACTION
Doing the resea~
OUTPUT
OUTCOME

Staines

EVALUATION

PLAN
Objectives
Methods

L
~

EXPERIENCE

I IDEA I

Often relates to
a LACK of

Knowledge

Understanding

Substance

Method
Process
System
Model

Therapy

Theory

Policy...

PUBLICATION

~
I

What the output

enables you and
others to do

2009

If you think about the structure of a typical research paper in your area, can
you see how it locates in this cycle?
The key starting point in writing a paper is to identify the research problem
and, in some way, to identify its value.
Value is a term widely used, and broadly interpreted in different areas.
How would you explain the nature of the research problem you wish to write
about?

Vi

Incus Associates Ltd 2009

Exercise: Rationalising your research

, eN: ~
I v\ ,
Write a short, concise rationale of the res~a~yo~want to PUb~
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Discussion
Having listened to all your colleagues, can you identify the different styles they have
used? Do they, in your view, differ in their effectiveness in making the case for the
research?

V1

13

Incus Associates Ltd 2009

Planning and writing a research paper

A research paper is expected to deal with several topics in a formally structured and
logical fashion. Individual journals give highly detailed guidance in their instructions
to authors. Compare widely different subjects, and you will find some common
features which we might represent in this fashion.

Broad structural ar

S~~;~I sciences

;~i~~~~Sen~

~-----"""""---+-T-h-e-r-es-e-a-rc-h-S-U-b-je~~~im or hy~--II
Defining the research
problem

Methodology

_ _ _ _-------+Im~~tionale for the work

. Critical review of

uestion
Approach, theory.
_ _~E?r?pective

Methods

+--_ _................________

Findings and discovery Findings

Results, data
-+ - - - - ............. - - . . . . . . . + - . - - - - - - _.... - + - - - - - - - - - .
Interpretation and
Meaning, evaluation
Discussion
~menc.;-t_ _:--_~~~_
Speculation and
Implications for
Conclusions and future
i projection_ ._m theory and practis::~---"....L....C--'.L~_...c......
~
____

You will be obliged to write papers in an idiosyncratic structure which might owe
more to tradition in your subject area than to logic and the need to make research
writing easily accessible. But, the advantages of a formal structure to research
writing are obvious: with only a little experience, a reader quickly learns where to find
critical information in a paper. Many people do not read a plper from the beginnir1~
and progress to the end, but are selective ancTTilferrogatory, picking out key points in
a sequence differeriHromlneway you wTIfpresent them. Bear this in mind in your
writing.
Plan
This means producing a structure for your writing. Whilst you may carry everything in
your head, there are distinct advantages in writing down a plan: identify the major
sections of the paper, decide on their content and how the content will be
apportioned to subsections.

As a rule of thumb, start out with three orders of heading, and assign a number of
words to each. This means that you can, if you wish, write sections of your paper out
of their natural sequence which is a style of drafting that suits many people. Splitting
the manuscript into small pieces can be an efficient way to manage the complex
business of writing a research paper.
Your plan is a functional template and guide. It does not have to be inviolate so if
you discover a better way of presenting your research, you can alter the plan.

V1

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Incus Associates Ltd 2009

Moving from Plan through Drafting to Editing

How do you approach the business of editing your draft? By editing, we refer to the
process of getting all the details right, making sure the spelling and syntax are
correct, the references correctly cited, the format as required, and most importantly,
that the sense of the writing is coherent and consistent. Try to keep editing separate
from drafting they are very different processes.
Editing is laborious and demanding, and may take as long as preparing the full draft.
Don't underestimate the time and effort that may be needed. Published papers must
adhere to the highest standards of accuracy, so there will be many details to be
checked and re-checked.

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Incus Associates Ltd 2009

ument

The narrative of your paper will almost certainly need to present an argument to your
readers. An academic argument is an exchange and sharing of facts, ideas,
concepts and opinions. It is not designed to win, but to pool knowledge and move
forward.
Argument of this type is a form of academic engagement.
In his excellent book How to Argue. Alastair Bonnett says that argument deals in a
serious way with a substantive issue which is either a core concern in the ongoing
debate in your area, or which should be a core concern.
You might identify an existing core concern through a small number of seminal
publications, or you could draw upon facts, concepts or opinions from another area to
generate what should be a core concern in your own.
Substantive argument is about more than
Simple detail,
Everything and anything,
Description, or
You and your experience.
In writing, different approaches will demand an appropriate use of argument. This is
one way of thinking about this issue that Bonnett offers:

IArQlum;er;rtrnlCo)ttrrequi~re~d-1 Argument required . - - " Argument leads the

List
Enumerate
Summarise

Discuss
Critically analyse/explore
Evaluate
Justify
Defend
Support
Propose
Refute
Hypothesise

When writing the sections of your paper, identify the verb or verbs above that would
be desirable. You can help your reader if you use these explicitly in your writing as
they can help differentiate clearly what approach yo II are taking in the narrative text
An accomplished writer will argue with style and persuasion.

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Incus Associates Ltd 2009

(i

c)'J,

))\'l\\'i'

--The Sections of an Original Article

While the structure of papers will vary enormously, it is possible to make some
general observations and identify common errors in research papers,

Introduction
The purpose is to introduce your research problem or topic, It needs to be stated
and placed in the context of what is already known - the background, If the value of
the research can be explained, that is a significant bonus, This section sums up why
you did the research, The aims or objectives of the research and perhaps the
reasons for the methodology can be included.

Editors will find problems with this section if, aside from it not satisfying the above, it
sets out to educate, A research paper is for specialists and the received knowledge
of the subject is usually assumed, Likewise, it should not evangelise nor should it
ignore published work that is germane to the topic, the more so if it represents a
different opinion or view from yours. This is the section where you argue your case.
References to published work should be selected carefully and with objective
balance
Theoretical aspects
These may be central to understanding the research and will be included in many
papers as a section separate from a more general introduction. Here you have the
opportunity to reveal the controversy in the background to your work, the choice of
approach in the model or theory you will use, You might also at this point present the
value of the research from this theoretical perspective.
Methodology
Requirements vary greatly with the nature of the research, but the cardinal rule is that
your readers should be able to understand how you conducted your research. This
will include why you chose particular ways of approaching it, and detailed description
of particular methods, With regard to the latter, cite published accounts of methods
which you can supplement with detail of variations you have used.

Common problems include the description of methods that are not referred to again
in the paper, and too little or too much detail. Editors and referees want to know that
the very best and most appropriate methodology has been used and that you are
able to evaluate its effectiveness,
You may decide that this is the place to describe developmental or evaluative work
on analytical methods. You may also explain the use of statistical methods here.
Findings
The empirical research produces findings or results. Whatever the nature of your
research you must describe it in a logical sequence with a narrative text. Itmay be

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Incus Associates Ltd 2009

necessary to interpret and comment as you present your findings rather than leave
your readersiiithe dark asto the meaningoffindings and the reasons for the next
steps you report.
Figures and tables_are essential for numerical date and a great boon in all research.
~--Dg.no.t.lIJ:1J?!YEQiica t e what is said in the text, nor over-describe illustrations the
narrative. Text a~9JiguresshQllld syne~e - doing their different jobs effectively to
present evidence and to reinforce your message.
Discussion
This should bring everything together, taking the reader at some point back to your
research problem. In good discussion, one expects to find reference back to papers
findings in the context of pre
cited in the introduction in order to piace the
eXisting knowlecnfeand opinion,

new

In discussion, highlight the important aspects of your research as you see them. This
needs to be a reasoned argument - why they are important and what their
implications are. You may wish to emphasise practical or theoretical implications of
your work, or both. Re~der~ will expectyou to evaluate honestly methodological
pr9blems that became apparent during the research; they will want to know if you
achieved your aims. Sensible writers do not set out aims in their introduction which
they ignore later, or which they do not satisfy by doing the research. Journal editors
particularly identify these errors in manuscripts they reject.
A! this stage,.qon'tin~ro~uce new data or findings of your own. Don't spend too much
space on discussing other research in a way that does not relate to what you have
done.
Refer back to the diagram of the cycle of research (p 18), and see how you can close
the circle by linking your discussion to the original research problem.
Conclusions
It c~lLbe helpful to your message to include a set of conclusions, but ensure they are
-.~
not simply a repetition of the discussion section, but rather pick out the cardinal
points you wish to emphasise.
Recom mendations
For work that has an objective to influence others, such as policy makers, it is
necessary to layout the recommendations that follow from your work. Some journals
will accommodate an eponymous section for your recommendations. It will be
especially important that they are both based in evidence and are written in a style
that is accessible to the people you wish to influence.

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Incus Associates Ltd 2009

Drafting a Paper - A Universal Outline

Papers about research generally give the reader answers to questions about why the
research was done, how it was done, what was found and what its implications are.
Rowena Murra/ has described how you can draft a paper in a very economical way
using a template that acknowledges these features.

Think about the research you wish to write about and draft responses to the
questions that follow. Adhere to the word limits for each question, and you will
complete the exercise quickly. Importantly, it will push you to select the most
important aspects of your work, and distinguish these from the peripheral.

r.

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1. Who are your readers?

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V1

19

Incus Associates Ltd 2009

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