Physics Project

"Logic Gates"
and
"Spectroscopy
and its
applications"
Sarthak
Mehrotra(XII-a)

INDEX
To study the basic logic
gates (viz. OR, NOT,
NAND, AND, NOR, XOR
& XNOR) by their
practical realization
circuits and verification
using truth tables.
Spectroscopy and its
applications.

Signature

Certificate
This is to certify that the project
work entitled Study of Logic
Gates and Spectroscopy and
its applications has been
successfully
completed
by
Sarthak Mehrotra of class 12th
Science of The Aditya Birla
Public School.

He
duly
completed
the
undertaken project in time with
perfection.
His
work
and
conduct was found satisfactory
in all respect.
Signature
Dr. S.K. Srivastava
(H.O.D. Physics
Department)

AIM:
TO STUDY WORKING OF LOGIC GATES (OR,
NOT, NAND, AND, NOR, XOR, XNOR) BY
PRACTICAL REALIZATION CIRCUITS AND
VERIFICATION USING TRUTH TABLES.

IMPORTANT TERMS:-

Boolean Operation: We are conversed with the four

fundamental mathematical operation viz.
addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Whenever Boolean algebra
Binary decision is involved, we use
Boolean operation. A Boolean operation
is a statement giving the relation
between the output and certain input
variables. It may be clear that the input
variables can only have two values
namely 1 & 0 like +, -, X, /
are used in ordinary algebra we use the
operators AND, OR and NOT in Boolean
algebra.

Binary Decision: -

The decision that results into either

YES or NO is called Binary Decision. In
our daily life we come across situations
which demand logical decisions can be
taken
by
electronic
circuits.
Thus
depending upon the requirement a lift in
a multistoried building can be made to
operate in a number of ways. Similarly
traffic lights can be operated to give red,
yellow and green signals in a set
pattern.

Binary Algebra: George Boole invented Boolean Algebra

which deals with logical statement
having only two values: True or False. In
this system of algebra also known as
Boolean Algebra we make use of only
two digits, i.e., 0 &1 to represent any
number. Any number greater than 1 can
be written by suitable combinations of
digits 0 &1 as shown below:

Decimal
Numbers

Binary
System

Decimal
Numbers

Binary
System

0000

1000

0001

1001

0010

10

1010

0011

11

1011

0100

12

1100

0101

13

1101

0110

14

1110

0111

15

1111

SYNOPSIS
The experiment deals with designing &
working of LOGIC GATES emphasizing
especially on OR, NOT & NAND gates
along with a little information on all
other logical gates.
The experiment also deals with the
practical realization of the logic gates.

The behavior of each Logic gate is

summed up in a table known as Truth
Table showing all possible input &
output combinations in terms of 0s &
1s i.e. high or low. These Logic Gates
could be devised using semi conductor
devices.

The experiment thus aims at design,

development & testing of NAND, OR &
NOT Gates. The experiment was
successfully
completed
&
required
output is obtained.

INTRODUCTION TO
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS:
DIGITAL CIRCUITS:

Circuits which can take logic decisions based on certain

input conditions are called digital circuits. It is an electronic
circuit in which the current & voltage signals have only two
levels (either on or off). Thus in digital circuits only two
values are represented by 0 & 1 of input & output voltage
are possible.
Such circuits find applications in controlling traffic lights, in
digital computers, electronic counting system & in
telephone switching system.

LOGIC GATES:
DEFINITION:
A Gate is simply an electronic circuit
which operates on one or more signals.
Depending on the requirement of the
application, Logic Gates can be classified
as:

AND Gate
OR Gate
NOT Gate
NOR Gate
product.

: - multiplication.
: - addition.
: - inverse function.
: inverse of addition

NAND Gate
: inverse of
multiplication product.

XOR Gate
: sum of product of
inputs.

XNOR Gate
: inverse of sum of
inputs.

OR GATE
(K=A+B)
OR gate is the logic gate which
signifies the addition operation.
It requires two or more input signals
and gives only one output signal. If any
of the input signals is 1 (high), this
gate gives the output 1 i.e. high. This
gate is symbolized as follows:

A
ORK
B

The Truth Table is as follows:

A
0
0
1
1

B
0
1
0
1

K (OR)
0
1
1
1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FOR PRACTICAL
REALIZATION OF
OR GATE

A
OUTPUT

INPUT

In the above circuit:A, B & K = Boolean Expression

D1 & D2= Junction Diodes.
Where, K=A+B

As shown in the circuit diagram and

truth table the negative terminal of the
battery is grounded corresponds to the
0 state & the positive to the 1 state.

When both A & B are connected to 0,

no current passes through the diode
and

therefore

no

voltage

develops

across the resistor & the output is 0.

When A is connected to 0 & B to 1, the
diode

D2

current

is

forward

through

it

is

biased
limited

&

the

by

currentlimiting resistance. This current

causes

potential

drop

across

resistance (equal to the input voltage),

assuming the diode to be ideal, this
gives an output 1. Similar is the case
when A is connected to 1 & B to 0.
When A & B are connected to 1, D1 &
D2 conduct & so output is 1.

NOT GATE
(K=A)

Not conveys the sense of negative. It is

a logic gate which operates on only
one

input

to

give

one

output.

It

produces as output, the negative of the

variable at the input. It is also called
the INVERTER. Its symbol is:-

ANOT

The Truth Table is as follows:A

K (NOT)

0
1

1
0

PRACTICAL
REALISATION OF
NOT GATE:

Rc
OUTPUT

INPUT

Rb
A
B

NOT Gate cant be realized by diodes&

we have to use transistor. Circuit is as
shown below. R b and R c are chosen such
that when a voltage is applied at the
base, large collector current flows, the
voltage at K drops & the base-collector
junction
When

becomes

is

forward

connected

biased.

to

0,

the

collector-base is reverse biased & the

base-emitter is not forward biased. So
the base current is zero & hence, the
collector current is zero. The circuit is
then said to be in the Cut-off mode &
voltage

at

is

maximum

which

corresponds to 1 state. When A is

connected

to

1,

transistor

goes

to

saturation, voltage drop across R c is

maximum & the output K is 0.
In the above circuit:B-Transistor;

E-Emitter;

C-Collector;

A-Input;
K-Output;

R b-Resistance

(box);

R c-

Resistance

AND GATE
(K=A x B)
AND

Gate

symbolizes

multiplication

operation Boolean Algebra. It can be

practically realized by using diodes.

Practical realization of it is mentioned

in realization of the NAND Gate.
Its symbol is:K= (A*B)

A
AND
B

Truth Table is as follows:A

K (AND)

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
0
0
1

PRACTICAL
REALIZATION OF
AND GATE :
INPUT
A
OUTPUT
K
B

In the above circuit:

A&B = Boolean expression

D1 & D2= Junction Diodes

K = Output
Where K = A*B

The working of the circuit is just the

reverse of the working of AND gate.
The voltage drop procedure is just the
same except for the fact that it results
in high voltage only and only if the
inputs are high, i.e. 1, otherwise for all
other cases the output of the circuit is
low, i.e. in the case of both low inputs
or that of the case one low and one
high input. The working of the diode is
just the opposite of

and gate. The

output of the circuit is the product of

the inputs which may have the binary

value, either 0 or 1.

OTHER LOGIC GATES:

Some other logic gates are given with
corresponding output if input is A & B.

NAND GATE
NAND Gate is the inverter of AND Gate.
AND Gate signifies the multiplication
operation.

When

NOT

Gate

is

connected with AND Gate the resultant

obtained by AND is inverted & this
combination is called NAND Gate. It

also consists of two or more inputs but

only one output.
Its symbol is:

A
NAND

The Truth Table is as follows:

A

C (AND)

K (NAND)

NOR GATE
K= (A+B)

It

is

an

equivalent

to

an

OR

gate

followed by a NOT gate i.e. all the

outputs of the OR gate are inverted.
The Truth Table for NOR gate is just
the opposite of OR gate.
Its symbol is as follows:-

A
NOR

K
B

The Truth Table is as Follows:

K (NOR)

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

1
0
0
0

XOR GATE
K= (AB+AB)
The XOR Gate is the abbreviation of
Exclusive OR gate
Its symbol is as follows:-

A
XOR K

The Truth Table is as follows:-

C(XOR)

X-NOR GATE
K = (AB + AB)
It is the inverse gate of XOR gate i.e. a
combination of XOR gate & NOT gate.
The symbol of this gate is as follows:A
XNOR
B

The Truth Table is as follows:-

C (XOR)

K
(XNOR)

Result
All the gates have been successfully
realized through truth table and have
been realized practically through
circuits.