Electromechanical Energy Conversion

ELECTROMECHANICAL
ENERGY CONVERSION
(EE 413/ECE 412)
THE DYNAMO-PRINCIPLES
AND CONSTRUCTION
Dynamo is a rotating electrical machine in which the

energy transformation takes place. There are two
general types of dynamo, namely:
a. generator- mechanical energy is converted to electric

energy
b. motor electric energy is converted to mechanical
energy
Note: Generators and motors are fundamentally similar in construction - and
this is particularly true of dc machines - they differ only in the way they are
used.
DC Generator and Motor Principles

The fundamental principles governing generator action and
motor action were originally discovered by Michael Faraday
in 1831. Briefly summarized, these basic principles may be
stated as follows:
Generator action involving the development of voltage,
may result (a) by moving a conductor in such a manner
that it cuts across magnetic lines of force (dc generator),
(b) by moving magnetic lines of force in such a manner that
they cut across a conductor (ac generator/alternator), and
(c) by changing the number of lines of force that link with a
wire or coil of wire (transformer).
General Voltage Equation for DirectCurrent Generator

*Remembering that the generated voltage depends
upon the rate at which flux is cut and that 1 volt

results from cutting 108 lines of force per second.
The ff. analysis will lead to a very useful fundamental

equation:
1) Each one of Z conductors cuts x P line of force
per revolution, where is the flux supplied by each
of the poles P.
General Voltage Equation for

Direct-Current Generator
2) Assuming a parallel armature paths, the number of
conductors per path will therefore be Z/a.
3) If the speed of the armature is represented by
rpm, the speed in revolutions per second is
rpm/60.
4) If ( x P) is multiplied by rpm/60, the product
would represent the flux cut by each conductor per
second.

5) Since 1 volt is generated for every 108 lines cut
per second, multiplying the product in (4), i.e., (
x P x rpm/60) by 10-8 would give the voltage
generated in each conductor.
6) Finally, multiplying ( x P x rpm/60 x 10-8) by
(Z/a) would yield the total generated voltage, Eg.
Thus the fundamental voltage equation becomes,

Eg
Z P
=
x 10 8
60 a
Where Eg = total generated voltage

= flux per pole, Maxwell
P = number of poles, an even number
N = speed of the armature, rpm
Z = total number of conductors effectively
used to add to resulting voltage
a = number of armature paths connected in
parallel (determined by type of armature
winding)
Direction of a Generated Voltage

The direction of the generated voltage in a
conductor, or more correctly in a coil of wire, as
it is rotated to cut the lines of force produced by
the electromagnets in a generator, will depend
upon two factors only:
1) the direction of the flux determined by
the magnet polarity
2) the direction of motion of the conductor

Right-Hand Rule used to determine the direction of the
generated voltage
Thumb represents the direction of the motion of the
conductor
Forefinger represents the direction of the flux (from
north pole to south pole)
Middle finger represents the direction of the
generated voltage
Dot generated voltage in the conductor will be toward the
observer
Cross generated voltage in the conductor will be away from
the observer

magnetic lines
of force
Fig.1 two-pole
generator
The Elementary Alternating-current

Generator
The dc generator is fundamentally an ac
generator because, internally, in the armature
conductors, the current reverses periodically as the
wires move to cut lines of force successively under
the north and south poles.
The frequency, f in cycles per second (cps), of
the alternating current is proportional to both the
speed in revolutions per second, rpm/60, and the
number of pairs of poles, P/2.

Generator
P rpm ( P )(rpm )
f = x
=
2 60
120
Where: f = frequency, cps (Hz)
P = no. of poles
rpm = speed of revolution

Generator
The ff. diagrams illustrate graphically how the number of
cycles per revolution is affected by the number of poles:
N
S
1 cycle
Fig. 2 Two poles- 1 cycle per revolution

Generator
S
2 cycles
Fig.3 Four poles - two cycles per revolution
Commutation in DC Generator
From the foregoing discussion, it should be clear
that the generated voltage, as well as the
current, in dc armature winding is alternating. It
is true, of course, that nothing can be done in the
modern generator to develop an internal dc emf;
what can be done, however, is to rectify the
internal alternating current so that the brush
voltage the external voltage is direct current.
The mechanism for doing this consists of the
commutator (in its simplest form it may be
represented by a split ring) and its brushes. (See
figure)
Figure 4. Commutator and Brushes
Brushes are located so that they touch two
segments exactly on top and bottom.
Each conductor is permanently connected to
a segment (or a semi ring).
The split ring rotates with the rotating coil.
Brushes and poles are stationary.
Generation of Unidirectional Current

a
x
Load
Load
(a)
(b)
When the plane of the coil is vertical, it will be short-circuited by the brushes, thus,
the generated voltage is zero. When conductor a is moving downward (clockwise
rotation) and cutting the flux under a north pole, semi ring x will be negative; at the
same time, conductor b will be moving upward and cutting flux under a south pole,
thus making semi ring y positive. The brush touching semi ring y will therefore be
positive, while the other brush will be negative; the current through the load will be
from left to right.

b
+x
x
a
I
Load
Load
(c)
(d)
During the next half revolution, conductor a will change places with conductor b
under the poles, and this exchange will cause the generated voltages in the two
conductors to reverse their direction. However, when this happens, the semi rings,
to which they are connected, automatically change places under the stationary
brushes.

a
S
y
It follows therefore that the polarity of the

brushes does not change. Hence, the
current through the load will always be
from left to right.
Load
(e)
It is true that the magnitude of the

current will change as the conductors a
and b occupy different positions under
the poles, but there will be no reversal
of current through the load (see
figure).
(b)
(a)
(d)
(c)
Fig. 5
(e)

resultant
coil A
coil B
When several coils are joined

together properly so that their
combined effect acts are additively,
the result is not only increased
voltage, but also voltage pulsations
that are not so violent; in other
words, the voltage wave becomes
smoother as the number of coils are
increased (see figure).
Fig. 6 Two coils in series
Strictly speaking, a dc generator does not deliver a pure direct current, as

does a storage battery, for example, but approaches such a current very
closely as the number of coils and commutator segments are increased.
Motor action involving the development

of force, results when a current-bearing
conductor is placed in a magnetic field so
that it is not parallel to the direction of the
lines of force.
Force and Torque Developed by

Direct-current Motors
Force
Fig. 7 Fields produced by main poles and by

current-carrying conductors
N
Force
Fig. 8 Resultant field and force

produced by magnet poles and
current-carrying conductors
The first important point to be made in connection with the study of motor is
this: if a current-bearing wire is in nonuniform magnetic field so that the flux
density on one side of the conductor is greater than that of the other side, the
conductor will experience a force action in a direction away from the higher
density to the lower density.

In the actual dc motor the nonuniform flux distribution
results from the interaction of two magnetic fields, one
being the field produced by the stationary main poles and
the other field created by a large number of current-carrying
conductors on the armature core. Secondly, the force action
exerted by a current-carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field depends upon:
1) the strength of the main field
2) the value of the current through the conductor

Experiment has shown that a force of 1 dyne will
be exerted upon a conductor 1 cm long carrying a

current of 10 amp when placed under a pole area
of which is 1 cm2 and producing one line of force.
This leads to the equation:
F=
Il
10
, dynes

If the units of F, , and are specified in more practical
terms, that is, pounds, lines per in2 and inches
respectively, the equation becomes:
F=
Il
11 ,300 ,000
Where: = flux density

I = current in the conductor
= length of the conductor
, lb
Commutation in DC Motors
It should be clear here that the function of
the commutator and the brushes in a dc
motor is to act as an inverter, that is, to
change the direct current to alternating
current, because the current in the armature
conductors must be alternating if rotation in
the same direction is to continue.
Arrangement of Generator and Motor

Parts
For the purposes of description, the electric generators and
motors may be divided into two sections, namely:
the stationary part (stator) - The most important
function of the stator is to serve as the seat of the
magnetic flux that must be made to enter the armature
core. The field generally consists of a cylindrical yoke or
frame to which is bolted a set of electromagnets.

Parts
Field-Pole cores built up of a
stack of steel laminations, about
0.025 in. thick per lamination,
having good magnetic qualities;
rivets are driven through the
holes in the sheets to fasten
together a stack of such
laminations equal to the axial
length of the armature core. The
shape of the assembled core is
such that the smaller cross
section is provided for the field
winding or windings, while the spread-out portion called the pole shoe permits
the flux to spread out over a wider area where the flux enters the armature
core.

Parts
Field windings - Each of the main pole
cores may have one of three types of
the field-winding construction
depending upon whether the machine
is to be operated as shunt, series, or
compound dynamo:
(1) shunt winding has a
comparatively large number of turns
of fine wires; its resistance is therefore
high enough so that it may be
connected directly across the armature
voltage or to a separate source of emf of about the same order of magnitude.
(2) series winding has relatively few turns of heavy wire and is connected in
such a way that high values of current usually pass through it; its resistance is
extremely low so that even when carrying normal load current, its voltage drop
will be small.

Parts
(3) compound winding a combination of the shunt and series field. The
series coil is wound over the shunt coil; this is good general practice because
the series field, carrying high values of current, is kept cool more readily
when placed on the outside.
the rotating part (rotor) - which is the
real source of the electric (generator)
power or the mechanical (motor) power,
is built up of laminated steel core,
slotted to receive the insulated copper
armature winding. The number of slots
is carefully selected in conjunction with
the number of commutator segments,
on the basis of good design.

Parts

Parts
commutator built-up group of
hard-drawn copper bars, wedgeshaped in section when viewed
on end, and having V-shaped
grooves at each end. Together
with the stationary brushes that
ride over its rotating surface, it
is assigned the duty of changing
an internally generated
alternating current to an
external direct current in the generator and of changing an externally
applied direct current to an internal alternating current in the motor.

Parts
armature winding virtually the heart of the dynamo; it is where the

voltage is generated in the generator or where torque is developed in
the motor. The armature-coil ends are soldered to the commutator.
Armature Windings
Function: It is where the electric power originates in the
generator and where the torque is developed in the
motor.
Types of Armature winding:
The two types of armature winding used on modern dc
machines are designated lap and wave. They may be
distinguished from each other in two general ways:
1) from the standpoint of construction they differ only
by the manner in which the coil ends are connected to
the commutator bars.
Armature Windings
Lap coil
Wave Coil
Coil end
Coil end
nearly 360 Electrical degrees
Adjacent Commutator
Segments
(a) Simplex-Lap
Connections
(b) Simplex-Wave
Connections
Fig. 9 Sketches showing how the coil ends are connected to

the commutator in lap- and wave-wound armature windings
Armature Windings
Recognizing this simple construction difference, it should,
therefore, be clear that:
(a) a lap winding is one in which the coil ends are
connected to the commutator segments that are near
one another and;
(b) a wave winding is one in which the coil ends are
connected to commutator segments that are some
distance from one another- nearly 360 electrical
degrees apart.
Armature Windings
2) from the standpoint of an electrical circuit they
differ in the number of parallel paths between
the positive and the negative brushes. Like for
example, simplex-lap windings have as many
parallel paths as main poles, while simplex-wave
windings have two parallel paths regardless of
the number of poles.
Armature Winding Parameters

Coil Pitch (or Span) - refers to the distance between
the two sides of the individual coils, measured in
terms of the number of slots. It is determined in
exactly the same way for all windings, whether lap or
wave.
The fundamental rule that fixes the coil pitch in any
given machine is: the distance between the two sides
of the coil must be equal (or very nearly so) to the
distance between two adjacent poles.
S
Y S= k
P
Where YS = coil pitch, slots
S = total number of armature slots
P = number of main poles
k = any part of S/P that is subtracted to
make YS an integer

Example:
Calculate the coil pitches and indicate the slots which the
first coils should be placed for the following armature
windings: (a) 28 slots, 4 poles; (b) 39 slots, 4 poles.
28
0=7
a) YS =
4
39 3
b) YS =
=9
4 4
Slots 1 and 8
Slots 1 and 10

Commutator Pitch- refers to the distance on the
commutator between the two ends of a coil element,
measured in terms of commutator segments. Its value is
determined in a different way for lap and wave windings.
For Lap: YC is equal merely to the degree of
multiplicity the plex of the lap winding. Thus, YC equals
1,2,3,4 etc., for simplex-, duplex-, triple-, quadruplex-,
etc., lap windings, respectively.

For Wave:
Cm
Y c=
P
2
Where: YC = commutator pitch

C = total number of commutator segments
P = number of poles
m= multiplicity
Note: Use +m if winding is progressive.
Use m if winding is retrogressive.

Example:
Calculate the commutator pitches for the following pole
and commutator segment combinations: (a) 6 poles, 34
segments; (b) 8 poles, 63 segments.
34 1
= 11
a) YC =
3
63 + 1
b) YC =
= 16
4
Tracing, 1-12-23-34
Tracing, 1-17-33-49-2

number of parallel paths, a- number of groups of
coils in series connection and connected in parallel
between the + and - brushes.
When the current passes through any armature
winding, it always divides into an even number of
parallel paths.
For Lap:
For Wave:
For Frog-leg:
a L = mP
aW = 2m
aFL = 2 P

reentrancy All dc armatures have closed-circuit
windings; this implies that they may be traced
completely from any point through all or part of the
winding, and such tracing will always lead back to the
starting point.
For Lap: The degree of reentrancy is that number
which is the highest common factor between the
number of commutator segments and the commutator
pitch.

YC
For Wave: Reentrancy = m, if
is integer.
m
YC
is NOT an integer.
Reentrancy = 1, if
m
multiplicity, m (simplex, duplex, triplex, etc.) is the
number of segments progressed or retrogressed by
the end terminal of a set of successive coils in series
from its starting point in tracing around the armature.

Example:
Determine the commutator pitch for a four-pole simplexwave-wound armature having 21 segments. Also list the
commutator segments in the proper order as the coils are
traced through the entire winding from segment 1 until it
closes.
Solution:
21 1
YC =
= 10 or 11
2

Using YC = 10 , the succession of commutator
segments is as follows:
1-11-21-10-20-9-19-8-18-7-17-6-16-5-15-4-14-313-2-12 then reentering segment 1
Using YC = 11 , the succession of commutator
segments is as follows:
1-12-2-13-3-14-4-15-5-16-6-17-7-18-8-19-9-20-1021-11 then reentering segment 1

number of brushes, b
For Lap: b = P
For Wave: b = 2 or P
width of each brush = m segments
Note: Brushes are positioned to short circuit
conductors in neutral position.
total number of coils = number of slots

Pole pitch (or span)- is the number of slots spanned by
two successive, opposite polarity poles (i.e., pair of N & S
poles).
S
For Lap and Wave: Y P=
P
Where: S = number of slots
P = number of poles
Note: If YP= integer, then armature winding is a full-pitch winding.
If YP is not an integer, then the armature winding is a fractionalpitch winding.

Example:
Given: Duplex, progressive lap winding, S = 8, C= 8, P =2
Required: Draw a complete winding diagram (assume
dynamo to be a generator rotating clockwise)
Solution:
a) YS = (8/2) 0 = 4 slots
b) YC = 2 segments
c) a = (2)(2) = 4 parallel paths
d) Reentrancy = HCF of 8 & 2 = 2 (doubly reentrant)
e) m = 2
f) b = 2
g) width of each brush = 2 segments
h) total no. of coils = 8 coils (single-element coil)
i) YP = 8/2 = 4 slots (full-pitch)

h
g
2
1
8
8
3
5
c
d
Armature with More Segments than

Slots
Modern armatures are generally constructed with more
commutator segments than slots for the following reasons:
1) As the number of segments is increased, the
voltage between those that are adjacent to each
other decreases. For a given terminal voltage,
therefore, this also decreases the number of turns of
wire in the coil or coils connected to adjacent
segments. The result is that, from the performance
standpoint, commutation is improved.
Armature with More Segments than

Slots
(2) As the number of core slots is reduced, the teeth
become mechanically stronger, and this results in
less damage to laminations and coils when these are
handled in manufacture.
(3) Assuming that a comparatively large number of
segments has been selected for good commutation,
the choice of an armature with one-half, one-third,
one-fourth, etc., as many slots means that fewer
coils will be constructed; this reduces the
manufacturing cost.
Multi-Element Winding
When there are n times as many segments as slots, each
complete coil must have n coil elements. Thus, if the ratio
of segments to slots is 2, 3, 4, etc., the individual coils will
have 2, 3, 4, etc., elements.
a) Number of active elements = number of
commutator segments, C
Number of coils = C; if C=S (single-element coil)
Number of active elements = C; if C is not equal to S
(multi-element
coil)
b) Number of elements per coil =
C
+K
S
Where: K = a decimal number to be added to C / S

to round it off to the nearest integer
Note: If C / S is an integer, then no dummy
element is present
If C / S is not an integer, then a dummy
element is present
c) Total number of elements = number of coils X
number of elements per coil
= C + dummy
d) Number of element-sides (conductors) per

slot = 2 X number of elements
per coil
Example:
Given: Simplex- lap, S = 12 slots, C = 24 segments, P = 4
poles
Required: Draw a complete winding diagram.
Solution:
a) YS = (12/4) 0= 3 slots
b) YC = 1
c) a = (1)(4)= 4 parallel paths
d) Reentrancy = HCF of 24 & 1 = 1 (singly-reentrant)
e) m=1
f) b = 4
g) width of each brush = 1 segment
h) Number of elements per coil = 24/12= 2
elements per coil
i) Number of active elements = 24 elements
j) Number of conductors per slot = (2)(2)= 4
conductors per slot
2-element coil
1
12
11
23
22
21
20
19
18
24 1
2 3
4
5
6
17
16
15 14 13 12
8
9
10
11
10
7
9
Dead, or Dummy, Elements in

Armature Winding
When the ratio of segments to slots (C/S) is
not a whole number, it will always be found that
there is one complete element of a multi-element
coil that cannot be used electrically; there are not
sufficient segments for exactly two ends of one
element. The unconnected element is called a
dead or dummy element. It serves only to keep
the revolving structure balance mechanically.
Dead, or Dummy, Elements in

Armature Winding
Equalizer Connections for Lap

Windings
The voltages generated in the various paths of lapwound armature are rarely the same. This situation arises
in the practical machine because the air gaps under all the
poles are not always alike, due to some degree of
misalignment, and because the reluctances of the several
iron magnetic circuits are unequal. As a result of such
voltage inequalities, circulating currents flow in the
armature winding and tends to heat the armature to
temperatures well above those caused by the normal load
current.

Windings
Moreover, these undesirable currents pass across the
brush contacts as they circulate from one path to another,
and this produces an unusual amount of arcing and
burning at the commutator; in fact, if the situation
becomes serious, a flashover between positive and
negative brushes is likely to occur, a situation that
represents a direct short circuit across the supply lines.
To overcome the detrimental effects resulting from
the circulating currents, it is customary to use equalizer
connections in all lap-wound armatures.

Windings
Equalizer connections these are low-resistance
copper wires that connect between points on the
armature winding that are 360 electrical degrees
apart; they are placed on the armature outside
the influence of the magnetic field. They are nonpotential-generating wires and carry equalizing
currents only.

Windings
Functions:
They relieve the brushes of the circulating
current load by causing the latter to be
bypassed.
They create a magnetic effect that actually
reduces the flux under those poles where there
is too much magnetism and increases the flux
under those poles where there is too little
magnetism.

Windings
A
a
S
Equalizer
c'
a'
C
N
b
c
S
N
b'
Fig. 11 Sketch illustrating one equalizer

connection in a 6-pole machine

Windings
Since equalizers must connect points that are exactly
360 electrical degrees apart, it follows that the total
number of coils in an armature winding must be
divisible by half the number of poles. Thus for 100%
equalization,
C
no. of equalizers =
P
2
Where: C = number of commutator segments
P = number of poles
Frog-leg Winding
Another construction of the armature winding, which
combines the advantages of both lap and wave types and
which is used on machines manufactured by the AllisChalmers Manufacturing company, is called a frog-leg
winding. The term frog-leg is used to indicate the
similarity between this type of coil and the legs of a frog.
In this discussion, it must be noted that the real purpose
of this type of winding is to eliminate the equalizer
connections and yet to retain their advantages. The wave
portion of the frog-leg winding, acting together with the
lap portion, serves to replace the equalizers, but acts, in
addition, as a current-carrying winding.
Frog-leg Winding
It is thus possible to obtain 100% equalization of
the winding and also to make the maximum use of
all copper placed on the armature.
Going back to figure 11, it discloses the fact
that, theoretically, points A, B, and C are at the same
potential. Since this is so, it is at once evident that
points a and a, b and b, and c and c are also at the
same potential because these points are connected to
the equalizer and are themselves outside the
influence of the magnetic field.
Frog-leg Winding
A
Equalizer
D
S
c'
a'
C
N
b
c
S
F
b'
Fig. 12 Sketch illustrating a sort of lap-wave

winding
It is quite possible, without

affecting the winding in any way,
to connect points a and b by
connection E; points b and c by
connection F; and points c and
a by connection D. Figure 12
indicates the change suggested
here.
Frog-leg Winding
By carefully looking at figure 12, you will observe
that it really represents a sort of combination lap-wave
winding. The wave winding was introduced when the
second set of connections was made, i.e., E, F and D.
Suppose that the wire representing each of the single-turn
coil of Fig.12 is slit in half lengthwise from each of the
commutator segments up to the points a, a, b, b, c and c.
Electrically, no change has taken place from such an
imaginary slitting process. Furthermore, the equalizer can
now be omitted for the reason that any wave elements,
such as E, and the succeeding lap element, such as B,
connect two points on the commutator exactly two pole
pitches apart.
Frog-leg Winding
A
In addition, the net voltage

theoretically generated in elements E
and B is zero. Elements E and B
together therefore have the two
important characteristic properties
C
that must be possessed by an
equalizer connection and may serve
in replace of the removed
connections. This combination lapwave coil has been appropriately
named frog-leg coil by the engineers
of the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing
Company to be known as the frogleg winding. The connections are as
given in Figure 13.
Lap Coil
D
S
c'
a'
Wave Coil
N
b
c
S
F
b'
Fig. 13 Frog-Leg winding
Frog-leg Winding
In practice, the lap portion of the frog-leg
winding is always simplex, so that it is necessary to
give the wave portion a multiplicity equal to P/2. Thus
for frog-leg winding, the number of parallel paths is
given by
aFL = a L + aW
aFL = mP + 2m
aFL
P
= (1)P + 2 = 2 P
2
Frog-leg Winding
Example:
Determine the coil and commutator pitches for a 24-slot,
48-segment, 6-pole frog-leg armature winding.
Solution:
24
0=4
For both lap and wave sections: YS =
6
Yc = 1
Lap portion will be simplex:
Wave portion must be triplex:
48 3
Yc =
= 15
3
DIRECT CURRENT GENERATOR

CHARACTERISTICS
Types of DC Generators
According to the type of the main field winding
used
a) Series Generator - it uses only the series
field winding
b) Shunt Generator - it uses only the shunt field
winding
c) Compound Generator - it uses both the series

and the field windings
RSE
RSH
According to the Source of Excitation for its field

windings
a) Self-Excited DC Generator the field windings are
excited by current supplied by its own armature.
b) Separately- Excited DC Generator the field
windings are excited by current supplied by a
separate source.
c) Dual Excited DC Generator the source of
excitation for the field windings is both the
armature and a separate source. This applies to
compound generators.
Types of Self-Excited Compound Generators
According to the connection of the field windings with
respect to the armature
a) Short-shunt Compound Generator - the shunt
field is directly connected across the armature.
b) Long-shunt Compound Generator the shunt
field is connected in parallel across the armature
through the series field.
According to the direction of the magnetic
field produced by the series field and the shunt
field windings
a) Cumulative compound the direction of
magnetic fields for series and shunt are the
same.
b) Differential compound the direction of
the magnetic fields for series and shunt
are opposite.
According to the relative magnitude of the output
terminal voltage at no-load and full-load (for cumulative
compound)
a) Flat Compounded the no-load voltage is equal
to the full-load voltage
b) Under Compounded the no-load voltage is
greater than the full-load voltage
c) Over compounded the no-load voltage is less
than the full-load voltage
No-Load Characteristics of DC
Generators
When a shunt or compound generator operates without
load- that is, when it is driven by a prime mover, is properly
excited, and has none of the load switches closed a
voltage will appear at the terminals that are normally
connected to the electrical devices. This generated voltage
will depend, for a given machine, upon two factors:
(1) the speed of rotation
(2) the flux
Generators
Generators
If the flux is kept constant while the speed is increased
or decreased, the voltage will rise or fall, respectively,
in direct proportion to the change in speed.
300
250
Eg
200
150
100
50
0
0
500
1000
1500
Speed (rpm)
2000
2500
Generators
Similarly, if the speed is held constant while the flux (not
the field current) is varied, the voltage will change in direct
proportion to the change in magnetism. However, to show
that the generated voltage is directly proportional to the
flux is much more difficult because magnetism
measurements are not made as readily as are those of
amperes and volts. This determination is not particularly
important from a practical point of view, because it is more
desirable to know how the no-load generated voltage is
affected by changes in field current.
Generators
This relationship is not a direct one for all changes
in excitation, because magnetic saturation sets in after
the field current is increased beyond a certain value.
To show the relationship between the generated
voltage and the field current, a so-called saturation
curve (sometimes called magnetization curve) can be
plotted. Note particularly that the curve is virtually a
straight line up to the so-called knee; this is true
because, in this region, the iron portions of the
magnetic circuit are unsaturated and require a
comparatively low percent of the total mmf.
Generators
400
350
accelerating
voltage
300
knee
Eg
250
build-up voltage
200
150
100
excitation line
50
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Field Current
Saturation Curve for dc generator operating

at constant speed
Generators
With increasing values of flux density the iron
saturates, the magnetic permeability drops, and
a greater percent, of the field ampere-turns are
required for the iron. It should also be observed
that the initial voltage is not zero at zero field
current; its value Er, usually low, is due to
residual magnetism.
Generators
Significance of the Saturation (Magnetization) Curve
Such a curve emphasizes the extremely important
fact that the generated voltage is directly proportional
to the flux and not the field current.
Curve such as this is extremely important for the
purpose of analyzing, predicting, and comparing the
operating performance of the various types of
generator.
Building Up the Voltage of a SelfExcited Shunt Generator

To build up means to rise from its residual voltage,
Er, to its normal operating value.
Requirements for Build-Up:
The machine must develop a small voltage resulting
from residual magnetism.
The voltage of a self-excited shunt generator will not rise
much above an extremely low residual value if the
residual flux is insufficient; generators that are expected
to operate at voltages up to 250 V should have residual
values of flux so that 4 to 10 residual volts are developed.

The total field resistance must be lower than the
so-called critical resistance.
A generator will fail to build up
if the slope of excitation line is
180 ohms
600
150 ohms
about equal to or greater than
500
125 ohms
400
the straight-line portion of the
110 ohms
100 ohms
300
magnetization; in fact, a
200
generator will not build up if
100
the total field resistance is
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
greater than the so-called
Field Current
critical value, the latter being
defined as the resistance below which machine will build up and
above which it will not.
Eg
700

The speed of the armature must be above the socalled critical speed.
Eg
A generator will, in fact, fail to

400
build up if, for a given field
2000 rpm
350
1800 rpm
300
resistance, the speed is below the
1600 rpm
250
1400 rpm
so-called critical speed, the latter
1200
rpm
200
1000 rpm
150
being defined as the speed above
100
which build-up will occur and
50
0
below which it will not. The critical
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
speed may be determined
Field Current
experimentally if, starting from
rest, the armature speed is gradually increased; the critical speed will
be indicated by a sudden rapid rise in voltage.

There must be a proper relation between the
direction of rotation and the connections of the field to
the armature terminals.
A generator will not build up if the initial field current,
at the instant the field switch is closed is in such a
direction that the residual flux is opposed; under this
condition the machine will build down, not up. This
means that there must be a definite relation between
the direction of rotation and the connections of the
field terminals with respect to the armature terminals.

Thus, if a generator fails to build up, and other
conditions have been fulfilled, the difficulty may be
corrected:
(a) by reversing the direction of rotation or
(b) by interchanging the field terminals with
respect to the armature terminals.
However, if rotation is reversed, the electrical polarity of
the brushes will change.
Behavior of a Shunt Generator under

Load
After a self-excited shunt generator builds up to a
required voltage, a no-load voltage, it is ready to supply
power to a number of electrical loads up to, and a little
above, its rated capacity.
One of the most important characteristics of any
generator is its behavior with regard to the terminal
voltage when the load current is increased. In the shunt
type of generator, the voltage always falls down as more
current is delivered to the load. There are three reasons
for this:

Load
As more current is delivered by the armature,
the voltage drop in the armature IARA increases,
thus making a lower emf available at the load
terminals.
When the armature terminal voltage falls, the
field winding suffers a corresponding reduction
in current, which, in turn, reduces the flux; the
latter further reduces the generated emf.

Load
When the armature winding carries
increasing values of load current, the armature
core becomes an electromagnet, apart from
the effect of the main poles; this
electromagnetic action of the armature reacts
with the main field flux further to reduce the
flux, the result being that the generated emf
suffers an additional drop.

Load
VNL
IARA
VFL
Rated
output
Characteristic load vs. output
curve of self-excited shunt
generator
In this analysis, it should be clearly

understood that the generated
voltage, which depends upon the
flux is always greater than the
terminal voltage by exactly the
amount of voltage drop in the
armature circuit. This leads to the
equation
Vt = Eg IARA
Vt = k - IARA
Compound Generator Behavior under

Load Cumulative
The addition of the series field connected to aid the
shunt field has the important fundamental purpose of
creating additional values of flux with increasing load
currents so that the armature will generate greater
voltages and thus compensate for the normal tendency of
the shunt machine to lose terminal voltage. The behavior
of a cumulative compound generator will depend upon the
degree of compounding of the said machine, i.e., whether
a given generator is flat-, over-, or undercompounded.

Load Cumulative
This degree of compounding is determined primarily by
the number of series-field ampere-turns with respect to
the shunt-field ampere turns. If the series field will
produce a sufficient amount of ampere-turns to permit
the generated voltage to increase by an amount that is
exactly equal to the armature voltage drop when the
armature current changes from zero to IAFL, then VFL can
be made equal to VNL; under such condition the machine
is said to be flat-compounded.

Load Cumulative
If, on the other hand, the series field has an
overcompensating effect so that EG increases to a greater
extent between no load to full load than the armature
resistance voltage drop, then VFL will exceed VNL; under this
condition the machine is said to be overcompounded.
Finally, if the full-load generated voltage is more than the
no-load value by an amount that is somewhat less than the
armature-resistance drop, the external characteristic may
droop; under this condition the generator is said to be
undercompounded.

Load Cumulative
under
flat
FL
over
Rated output
Characteristic Curves for Cumulative
Compound Generator

Load Cumulative
Degree of Compounding Adjustment
It is customary in manufacturing
practice to equip compound
generators with sufficient series-field
turns so that they will operate
considerably overcompounded.
Then, by connecting a very lowresistance shunt across the series
field, the no load voltage may be
brought up to almost any desired
value to meet individual demands. It is therefore possible to modify an
overcompound generator so that it will be flat- or undercompounded.

Load Cumulative
The effect of the series shunt is to by-pass or diverts a
portion of the normal load current from the fluxproducing series-field winding, under which the
condition the degree of compounding is lessened. The
so-called diverter is located where it will have no
magnetic influence; moreover, its ohmic value,
compared with that of the series field, will determine
how much current is diverted. When the diverter
resistance is extremely large, the diverted current will
be small and the external characteristic will be that of
an overcompounded generator.

Load Cumulative
On the other hand, if the resistance of the diverter
approaches that of a short circuit, practically the load
current will be diverted around the series field and the
external characteristic will resemble that of a shunt
generator.
Since the series-field resistance RSE and the diverter
resistance RD are in parallel, the total line current IL
will divide so that ISE and ID are related to each other
by an inverse ratio of the respective resistances.

Load Cumulative
Thus
I SE RD
=
I D RSE
Since
I L = I SE + I D
It follows that
I SE
RD
= IL x
RD + RSE
Series-Generator Behavior under

Load
Since the armature, series field, and load are all
connected in series, any current that is delivered to the
load must, among all other things, simultaneously
serve to perform the following functions:
It must develop useful energy to the load.
It must provide the necessary excitation for
the series field so that a voltage is generated in
the armature.
It must create demagnetizing armaturereaction effect.

Load
When the load is zero (on open circuit), the current is
zero; under this condition the series field ampere-turns will
be zero and the generated voltage will be the residual
value Er. If the circuit is closed through a load resistance, a
current I will flow, in which event the series field will
create additional flux and thereby cause a higher voltage
to be generated; at the same time the armature will
develop a demagnetizing action, and a voltage drop will
occur in the armature and series field resistances.

Load
Therefore, the voltage that will appear at the series
generator terminals will be stabilized at some value that is
a function of the net generated voltage (due to the net
flux) and the I(RA + RSE) voltage drop. The terminal emf Vt
will, obviously, rise with the load current so long as the
overall voltage increases more rapidly that those factors
which tend to reduce it. However, for considerable loads,
the iron portions of the magnetic circuit becomes highly
saturated under which condition the subtractive effects
exceed the slowly rising generated emf; the terminal
voltage begins to drop.

Load
Thus, as the load current increases, the external
characteristic of a series generator rises rapidly from its
initial Er value during the initial stages, then tapers off
to a maximum, and finally drops to zero.
Because of the varying nature of the terminal voltage
with respect to load, the series generator has few
practical applications, and then only when Vt vs. I curve
is advantageous to the installation. The series
generator is sometimes used in a dc system for
voltage-boosting purposes or to minimize leakage
currents in grounded dc systems so that electrolytic
action in underground structures may be reduced.

Load
Magnetization Curve
1600
1200
800
Field Ampere Turns
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
400
Generated Voltage
External
Characteristic
10 20 30 40 50 60
Load Amperes
70 80
90
Graphical method to determine the external characteristic of a series

generator
VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage Regulation is a measure of the extent to
which the voltage of a generator changes as the
load is gradually lowered from its rated value to zero
load. The foregoing may be expressed in percent
form as follows:
V V
% Voltage Regulation =
x 100%
V
L
FL
FL
Example:
The following data were obtained for the magnetization
curve of a 4-pole interpole shunt generator, each field coil
of which has 1000 turns.
If
If
If
0.8
160
1.56
260
0.1
20
1.0
200
1.92
280
0.4
80
1.14
220
2.40
300
0.6
120
1.32
240
3.04
320
a) Draw the magnetization curve.
b) If the total shunt field resistance

(including the field rheostat) is 125 ,
determine the voltage to which the machine
will build up as a self-excited generator.
c) Determine the full-load voltage and the
percent regulation of the generator if the
full-load armature resistance voltage drop is
30 V.
Solution:
400
350
300
250
200
Build-up voltage
= 300 volts
150
100
50
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
400
350
IAFLRA= 30 V
300
250
200
VFL = 252 V
150
100
50
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
V V
x 100%
%V .R . =
V
L
FL
FL
300 252
=
x 100%
252
= 19.05%
Example:
A 20-kW 250-volt short shunt compound generator has a
series field whose resistance is 0.022 and each of whose
four coils has 6 turns. If a diverter having a resistance of
0.058 is connected across the series field, calculate the
series-field ampere-turns per pole at full load.
Solution:
20 kW
I =
= 80 A
250V
0.058
I = (80 A)
= 58 A
0.058 + 0.022
FL
SE
( I )
SE
= (58 A) 6 turns
2
= 377 Ampere turns per pole
Magnetic Action of Armature

(Armature Reaction)
Armature Reaction is produced by the load
current in the armature conductors that results
in a magnetic field whose direction is displaced
90 electrical degrees with respect to the main
field. It depends upon and directly proportional
to the load current.

(Armature Reaction)
Effects of Armature Reaction
Field Distortion. One very important thing to note in the
analysis of the reaction of the armature with respect to the
main field flux is to recognize the fact that the current in the
armature winding created a field of its own and that this
field is superimposed on the main field. Note particularly
that this armature flux is in quadrature with the main field
flux. The two fields then react with each other and the
resulting magnetic action of the armature then tends to
distort and alter the direction of the uniformly distributed
main field and create a slight demagnetizing effect. The
resultant field has a new direction obliquely downward.

(Armature Reaction)
It seriously affects commutation because sparking will
occur at the brushes. Since the resultant field is badly
twisted out of shape and is directed obliquely downward,
the magnetic neutral is shifted in the direction of rotation so
that it will always be at right angles to the resultant field.
Such displacement affects commutation, because sparking
will occur at the brushes unless they are shifted to locations
that reduce sparking.

(Armature Reaction)
It reduces the generated voltage. To understand why this
is so, it is necessary to recognize the fact that the armature
flux weakens the field on one half of each pole and
strengthens the field on the other half. If the decrease is the
same as the increase, the magnitude of the resultant flux
would remain unchanged. But, this is not the case because
the decrease is usually greater than the increase because of
magnetic saturation; the net result is a reduction in flux
(demagnetization). In most practical cases, the reduction in
flux may be from 1 to 4 percent between the no-load and
full-load values.

(Armature Reaction)
The extent to which the cross-magnetizing armature
reaction affects the main field may be determined by the
following analysis:
The armature has Z/P conductors under each pole
and each one carries IA/a amperes.
Therefore, the total number of ampere-conductors
per pole will be ZIA/aP.

(Armature Reaction)
However, only those conductors that are directly under
the pole faces have a measurable magnetizing or
demagnetizing effect upon the main poles, because the
conductors between the pole tips, in the interpolar zones,
act upon high-reluctance magnetic circuits. If represents
the ratio pole arc to pole pitch, the maximum effective
ampere-conductors per pole will be ZIA/aP.
And since two conductors are the equivalent of one
turn, it follows that one half of each pole is effectively
magnetized and the other half effectively demagnetized.

(Armature Reaction)
Cross magnetizin g amp turns per pole =
ZIA
2aP
Example
The lap-wound armature of a 6-pole dc generator has a
total of 378 conductors and carries 800 A at full load. If
the pole arc is 6.75 in. and the armature is 20 in.,
calculate the maximum cross-magnetizing ampere-turns
per pole that has a magnetizing or demagnetizing effect
on each pole tip.

(Armature Reaction)
Solution:
6.75
=
= 0.645
20

6
(0.645)(378)(800)
Cross magnetizin g I/pole =
(2)(6)(6)
= 2710 amp. - turns
Some Corrective Methods to

Counteract the Effects of Armature
Reaction
Brush Shifting
Using a Chamfered-pole Design
Using Pole-Core Laminations with One
Pole Tip
Using Interpoles and Compensating
Windings
Brush Shifting
When the armature of a dc machine (without interpoles)
carries current, the magnetic and mechanical neutrals do
not coincide. This affects commutation because sparking
will occur at the brushes unless they occupy positions that
short-circuit coil sides in the neutral zone; the brushes
must therefore, be shifted to locations that reduce
sparking. Moreover, the brushes must be shifted back and
forth continually as the load changes because the effect of
armature reaction depends upon the value of the armature
current; or they must located in some compromise position
that represents the best average load.
Brush Shifting
However, when this is done a certain
Mechanical
number of armature ampere turns
Neutral
A
tend to demagnetize the main field
New Magnetic
apart from the demagnetizing action
Neutral
that results from field distortion.
Figure a illustrates the
S demagnetizing action of the
N
armature when the brushes are not
yet shifted to a new position. Only
those conductors that are directly
under the pole faces have a
A
considerable demagnetizing effect
a) Without Brush Shifting
upon the main poles since those
conductors in the interpolar zones act upon high-reluctance magnetic
circuit.
Brush Shifting
However, when the brushes
are shifted to an angle AO, the
A
A
directions of the currents in
c
a
the conductors in the AOregion will therefore change.
Now then, if diametrically
S
N
opposite conductors are
paired in an angle 2AO, it is
seen that their effect, as
b
d
ampere turns, is to
b) With Brush Shifting
demagnetize the main field.
In other words, a brush shift
of AO means that the number of conductors in 4AO, that is, a to c and b
to d, are involved in a direct demagnetizing action of two main poles.
Mechanical Neutral
New Magnetic Neutral
Brush Shifting
Thus,
1 4 A ZIA
Demagnetiz ing amp conductors / pole = X
X
2 360
a
AZIA
Demagnetiz ing I / pole =
360a
Brush Shifting
Mechanical Neutral
A
New Magnetic Neutral
N
b
The remaining armature

conductors will obviously
produce a cross-magnetizing
action where the conductors a
to d and c to b are involved in
creating quadrature field. In a
two-pole machine there will be
[(360 4A)/360] x Z crossmagnetizing conductors, while
in a P-pole machine their
number will be [(360
2PA)/360] x Z.
Brush Shifting
It follows, therefore, that in a P-pole machine
the
360 2 PA ZIA
Total cross magnetizin g I / pole =
x
360
2 aP
360 2 PA
=
x ZIA
720 aP
Brush Shifting
Example
The armature has a commutator whose diameter
is 15 in. If the brushes are shifted 1.25 in. in the
direction of rotation for the purpose of improving
commutation, calculate (a) the demagnetizing
ampere-turns per pole; (b) the total crossmagnetizing ampere-turns per pole.
Brush Shifting
Solution:
1.25
A=
x 360 = 9.55
x 15
9.55 x 378 x 800
Demagnetiz ing I / pole =
360 x 6
= 1335 AT
Brush Shifting
360 2 x 6 x 9.55
Total cross magnetizin g I / pole =
x 378 x 800
720 x 6 x 6
= 2865 AT
Note: Brush shift does not alter the direction of the fluxdensity distribution. It can only improve commutation,
although, as indicated above, it is accompanied by an
additional undesirable demagnetizing influence.
Chamfered Pole Shoe and Pole-Core

Laminations with One Pole Tip
One method that partly counteracts distortion and
demagnetization involves a pole-shoe construction that
increases the reluctance between the pole tips and the
surface of the armature core; this reduces the flux produced
by the armature mmf. Two designs that employ this idea are
shown here. In one of these the rounded surface of the pole
shoe is not concentric with the circular armature core, i.e.,
the pole shoe is chamfered. A second scheme uses pole-core
laminations with one pole tip; in assembling the laminations,
the pole tips are alternated from one side to the other, so
that the cross-sectional area of the iron is one-half as much
under the pole tips as under the center section.
Chamfered Pole Shoe and Pole-Core

Laminations with One Pole Tip
Short air gap
Armature-core surface
Armature-core surface
Wide air gap
(a) Chamfered-pole design
(b) Lamination with one pole

tip
Interpoles (Commutating Poles)

Interpoles are narrow poles placed exactly halfway
between the main poles, centering on the mechanical
neutral planes. The exciting windings for these poles
are always permanently connected in series with the
armature winding because the interpoles must
produce fluxes in their air gaps that are proportional
to the armature current. Such a relationship can exist
only when the iron portions of the magnetic circuits
are unsaturated, which means that the interpoles
must be operated below the knee of the
magnetization curve.

a
IA
a'
b'
N
IA
(a) Without Interpoles
(b) With Interpoles

Note: 1) The polarities of the interpoles in a generator
are the same as that of the succeeding main poles in the
direction of rotation, whereas in a motor, they must be
the same as the preceding main poles in the direction of
rotation.
2) The interpoles have no effect upon the
armature mmf that distorts the main field. Field distortion
is still present and flashover can occur if abnormally
heavy loads are suddenly applied.

Interpole Ampere-turns
Assuming the same number of interpoles as main
poles, each one must be provided with sufficient
ampere-turns to accomplish three things simultaneously.
These are:
It must oppose the total cross-magnetizing ampereturns in its own commutating zone;
It must inject flux into the armature to nullify the
effect of self-induction and thus overcome the
reluctance of its own air gap; and

It must overcome the reluctance of its iron
magnetic-flux paths.
To oppose the total cross-magnetizing ampere-turns per
pole, the interpole must develop, first of all, ZIA/2aP ampturns. Secondly, the interpole must send C maxwells
across the air gap, whose equivalent length, e in inches,
is slightly larger than the actual air gap because of the
slotted armature. But
c =
gi
6.45
x Agi
And
mmf
0.4 x ( I )gi
c =
=
( e x 2.54 ) / Agi
Where: gi = flux density in the air gap, lines/in2

Agi = air-gap area, cm2
(NI)gi = interpole amp-turns for the air gap

Equating both values of c
gi x Agi
6.45
0.4 x ( I )gi x Agi

=
e x 2.54
From which
( I )gi = 0.313 gi x e

The third item, requiring that the interpole have sufficient
ampere-turns to overcome the reluctance of the iron
portions of the magnetic circuit, is usually estimated as
being about 0.4 to 0.8 times the air-gap ampere-turns.
Taking an average value of about 0.6(NI)gi for the iron, the
total interpole ampere-turns is practically,
ZIA
( I )i =
+ ( 0.313 gi x e ) + ( 0.6 x 0.313 gi x e )
2 aP

And
ZIA
( I )i =
+ 0.5 gie
2 aP

Example
Calculate the number of ampere-turns required by an
interpole to overcome the reluctance of the air-gap for a
flux density of 14 800 lines/in2 if the equivalent length of
the air gap is 0.28 in.
Solution
(NI)gi = 0.313 x 14800 x 0.28 = 13000 amp-turns

Example
The armature of a 6-pole machine has a wave
winding with a total of 328 conductors and carries
a current of 280 A at full load. If the air-gap flux
density under each interpole is 12500 lines/in2 and
the equivalent air-gap length is 0.24 in., calculate
(a) the number of amp-turns required by each of
the six interpoles; (b) the number of turns on each
interpole.

Solution
1 328 x 280
+ ( 12500 x 0.24 ) = 5320 amp turns
( I )i =
2 2 x 6
5320
=
= 19 turns per pole
280
Compensating Windings
Compensating windings are used
for the purpose of neutralizing the
effect of armature reaction in the
S zones outside the influence of the
N
interpoles and particularly to
maintain a uniform flux
distribution under the faces of the
main poles. They are special
windings placed in slots or holes in the pole faces and carry, as do the
interpole windings, the total armature current.
In the simple two-pole sketch, one set of connectors would
join the upper three pole-face conductors on the north pole to
the upper three conductors on the south pole, while similar
connections would be made for the lower six conductors of the
north and south poles; the two sets would then be joined in
series and connected in series with the armature winding. The
current directions in these conductors are opposite to those in
the wires of the armature winding directly below in order to
neutralize only that portion of the armature cross-magnetizing
ampere-turns that lie directly under the pole faces. It must,
therefore, for 100% compensation, always build up an mmf
that is equal to the armature mmf per pole face;
This is ZIA/2aP amp-turns per pole. But the compensating
winding current is the total armature current IA. It follows,
therefore, that
ZIA
CIA
=
2 aP
2
where C is the number of conductors in each pole face.

Hence
C=
aP
Example
A 3000-kW, 600-V. 16-pole generator has a lapwound armature with a total 3250 conductors. If
the pole faces cover 63% of the entire
circumference, calculate (a) the current in the
compensating winding; (b) the number of
conductors in each pole face of the compensating
winding. (Neglect the shunt-field current.)
Solution
3000 kW
IA =
= 5000 A
600 V
0.63 x 3250
C=
= 8 conductors
16 x 16
Note: The use of compensating windings together with
properly designed interpole windings in dc machine will
provide sparkless commutation and eliminate the possibility
of flashover, at least insofar as armature reaction is
concerned. These desirable operating characteristics come
about because the resultant field is absolutely uniform and
the interpolar zones are supplied with the necessary flux to
combat the voltage of self-inductance; moreover, such
conditions prevail at all values of armature current because
the neutralizing effects are caused by the very current that is
initially responsible for the difficulty.
Need for Operation of Generators in

Parallel
Power plants will generally be found to have several small
generators rather than large single units capable of taking
care of the maximum peak loads. This is true of both dc and
ac stations. The several units can then be operated singly or
in various parallel combinations, on the basis of the actual
load demand. Such practice is considered extremely desirable
from the standpoint of:
Efficiency
Continuity of service
Maintenance and Repair problems
Addition to plant capacity as the service demands
change

Parallel
When generators are operated in parallel, they
function together to supply power to a common
load; moreover under ideal conditions,
1) the combined rating of the several
machines is approximately equal to the total load
2) each generator assumes its proportionate
share of the total load on the basis of its rating in
comparison with those of the others.

Parallel
Conditions for Parallel Operation of Generators
The generators must have identical external
characteristics, i.e., the voltage changes of all machines
must be exactly the same for equal changes in per cent
change of load.
The generators must have the same polarity.
The generators must have the same terminal
voltage.

Parallel
Operation of Shunt Generators in Parallel
It was previously shown that shunt generators
have drooping voltage-vs.-load characteristics,
i.e., that the voltage drops as the load
increases. If two shunt generators have identical
external characteristics, then the two machines
will divide the total load in proportion to their
relative capacities.

Parallel
However, if the external characteristics are not
similar, then if both have been adjusted for the
same voltage at rated load currents, generator A
will always deliver a larger percent of its rated
capacity than will generator B of its rated
capacity. A circuit diagram illustrating how the
connections should be made for operating two
shunt generators in parallel is shown here.

Parallel
- Bus
To Load
To Load
+ Bus
IA
Load
Ammeter
Main Switch
IB
SA
DPDT Switch
Load
Ammeter
SB
Main Switch
Voltmeter
FB
FA
Shunt Field
Field Rheostat
Field Rheostat
Wiring connections for the operation of two

shunt generators in parallel.
Assume that generator A is

connected to the bus bars
through switch SA and that it
carries a load. As the load
increases, it will ultimately
become necessary to (1)
connect a larger generator
than A in parallel with the
latter, after which the smaller
machine, when gradually
unloaded, is disconnected from
the line, or (2) connect another
generator in parallel with A and
have two machines operate
jointly to supply the total load

Parallel
The procedure for accomplishing this is as follows:
Generator B is brought up to speed by its prime mover.
Field switch FB is closed, whereupon the voltage will build
up. With the DPDT switch closed to the left, the bus voltage
(generator A in this case) is observed. This switch is then
closed to the right, and the voltage of B is adjusted by means
of its field rheostat until it equals the voltage of the line. It is
important that the polarity of the incoming generator be
exactly the same as that of the line polarity, i.e., plus to plus
and minus to minus. Caution! If this is not the case, a serious
short circuit will occur when switch SB is closed.

Parallel
After proper adjustments are made, quickly close switch
SB. This places generator B in parallel with generator A.
Generator A will still be supplying the entire load, while
generator B will be running idle. It said to be floating.
To shift the load from A to B, it is necessary merely to
manipulate both field rheostats simultaneously, cutting in
resistance in the field of A and at the same time cutting
out resistance in the field B. Any degree of load shifting
can be readily accomplished in this way; in fact, the entire
load can be shifted to B and the main switch SA opened to
remove A from the line.

Parallel
While the load is shifted from one generator to the
other, load ammeters IA and IB should be carefully
watched to make sure that overloading does not
occur. It is also important that the field rheostats are
not manipulated beyond the point where A is
carrying no load because, if they are, generator A
will attempt to operate as a motor and thus drive its
prime mover.

Parallel
Operation of Compound Generators in Parallel
When two compound generators are to be operated
in parallel, it is necessary to use essentially the same
wiring as that employed for shunt machines, except
that an equalizer connection must be added. If the
latter connection is not used, the two generators will
not operate satisfactorily in parallel.

Parallel
Equalizer is a very low-resistance
copper wire that joins together
identical ends of the series fields
not otherwise electrically
connected. The figure on the left is
a simple schematic diagram
showing how this is done for two
compound generators. Note
particularly that the two series fields
are permanently connected in
in parallel, a condition that results in a division of the total current so
that the ratio of the two series-field currents (ISE)A and (ISE)B are
inversely proportional to their respective resistances, that is, ISEA
RSEB
ISEB
RSEA

Parallel
If two identical overcompounded
generators are operating in parallel
without an equalizer and delivering
a total current IT, the machine may
thus be said to be in unstable
equilibrium because any slight
mechanical or electrical disturbance
will immediately initiate a series of
reactions that will cause complete
instability and the resulting opening
of protective circuit breakers. If, for
illustrative purposes, it is assumed that the speed of generator B increases
momentarily, its generated emf will increase; this is the initial-cause of
instability since B immediately delivers a slightly greater share of the total
load while A supplies a correspondingly lower value of current than before,
the terminal voltage and the total current remaining substantially constant.

Parallel
Remembering that both machines have rising voltage vs.
load characteristics, the increased current through the
series field of B will cause its flux to increase and raise the
generated voltage further; conversely, the small decrease
of the current through the series field of A will reduce its
flux and lower the generated voltage. The result of these
incremental changes is to make B take a still larger part of
the load, while A is losing more of its proportion. This
process of load transfer having once been started
continues until generator B delivers the entire load while
that of A falls to zero.

Parallel
If this is permitted to continue, the current in A will reverse
and generator A will be operated as a differential-compound
motor to drive its prime mover; under this condition, A,
taking its power from B, imposes a still greater load on B. The
final stage- a most serious one- occurs when the series-field
flux completely nullifies the shunt field flux so that the
counter emf of A falls to zero; machine A then becomes a
virtual short circuit on machine B. The method for connecting
one compound generator in parallel with another already
supplying load current follows essentially the same procedure
as for shunt generators. Load transfer, or disconnecting one
machine from the line, may be accomplished in a similar
manner.

Parallel
Two Cases in the Analysis of Generators in Parallel
CASE I: External Characteristics are given (VNL, VFL, kW,
voltage regulation, etc.)
By ratio and proportion:
VNLA
VNLB
new VBUS
inititial VBUS
V VLB VFLB
=
IB
IFLB
VFLB
VFLA
I A
IBNEW
IB
IA
V VLA VFLA
=
I A
IFLA
IFLA
IFLB

Parallel
But
V L VFL
%V .R =
x 100%
VFL
Therefore,
V
%VRA x VFLA
=
IA
100 x IFLA
VBUS EW = VBUS IITIAL V
V
%VRB x VFLB
=
I B
100 x IFLB
IB EW = IB IB
IA EW = IA IA
Note: +V if there is a decrease in the load current

-V if there is an increase in the load current
+I if there is an increase in the load current
-I if there is a decrease in the load current

Parallel
CASE II: Internal Characteristics are given (generated
voltage, armature equivalent resistance, shunt-field
resistance, series field resistance, interpole-winding
resistance, etc.)
Note: Use network analysis.

Parallel
PROBLEMS
1. Two shunt generators A and B, with ratings of 250 and 400
kW, respectively, and having identical straight-line voltage
vs. per cent kilowatt-output external characteristic, are
connected in parallel. If the no-load voltage is 260 V and
the full-load voltage is 240 V, calculate (a) the kW output of
each machine and the total kW load when the terminal
voltage is 245; (b) the kW output of each machine and the
terminal voltage when the total output is 575 kW.

Parallel
2. Two shunt generators, A and B, are connected in parallel
to deliver a common load. Generator A has a no-load
voltage of 240 V and a voltage of 220 V when it delivers
120 A. Generator B has a no-load voltage of 235 V and a
voltage of 220 V when it delivers the same current as A.
Assuming straight-line external characteristics for both
machines, calculate (a) the total line voltage and total
kW load when generator B is floating; (b) the load
delivered by each machine and the total load when the
terminal emf is 225 V.
DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR

CHARACTERISTICS
Operating Differences between

Motors and Generators
DC GENERATOR
DC MOTOR
a) When a generator is in a) When a motor is in operation,

operation, it is driven by a
it is fed by an electric
mechanical machine such as
current from an electrical
an engine, a water turbine, or
supply; the motor current then
even an electric motor; the
produces
two
stationary
rotation through a magnetic
magnetic fields, one by the
field generates a voltage,
field poles and the other by
which, in turn, is capable of
the rotating armature, which
producing a current in an
reacts with each other to
electric circuit.
develop torque, which, in turn,
produces mechanical rotation.

DC GENERATOR
DC MOTOR
b) The load on a generator b) The load on a motor

constitutes those electrical
constitutes the force that
devices that convert electrical
tends to oppose rotation and
energy into other forms of
is called a countertorque; such
energy; loads such as electric
loads may be fan blades,
lighting, electric furnaces,
pumps, grinders, boring mills,
electrical welding, electric
crushers,
excavators,
motors,
electric
battery
elevators, turntables, churns,
charging, etc.
drills, food mixers and a host
of other commonly used
machines.

DC GENERATOR
DC MOTOR
c) The voltage of a generator c) The speed of rotation tends to

tends to change when the load
change as the load varies.
changes.
d) The voltage of a generator can d) The speed of rotation can be
always be adjusted by doing
changed by varying either or
either or both of two things:
both of two things: (1) the
(1) changing the speed and
strength of the magnetic field
(2) changing the strength of
and (2) the voltage impressed
the magnetic field.
across the armature terminals.

DC GENERATOR
e)
DC MOTOR
Generators can be, and e) Motors usually operate as a

frequently are, operated in
single independent unit to
parallel with others to supply a
drive their individual loads,
common load; infrequently,
although
in
special
they may be connected in
applications they may be
series for the same purpose.
connected in parallel or in
series for the purpose of
performing particular jobs at
varying speeds; example of
series-and parallel-connected
motors are electric excavators
and traction equipment.

DC GENERATOR
DC MOTOR
f) Generators are always started f) Motors may or may not have a

without electrical loads; the
mechanical load when they
procedure is to bring them up
are started; as a matter of
to speed, adjust the voltage,
practical significance, it is
and then close the main
quite customary for a motor to
switch that permits the
start a load that is often equal
machine to deliver current.
or greater than the rated
name-plate value.
Note: Structurally, dc generators and motors are identical, except

for minor differences that may permit them to function in
accordance with known practical requirements.
Classification of Direct-Current
Motors
There are also three general types of motor, namely,
series, shunt and compound, all of which are widely used in
many applications. Each type of motor has very definite
operating characteristics that differ markedly from those of
the other two, so that it is important to know the load
requirements before a proper selection is made. For the
purpose of classification, it is convenient, therefore, to
indicate how a motor behaves between no load and full
load by using such terms as constant speed and variable
speed.
Classification of Direct-Current
Motors
Constant-speed type if a change from no mechanical load
to full load causes the speed to drop approximately 8% or
less; shunt motors fall into this classification.
Variable-speed type motors in which the speed changes

by greater values than 8%; series and compound motors
behave in this manner.
Whenever the speed of a motor can be controlled by an
operator who makes manual adjustment, it is said to be of
the adjustable-speed type. It is possible, therefore, to have
a constant-speed-adjustable-speed motor or a variablespeed-adjustable-speed motor.
Counter Electromotive Force

(Counter EMF)
With the armature rotating as a result of motor action, the armature
conductors continually cut through the resultant stationary magnetic
field, and because of such flux cutting, voltages are generated in the
very same conductors that experience force action. This can only
mean that when a motor is operating, it is simultaneously acting as a
generator. Obviously, motor action is stronger than generator action,
for the direction of the flow of current in the armature winding is
fixed by the polarity of the source supply. The generated voltage
does, however, oppose the impressed emf and, in this respect, serves
to limit the current in the armature winding to a value just sufficient
to take care of the power requirements of the motor. Since the
generated voltage opposes the flow of current, it is called a counter
electromotive force (counter emf).

(Counter EMF)
Clearly, this counter emf can never be equal to, and must be less
than, the voltage impressed across the armature terminals, because
the direction in which the current flows determines first the direction
of rotation and thus the direction of the counter emf. This can only
mean that the armature current is controlled and limited by the
counter emf. Therefore, by Ohms Law,
V A EC
IA =
RA '
Where: IA = armature current

VA = impressed voltage across
armature winding
EC = counter emf
RA = equivalent armature resistance

(Counter EMF)
Since the counter emf is a generated voltage, it depends,
for a given machine, upon two factors:
1. the flux per pole,
2. the speed of rotation in rpm, N
Hence,
E C = k
V A k
IA =
RA '

(Counter EMF)
As a matter of practical importance, it should be stated that the
counter emf developed in the armature of a motor is usually between
80 and 95 per cent of the voltage impressed across the armature
terminals; the higher percentages usually apply to the larger motors,
while the lower percentages apply to those near or in the fractionalhorsepower ranges. It is also significant that motors in which EC is a
high percentage of the armature terminal voltage VA will operate
most efficiently, while those in which EC is small compared with VA
will have low efficiency. This may be seen from the following
analysis:
EC = V A I A RA '
EC I A = V A I A
2
I A RA

(Counter EMF)
Note that ECIA is the power in watts developed by the
armature because it is equal to the power in watts
supplied to the armature, VAIA minus the copper loss in
the armature IA2RA. Therefore, for a given load current IA,
it should be clear that a motor will develop the greatest
power when the counter emf is a maximum.

(Counter EMF)
Example:
A 115-volt shunt motor has an armature whose resistance
is 0.22 . Assuming a voltage drop across the brush
contacts of 2 volts, what armature current will flow when
the counter emf is 108 V?

(Counter EMF)
Solution
V A VB I A RA EC = 0
V A V B E C 115 2 108
IA =
=
= 22.7 A
RA
0.22

(Counter EMF)
Example:
A compound motor operates at a speed of 1520 rpm when
the voltage impressed across the armature terminals is 230
V. If the flux per pole is 620 000 maxwells and the
armature resistance is 0.43 , calculate: (a) the counter
emf and (b) the armature current. Assume a value of k =
2.2 x 10-7 and a brush drop of 2 volts.

(Counter EMF)
Solution
(a) E C = k = 2.2 x10 7 (620000)(1520) = 207.5 V
V A V B E C 230 2 207.5
(b) I A =
= 47.7 A
=
RA '
0.43
Starting a DC Motor
At the instant a dc motor is started, the counter emf is
zero because the armature is not revolving. It should be
understood that at the instant of starting, the armature
current would be extremely high unless some resistance,
called starter, were added to offset the lack of EC. As the
speed increases, the starter may be cut out gradually
because EC rises; finally, when the motor has attained
normal speed, the starter is completely cut out of the
armature circuit.
Starting a DC Motor
Manual Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
There are two standard types of starter for shunt and
compound motors, namely, three-point and four-point.
Three-point Starter It has three terminals
labeled L, F, and A that are connected respectively
to one line terminal, one-shunt field terminal, and
one armature terminal.
Starting a DC Motor
Note: Three-point starters are not completely satisfactory when

used with speed-controlled motors.
Starting a DC Motor
Four-point Starter
Of particular importance, compared with the internal
connections of a three-point starter, it should be noted that
one change has been made. The holding coil has been
removed from the shunt-field circuit and, in series with a
current limiting resistor, has been placed in a separate circuit in
parallel with the armature and the shunt field. With this
arrangement, the holding coil current is independent of any
field-rheostat changes and thus overcomes the objection of the
three-point starter.
Starting a DC Motor
Starting a DC Motor
Whenever a starter, whose duty is to accelerate a
motor from rest to normal speed, is equipped with a
means of governing, in some predetermined manner, the
electric power delivered to the apparatus to which it is
connected, it is called an electric controller.
The basic functions of a controller are acceleration,
retardation, line closing, reversing, braking, protection,
and others.
Starting a DC Motor
Automatic Starters for Shunt and Compound Motors
The use of starters that will perform the function of
accelerating motors automatically, although somewhat
more expensive, is preferable to the manual types. There
are several reasons for such preference:
Automatic starters are reliable and, when
properly adjusted, will bring motors up to speed
without the blowing of fuses of the opening of circuit
breakers under all conditions of loading.
Starting a DC Motor
Push-button stations for starting and stopping
may be conveniently located for remote-control
operation.
The starting resistors may be cut out at a desired
time rate so that acceleration may be uniform and in
accordance with the demands of the load.
To conserve power, a motor is more likely to be
stopped when it is idle by simply pressing a button.
Starting a DC Motor
Electric braking facilities may be readily provided
so that a motor may be brought to rest quickly and
smoothly.
Overload and temperature protection of
equipment is usually incorporated.
Starting a DC Motor
Three Types of Automatic Starters
Counter EMF (Speed-Limit) Starter In this
scheme, a number of relays are connected across
the armature where the counter emf increases as
the motor accelerates, and the former are adjusted
to pick up at predetermined values of voltage.
Starting a DC Motor
OL - overload
- normally open contacts
- normally closed contacts
Relays 1AX, 2AX, 3AX

Contactors M, 1A, 2A, 3A
Shunt Field
OL
1AX
R1
R2
R3
1A
2A
3A
2AX
M
3AX
1AX
1A
2AX
2A
3AX
3A
Start
OL
Stop
M1
Wiring Diagram of a Counter-EMF Starter connected to

a Shunt Motor
Starting a DC Motor
Time-Limit Acceleration Starter In this type, a
group of relays is timed to operate at preset
intervals, by means of devices that function
mechanically, pneumatically, or electrically.
Starting a DC Motor
Starting a DC Motor
Current-Limit Acceleration Starter In this type,
the relays are designed so that they are sensitive to
current changes in the armature circuit.
Starting a DC Motor
Starting a DC Motor
Example:
The armature of a 220-volt shunt motor has a resistance of
0.18 . If the armature current is not to exceed 76 A,
calculate: (a) the resistance that must be inserted in series
with the armature at the instant of starting; (b) the value
to which this resistance can be reduced when the armature
accelerates until EC is 168 volts; (c) the armature resistance
at the instant of starting if no resistance is inserted in the
armature circuit. Assume a 2-volt drop at the brushes.
Starting a DC Motor
Solution
a)
V A VB EC
IA =
R A '+ R starter
R starter
V A V B VC
230 2 0
=
RA ' =
0.18 = 2.82
IA
76
b) Rstarter = V A VB VC RA ' = 230 2 168 0.18 = 0.61

IA
230 2
c) I A = 0.18 = 1267 A.
76
Starting a DC Motor
Example:
A 20-hp 220-volt 540-rpm shunt motor has an armature
resistance of 0.12 and a field resistance of 52.4 . If the
resistance of a starter is 1.93 , what line current does the
motor take at the instant of starting? Assume a motor
efficiency of 88% and a brush drop of 3 volts.
Starting a DC Motor
Solution
At the instant of starting, EC = 0:
I Astarting
I Line starting
220 3 0
=
= 105.85 A
1.93 + 0.12
= I SH + I Astarting
220
=
+ 105.85 = 110.05 A
52.4
Loading a Motor- Effect upon Speed

and Armature Current
In practice, an electric motor generally receives its electrical
power at substantially constant voltage. It then converts
electrical power into mechanical power, doing so by developing
torque as it rotates its mechanical load.
If the mechanical load on the motor changes, either torque
or the speed, or both, must change.
When a load is applied to a motor, the natural tendency of
the latter is to slow down because the opposition to motion
(i.e., the countertorque) is increased. Under this condition, the
counter emf decreases, for the reason that EC is proportional to
the speed.

The reduction in the speed immediately results in an
increase in the armature current. Obviously, this increase in
armature current must be exactly that required by the motor to
drive the increased load because any increase in mechanical
driving power must be met by a corresponding increase in

electrical power input to the armature.
Thus it is seen that loading a motor always results in two
changes: (1) a reduction in speed and (2) an increase in
armature current.

The speed at which a motor operates when it is driving its
rated load, its so-called rated horsepower, is called the normal
speed.
On the other hand, reducing the load on a motor causes its
armature to take less current while it speeds up.
In both shunt and compound motors, the no-load speed is
very definite and stable; these types of motor do not attempt
to operate at excessive unsafe speeds when running idle. If the
mechanical load is completely removed from a shunt motor, it
will operate at a speed only slightly higher than the normal
speed; this will generally be between 2 and 8 percent higher
than the normal speed.

Doing the same thing to a compound motor will result in a
rise in speed of about 10 to 25 percent.
On the other hand, the series motor does attempt to race, or
operate at very high speed when the load is removed. This fact
is well recognized in practice that a series motor is always
geared or coupled to its load so that a countertorque will
always exist; it is never belted to the load, because the
accidental throwing of the belt will instantly result in a
dangerous racing motor, a motor that is said to run away.
Torque Characteristics of DC Motors

The power developed by a motor must be sufficient to drive
the mechanical load and take care of its own mechanical
(friction and windage) losses. This is equal to
Pd = EC I A
But
Therefore
ZP
EC =
x 10 8
60 a
ZP
Pd =
x 10 8 x I A
60 a

Also
2T
T
hp =
=
33000 5250
Where T = lb-ft so that
T
Pd =
x 746
5250
Equating the two values of Pd
T
ZP
8
x 746
x 10 x I A =
5250
60 a
ZP
5250
x x I A
=
8
60 x 746 x 10 a
T=
x x I A
T=
x x I A
Hence, the torque developed depends upon two factors:

(1) the flux created by the main poles
(2) the current flowing in the armature winding

The foregoing analysis leads to the following general
conclusions concerning the manner in which the torque
developed by a motor varies with the load, and therefore the
armature current:
The torque of a shunt motor varies directly with the
armature current IA, since the shunt field current is practically
constant for all conditions of loading and is fixed only by the
field resistance and the impressed voltage; this implies that the
shunt-field flux remains substantially the same for all values of
load current.
T = k 1I A

The torque developed by a series motor varies with changes
in both armature current and flux because the series-field
ampere-turns, which influence the magnitude of , are directly
proportional to the load current.
At light loads, when the iron on the magnetic circuit
is not saturated, is directly proportional to IA.
T = k (k 1I A )I A
T = k2 I
2
A

At heavy loads, when the magnetic-circuit iron is
saturated, the flux will change very little or not at all

with variations in IA.
T = k1 I A
The torque vs. load characteristic of a compound motor,
where the series-field and shunt-field ampere turns aid each
other (cumulative compound), is a composite of the shunt and
series motors, and the extent to which the curve departs from
that exhibited by the shunt machine depends upon the
strength of the series field with respect to the shunt field.

a
dR
Co
m
po
un
d
Sh
(c un
t
u
Se
ri e m u
la
s
tiv
e)
Rated Torque
ng
rlExamination
of the curves indicates
oa
e
v
O
that
between no load and full load
the shunt motor develops the
greatest torque, while the series
motor develops the least; the torque
develop byFullthe
compound falls
load
between these two.
At overloads, the overload torque
of a series motor is considerably
higher than that developed by a
shunt motor; the compound motor
again falls Rated
between
the other two.
I
A
Armature Current
Characteristic torque vs. armature-current curves for three
types of motor

Example:
(a) Calculate the torque in pound-feet developed by a dc
motor, given the following particulars: Poles = 4; Z = 828;
= 1.93 x 105 maxwells; IA = 40 A; winding = wave. (b)
What will be the horsepower of the motor when operating
at a speed of 1750 rpm?

Solution
ZP
5250
(a) T =
x x IA
8
60 x 746 x 10 a
828 x 4
5250
5
(40)
1
.
93
x
10
=
8
60 x 746 x 10 2
= 15 lb ft

Solution
2T (2 )(1750)(15)
(b) hp =
=
33000
33000
= 5 horsepower

Example:
A series motor develops 62 lb-ft of torque when the current
is 48 A. Calculate the torque if the load increases so that
the motor takes 56 A.
Solution
T=
2
k2 I A
T2
=
T1
2
I A2
2
I A1
T2 56
= 2
62 48
T 2= 84.4 lb ft

Example:
A compound motor develops a torque of 271 lb-ft when it
is operating at 1200 rpm, under which condition its
armature current is 215 A. What will be the torque and hp
of the motor if the load is increased so that it slows down
to 1120 rpm in which case IA changes to 238 A and the
total flux increases by 8%?

Solution
T = kt I A
T2 t 2 I A2
=
T1 t1 I A1
hp2
(1.08t1 )( 238)
T2
=
271
t1 ( 215)
T2 = 324 lb ft
(
2 )(1120)(324)
=
33000
= 69.1 horsepower
Starting Torque and Overload

Capacity of Motors
The ability of a motor to start a load, overcoming the static
friction and inertia of heavy moving parts of its own rotor and
the application to which it is connected, is frequently an
important requirement in certain installations; this is usually
referred to as the percent starting torque or percent
breakaway torque, based upon the rated full-load torque.
Shunt motors develop moderate starting and maximum
torques, about 300 and 275 percent, respectively, operate
within a speed variation of about 10%, and should be applied
to such loads as line shafts, fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps,
metal and woodworking machines, elevators, conveyors,
laundry washing machines and vacuum cleaners.
Starting Torque and Overload

Capacity of Motors
Series motors develop extremely high values of starting and
maximum torques, about 500 and 425 percent, respectively,
operate over a considerable range of speed, tend to race at
very light loads, and should be applied to such loads as cranes,
traction machines, coal and ore bridges, bucket and mine
hoists, gates, car dumpers, turntables, and car retarders.
Compound motors have medium starting and maximum
torques, about 450 and 350 percent, respectively, operate
within a speed variation up to 30%, and should be applied in
such applications as plunger pumps, shears, crushers, rotary
and flat-bed presses, rolling mills, punch presses, geared
elevators, hoists, pressure blowers, compressors, circular saws,
bending rolls, and hydroextractors.
Speed Characteristics of DC Motors

It was previously pointed out that
the speed of a shunt motor rises about 2 to 8%
when the rated load is completely removed
the speed of a compound motor rises approximately
10 to 25% when the rated load is completely removed
the speed of a series motor rises very rapidly when
the load is removed and must, therefore, always drive
some load if it is to prevented from racing dangerously,
i.e., running away.
V A I A RA '
=
k

Example:
The armature of a 230-V shunt motor has a resistance of
0.30 and takes 50 A when driving its rated load at 1500
rpm. At what speed will the motor operate if the load is
completely removed, i.e., when it is running idle, a
condition under which the armature current drops to 5 A?
Assume that the brush drops at full load and no load are 2
V and 1 V, respectively.

Solution
(
230 2) (0.30 x 50)
1500 =
k
(
230 1) (0.30 x 5)
2 =
k
227.5
2
k 227.5
=
=
213
1500
213
k
2 = 1602.11 rpm

Example:
A 220-V long-shunt compound motor has an armature
resistance of 0.27 and a series-field resistance of 0.05 .
The full-load speed is 1400 rpm when the armature current
is 75 A. At what speed will the motor operate at no load if
the armature current drops to 5 A and the flux is reduced
to 90% of its full-load value? Assume brush drops the same
as in the previous example.

Solution
(220 2) 75(0.27 + 0.05)

1400 =
k FL
2
(
220 1) 5(0.27 + 0.05 )
=
k (0.90 FL )
2
=
1400
217.4
k (0.9 FL )
=
194
k FL
2 = 1743.18 rpm
217.4
0.9
194
Speed Regulation of DC Motors

Speed Regulation the natural or inherent change in speed of
a shunt or compound motor between full load and no load
L FL
% speed regulation =
x 100
FL

Example:
The name-plate speed of a 25-hp shunt motor is 1150 rpm.
If the motor speed rises to 1210 rpm when the load is
removed, calculate the per cent regulation.
Solution
L FL
%speed regulation =
x 100%
FL
1210 1150
=
x 100%
1150
= 5.22%

Example:
The following information is given in connection with a
230-volt shunt motor: line current at a rated speed of 1200
rpm = 20 A, line current at no load = 5 A, armature
resistance = 0.3 , shunt-field resistance = 115 , brush
drops at rated load and no load equal 2 volts and 1 volt,
respectively. Calculate the per cent speed regulation of the
motor.

Solution
L
230 1 ( 5 2 )( 0.3 )
=
k
FL =
1230 1200
%S .R =
x 100%
1200
= 2.5%
230 2 ( 20 2 )( 0.3 )
= 1200
k
[
L
230 1 ( 5 2 )0.3] / k
=
1200 [230 2 ( 20 2 )0.3] / k
L = 1230 rpm
Speed Control of DC Motors

Speed Control is the physical/manual adjustment of the
speed of a motor by an operator or automatic control
equipment. Whenever the speed of a motor can be controlled
by an operator who makes manual adjustment, it is said to be
of the adjustable-speed type.
There are two general methods to control the speed of a
motor:
by varying the voltage across the armature
by varying the flux
These methods are based on the principle that the speed is
directly proportional to the counter emf and inversely

proportional to flux.

Speed control can readily be done with dc motors in one or
more of three different ways:
by inserting a field rheostat in the shunt-field circuit of a
shunt or compound motor (Field-Resistance Control) in
this method, the speed increases as resistance is cut in by
the field rheostat; this is true because the speed rises as
the flux is reduced.
V A I A R A '
$ =
k var

by inserting a resistance in the armature circuit of a
shunt, compound, or series motor (Armature-Resistance
Control) in this method, the speed decreases as
resistance is inserted in the armature circuit; the greater
the value of the inserted resistance, the lower the speed.
V A I A (R A '+ R var )
$ =
k

by varying the voltage across the armature circuit of a
shunt or compound motor while, at the same time,
maintaining constant the voltage across the shunt field
(Armature-Voltage Control) in this method, it is necessary
to have two sources of direct current for the controlled
motor. The shunt field must be connected to a constant
potential supply so that flux of unvarying intensity is
created, while the armature is permanently connected to
the armature terminals of a special generator whose
voltage can be varied. This method permits speed
variations above and below normal.

$ =
I ARA '
k
A var
Armature Voltage Control
WARD LEONARD METHOD OF SPEED CONTROL

This variable-voltage control system (Ward Leonard Method of
Control) has many important applications when extremely wide
speed ranges, often as much as 10:1, are desired. It is frequently
found on electric excavators, on freight-handling ships, and in
blooming and paper mills and for the operation of passenger
elevators in tall buildings.
The chief disadvantage of the Ward Leonard system is its high
first cost and its low overall efficiency.
To offset these disadvantages, it must be said that it provides
excellent stepless speed control for a motor which must have a
very wide range of speed.
Reversing the Direction of DC Motors

There are two general methods for reversing the direction of
rotation of a dc motor:
changing the direction of current flow through the armature
changing the direction of current flow through the field circuit
The direction of rotation of a dc motor cannot be reversed by
interchanging the connections to the staring switch, because this
reverses the current flow through both the armature and the
field.
To reverse the direction of rotation of a compound motor, it is
necessary to reverse the current flow through the armature
winding only or through both the series and shunt fields.
Efficiency of Dynamos
A dynamo is a machine that converts energy from one form to
another.
When this conversion takes place at a uniform rate, that is,
when the energy received by the machine per unit time and the
energy delivered by the machine in the same unit of time are
constant, then it is proper to say that a dynamo converts power
from one form to another.
The power received by a dynamo is called its input; the power
delivered by the dynamo is called its output.
The power input to a dynamo is always more than its power
output.
The difference between the power input to a machine (in
watts) and its power output (in watts) is called the power loss
because it is unavailable to drive mechanical load in a motor or
to supply electrical power in a generator.
This power loss always produces heating in the dynamo;
therefore, the greater the power loss, as a percentage of the
input, the hotter will the machine tend to become. If this loss
should reach an excessive value, the temperature rise might be
high enough to cause failure.
POWER LOSSES IN DYNAMOS
STRAY-LOAD
LOSS
ROTATIONAL LOSSES
(STRAY-POWER LOSSES)
ELECTRICAL LOSSES
copper losses

bearing and friction

brush friction
wind friction (windage)
Hysteresis
eddy current loss
brush contact loss
Hysteresis Loss
The hysteresis loss takes place in the revolving armature core
because the magnetic polarity in the iron changes in step with
changing positions of the magnetic material under various poles.
When an armature-core tooth is passing under a north pole,
its polarity will be south; the iron particles are then oriented with
their north ends pointing toward the shaft center. When this
same tooth moves under a south pole, its polarity will be north
and the iron particles will then be directed away from the shaft
center. The rapid jerking around of the tiny magnetic molecules
in the armature-core iron as it revolves rapidly causes a sort of
magnetic particle friction and produces heating.
Hysteresis Loss
In the modern dynamo, it depends upon the flux density in the
armature-core iron, the speed of rotation, the quality of the
magnetic iron, and the weight of the iron.
Ph = k h f w
1.6
Ph = k h ' $ w
For usual grades of iron used,
kh = 6.2 x 10-10
1.6
Hysteresis loss is unaffected by whether or not the core is

laminated.
Eddy-Current Loss
As the armature core revolves, voltages are generated in the
iron exactly as they are in the copper wires. These voltages are
objectionable, however, because they create a flow of current in
the iron core in eddies.
These eddy currents result because the generated voltages in
the iron near the outside surface are greater than those closer to
the center of the shaft because of the higher speed; the
difference in potential then causes currents to flow in the iron.
Eddy currents may be minimized by slicing or laminating the
armature core and then coating each lamination with a highresistance varnish.
Eddy-Current Loss
Eddy-current loss depends upon the core flux density, the
speed of rotation, the thickness of the laminations and the
volume of iron; it is independent of the quality of the magnetic
iron.
Pe = ke f t V
2 2
Pe = ke ' $ t V
2 2
ke depends upon the resistivity

of the iron and the dimensions
employed for other factors.
Copper Losses
Copper losses always occur when there is a current flow
through the various copper circuits.
The various copper losses are (1) the armature-winding, (2)
the shunt field, (3) the series field, (4) the interpole field, and (5)
the compensating-winding field.
The shunt field loss is the only one that remains nearly
constant (except for minor line-voltage changes). Since the other
fields are always connected in the armature circuit, their losses
are almost proportional to the square of the load
Stray-load Loss
It results from such factors as:
the distortion of the flux because of armature reaction
lack of uniform division of the current in the armature
winding through the various paths and through the
individual conductors of large cross-sectional area
short-circuit
currents
in
the
coils
undergoing
commutation
The indeterminate nature of the stray-load loss makes it
necessary to assign it a reasonable value arbitrarily; it is usually
assumed to be 1% of the output of the machine when the rating
is about 150 kW (200 hp) or more; for the smaller ratings, the
stray-load loss is generally neglected when efficiency calculations
are made, without much loss of accuracy.
Efficiency of DC Generators
The efficiency of a dc generator is the ratio of the electrical
power output to the mechanical input, converted to watts.
watts output
% =
100%
watts input
Since watts input = watts output + watts losses,
watts output
% =
100%
watts output + watts losses
Efficiency of DC Generators
The two methods for determining the efficiency of a generator
are:
by directly measuring the total power output and the total
power input (direct efficiency test) this involves an actual
test upon the generator in which electrical instruments
measure the output, while a calibrated motor drives the
machine under test.
by making certain necessary tests from which various power
losses are determined (conventional method) - this involves
actual test upon the generator to determine the resistances of
the armature, interpole winding, series field winding,
compensating winding, and shunt field winding after which the
various copper losses are determined by calculations. A test is
also performed to measure the rotational loss.
Efficiency of DC Motors
The efficiency of a dc motor is the ratio of the mechanical
power output, converted to watts to the electrical input.
watts output
% =
100%
watts output + watts losses
The conventional efficiency of a motor may be determined in
exactly the same way as for a generator, with one exception. In
making the test for the rotational loss, the impressed voltage
across the armature must equal the terminal emf minus the
brush contact and armature-resistance drops at full load.
Stray-Power Loss Measurement

Either of two procedures may be followed to determine the straypower loss:
No-load Test the machine, whether generator or motor,
is operated free of any load as a shunt motor at rated
speed and with a voltage across the armature circuit equal
to the normal generated emf.
For Generator:
EA = V + Vb + IaRa
Note: The drops being full load values
For Motor:
EA = V - Vb - IaRa
SPL = E A I A I RA '
2
A
Where: SPL = stray-power loss

EA = supply voltage during the test
IA = armature current during the test
RA = armature equivalent resistance

Separate-Motor Test the machine whose SPL are to be
determined is operated as a separately excited generator being
coupled to and driven at rated speed by a comparatively small
shunt motor (the size be about the same order of magnitude
as the losses to be measured and its normal speed nearly the
same as the tested machine).
Two sets of data must be taken, namely:
(1) With the driving motor running free
(2) With the machines coupled together
SPL = ( E A I A I RA ' ) coupled ( E A I A I RA ' )uncoupled

2
A
2
A
Maximum Efficiency
If a test is performed upon a dynamo, or calculation are
made, to determine its performance, it will be found that the
efficiency increases with increasing values of load, reaches a
maximum and then proceeds to drop.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
Constant Losses = Copper Losses
Maximum Efficiency
% max
watts output
=
watts output + 2constant losses
Prony Brake Test

This test is used to determine the output horsepower of the
motor.
In this test, a hollow cast-steel pulley is placed on the shaft
extension of the motor and a set of brake shoes, fitted to a
lever that acts on a scale, is made to ride on the flat cylindrical
surface of the brake drum.
Prony Brake Test
Prony Brake Test
Prony Brake Test
Prony Brake Test
Prony Brake Test
2$T
Hp =
k
Where: T = (scale reading dead weight) x length of arm
N = speed in rpm
Hp = horsepower output
k = 33 000 if T is in lb-ft
= 44 760 if T is in N-m
Sample Problems
1) The hysteresis and eddy current losses of a dc machine
running at 1000 rpm are 250 W and 100 W respectively. If
the flux remains constant, at what speed will the total iron
loss be halved.
2) In a dc generator, the iron losses at 1000 rpm are 10 kW at
a given field current. At a speed of 750 rpm and at the
same field current, the total iron losses become 6 kW.
Determine the iron losses at 500 rpm.
Sample Problems
3) The following information is given in connection with a 10
kW 250-V flat-compound generator: Rsh = 125 , Ra = 0.4
, Rse = 0.05 , SPL = 452 watts, Vb (assumed constant)
= 3 volts. Calculate the efficiency (a) at full load; (b) at
50% load
4) Using the given data of Prob. 3, calculate (a) the power
output of the generator when the efficiency is maximum;
(b) the maximum efficiency
Sample Problems
5) A 10-kW 220-V 1400-rpm shunt generator is operated at
rated speed as a motor. The armature takes 2.95 A from a
232-volt source. The total armature resistance including
brushes is 0.26 , and the shunt field resistance is 146.5
. Determine (a) the SPL; (b) the full load efficiency when
the machine is operating as a generator.
4)
The following information is given in connection with a

prony-brake test upon a motor: F = 37 lb, tare weight of
brake = 3.5 lb, L = 3 ft, rpm = 1160. Calculate the
horsepower output under this condition.

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ELECTROMECHANICAL

Dynamo is a rotating electrical machine in which the

a. generator- mechanical energy is converted to electric

DC Generator and Motor Principles

General Voltage Equation for DirectCurrent Generator

upon the rate at which flux is cut and that 1 volt

The ff. analysis will lead to a very useful fundamental

General Voltage Equation for

General Voltage Equation for

General Voltage Equation for

Where Eg = total generated voltage

Direction of a Generated Voltage

Direction of a Generated Voltage

Direction of a Generated Voltage

The Elementary Alternating-current

The Elementary Alternating-current

The Elementary Alternating-current

Fig. 2 Two poles- 1 cycle per revolution

The Elementary Alternating-current

Fig.3 Four poles - two cycles per revolution

Figure 4. Commutator and Brushes

Generation of Unidirectional Current

Generation of Unidirectional Current

Generation of Unidirectional Current

It follows therefore that the polarity of the

It is true that the magnitude of the

Generation of Unidirectional Current

When several coils are joined

Fig. 6 Two coils in series

Strictly speaking, a dc generator does not deliver a pure direct current, as

Motor action involving the development

Force and Torque Developed by

Fig. 7 Fields produced by main poles and by

Fig. 8 Resultant field and force

Force and Torque Developed by

Force and Torque Developed by

be exerted upon a conductor 1 cm long carrying a

Force and Torque Developed by

Where: = flux density

Arrangement of Generator and Motor

Arrangement of Generator and Motor

Arrangement of Generator and Motor

Arrangement of Generator and Motor

Arrangement of Generator and Motor

Arrangement of Generator and Motor

Arrangement of Generator and Motor

armature winding virtually the heart of the dynamo; it is where the

nearly 360 Electrical degrees

Fig. 9 Sketches showing how the coil ends are connected to

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Where: YC = commutator pitch

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters

Armature Winding Parameters