EE Lab Manual

EMBRY-RIDDLE AERONAUTICAL UNIVERSITY
Department of Electrical, Computer, Software & Systems Engineering
ElectricalEngineering
LabManual
EMBRY-RIDDLE AERONAUTICAL UNIVERSITY
EE336 Lab Manual
Table of Contents
EE 336 Laboratory Policies............................................................................................................... 2
Lab Report Formats ............................................................................................................................. 4
Lab 1: DC Circuit Fundamentals ..................................................................................................... 8
Lab 2: Linear and Non-Linear Devices .......................................................................................16
Lab 3: Linearity, Proportionality, and Superposition ..........................................................24
Lab 4: Internal Resistance ...............................................................................................................33
Lab 5: Thevenin Equivalence and Maximum Power Transfer .........................................37
Lab 6: Oscilloscope Introduction..................................................................................................46
Lab 7: RC and RL Circuits.................................................................................................................53
Lab 8: RC, RL Filters and Mechanical Resonance ..................................................................60
Lab 9: RLC Circuits .............................................................................................................................68
Lab 10: Operational Amplifier .......................................................................................................80
Appendix A: Digital Multimeter (DMM) ....................................................................................87
Appendix B: Power Source..............................................................................................................93
Appendix C: Simpson Meter ...........................................................................................................95
EE 336 Laboratory Policies

Lab Rules for Students
1. Read through the manual for the upcoming experiment before the lab day
2. Be on time and ready for the lab session.
3. Active participation is required.
4. Confirm lab results with GTA.
5. Upon finishing a lab session, return all components and equipment to proper
locations.
6. Before leaving the lab, clean workstation, make sure equipment is turned off,
and all materials are put away.
7. Notify GTA if equipment is malfunctioning, broken or missing.
8. Keep noise level to a minimum.
9. Turn off cell phones.
Responsibilities of Graduate Teaching Assistants (GTAs)

The GTAs will be familiar with all lab equipment and components, and provide
students with all materials needed for the lab. Furthermore, the GTAs will explain the
lab sessions, answer questions, and help students with problems encountered during
the lab. The GTAs will grade the lab reports, quizzes and the final exam in a timely
manner, and will be available to students during office hours. Finally, the GTAs will
ensure the cleanliness of the lab and proper functioning of all equipment and
components.
Safety
Electricity can be very dangerous, especially when used improperly. Many of the components used
in this lab are capable of producing electric shocks and well as bodily harm. Please follow these
simple rules when in the lab. Also, consult equipment documents or the GTAs for any questions
concerning equipment operation.
1. When building circuits, make sure the power is OFF and double check your
completed circuit for any incorrect connections.
2. Do not touch capacitors that may be charged. Assume all capacitors are
charged until proven otherwise.
3. Make sure equipment and circuit are properly grounded.
4. No food or drink in the lab.
5. Check the polarity of instruments and components before switching the power
ON.
Lab Report Formats

Basic Format
he lab reports shall be written by students covering the lab containing data, graphs,
circuit analysis, and conclusions. Make sure to elaborate on answers. The purpose of the
lab report is to convey that you fully understand the lab material, how to build the
circuits in the lab, and the basic concepts behind topics discussed in that particular lab. If
there are any questions about lab report information, ask the GTA during class or office hours.
Uncertainty regarding lab report formatting is not an excuse to delay submission.
Labs 1-5 will be written in the long lab report format. Labs 6-10 will be written in memo format.
Samples for the formats can be found following this page.
Labs shall be written in Times New Roman, 12 point font for the main bodies of text.
Lab Grading
Long Lab Report
Abstract
Introduction
Procedures
Results Analysis
Conclusion
Presentation
5%
20%
5%
50%
10%
10%
Memo Lab Report

Introduction
Result Analysis
Conclusion
Presentation
20%
50%
20%
10%
EE 336 Lab Report # xx
Title of the Lab

Student Name:
Lab Partner Name:
Performed on January 23, 2009

Submitted on January 30, 2009
Lab Instructor Name:
Section number:
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

Daytona Beach, FL32114
I. Abstract (not in memo format)

A short paragraph about 100 to 200 words stating (a) the purpose or objective of the lab, (b) briefly describe what took place in
lab or how you set out to address the purpose, and what measurements were made, and (c) an assessment of how well the
purpose was achieved.
II. Introduction
The introduction should introduce the reader to the topic of the lab and provide any technical background material that is
required to make the laboratory report complete. Usually the concepts in the lecture and concepts used in class are
appropriate for the introduction. Research lab concepts and include some substantial information. The introduction should
discuss concepts rather than procedure or results. This section is the most important and should be researched
thoroughly either using books or the internet. Do not include any figures, tables, or results in this portion of the lab. Do
NOT just repeat information given by the instructor for this part.
III. Lab Description and Procedure (not in memo format)

Although the procedure section of your lab handout may be very long and detailed, the procedure section of your report
should be concise and only include the major parts of the procedure. You should summarize each of the major parts of the
procedure in your own words. Please write this part in list (bullets or numbered) so that the reader can easily follow a
step-by-step procedure. (Explain what you did, not how you did it.)
V. Result Analysis
In this section you should include the results of the lab. Subsections may be included if you deem necessary. The results
section will typically include data, equations, results, and analysis. All results must be explained and discussed - this
means you should answer the question "are these results what one expects or predicts?" You should number and
title each figure and table. Use the figure and table numbers to refer to these results when you discuss them. Answer all
questions found in the lab manual: questions in the procedure and lab questions.
VI. Conclusion
This section should contain the major results from each part of the lab. How accurate was the result compared to what you
expected? Does the result make sense? What sources of experimental error did you have? You should indicate what you
learned from the lab. Were there parts that were not clear? Also remember that you CANNOT prove anything via
experimentation! You can only verify the theory. DO NOT simply state the lab was successful because the percent error
was only 3% or similar.
VII. Statement (optional)

Write a small statement to evaluate the instructor and how efficient the lab was in helping you understand the subject.
This also will help the instructor improve their teaching style and experiments for future labs. Please be frank. This is also
your opportunity to inform the instructor of any issues within your group.
1
Lab
DC Circuit Fundamentals
Introduction
Electronic components are described by various characteristics. Resistors, as an example, are
characterized by their resistance, maximum power dissipation tolerance, and resistive material.
Just as a bolt has different types of heads, resistors come in different types, such as wire wound,
carbon or metal film. While some simple circuits can use virtually any type of resistors, more
critical applications require specific types of resistors. This is similar to the use of, say, a flat
head bolt rather than a hex head or a fillister head bolt. There are tolerances on the value of a
resistor just as there are tolerances on the dimensions of bolts and other fasteners. The more
critical the job is when performed by a component, the more precise the characteristics must be
for the component. Resistors come in tolerances ranging from plus or minus 10 percent to small
fractions of a percent. Modern manufacturing techniques have made the cost of resistors so
reasonable that even the most inexpensive resistors are made to plus or minus 5% precision.
Electronic components have nominal values, and the actual values are distributed around that
nominal value. When designing circuits, it is important to know the distribution of the values to
ensure a successful product. This is particularly true when large production runs are
anticipated. This is also true when the performance of a product is critical to safety, such as
aircraft and space systems.
Equipment
Basic components and devices used in this lab include a digital multi-meter, a variable DC
voltage source (battery), a breadboard, and resistors. The digital multi-meter (DMM) is used to
measure the resistance of the selected resistors. A circuit is then created using the breadboard,
three resistors, and the variable voltage source. At this point the DMM is used to measure a
variety of voltages and currents throughout the circuit. The data is then analyzed and compared
to the theoretical values calculated by methods discussed in the following Theory section.
The breadboard is a useful tool in most electrical engineering labs. The breadboard acts as a grid
of organized wires. A wide variety of configurations can be duplicated on a breadboard saving
both time and effort when creating complex circuits. Note the figures shown below, an actual
breadboard and a schematic to help explain how a breadboard functions.
Figure 1: Breadboard
Figure 2: Breadboard Configuration
The schematic to the right is the equivalent of the breadboard, with the thick black lines
representing continuous conductor/wire segments.
Theory
The discussion of electricity begins with some definitions of fundamental quantities,
starting with electrical current. The term current (denoted by I) describes the flow of
charged particles through space, which in most cases is the flow of electrons (negatively
charged particles) through a conducting metal. A conductor is a material that allows
electrons to pass relatively freely through the material; copper is a highly conductive metal.
A related concept essential to understanding electricity is electric potential and potential
difference. The electric potential is defined as the potential energy of a system per unit
charge. A potential difference (commonly referred to as voltage and denoted by V or V) is a
change in electric potential between two locations in space. This variation of electrical
potential (a form of energy) or potential difference is the force that causes charged particles
to move. In other words, electric potential and current are related; an applied potential
difference results in the flow of electrons, i.e. an electrical current.
A proper understanding of resistance is also essential to understanding this lab and
electricity in general. Resistance (denoted by R) is a quantity that relates potential
difference and electric current for a given conductor. Resistance can be thought of as
friction that electrons encounter when traveling thru a conductor. A material with high
resistance makes the flow of electrons through that material very difficult.
The three properties described above combine to form an important relationship known as
Ohms Law.
9
Ohms Law:
Ohms Law states that the potential difference across a
conductor is equal to the product of the resistance of that
conductor and the electrical current through the conductor.
Devices that follow this law are referred to as ohmic devices.
A resistor is a basic component that provides a relatively
constant resistance in an electrical circuit. A resistor is an
ohmic device. The value of a resistor is given by a color code
printed on the resistor itself. These color bands (shown in the
figure to the right) represent the following four quantities
band 1:
band 2:
band 3:
band 4:
Figure 3: Resistors
first digit of resistance

second digit of resistance
multiplier (add the corresponding zeros to
the first two digits)
tolerance ( red-2% ; gold-5% ; silver-10%)
The designations for different color bands are given in the

figure to the right.
Example 1: Resistor Color Bands
Selected Resistor: Gray Red Brown Silver
Following the designation shown in the above figure, the
selected resistor is 820
with a tolerance of 10 %.
Figure
Figure
1: Resistor
4: Resistor
ColorColor
Bands
Bands
An electrical circuit is a combination of electrical

components or circuit elements that are most often
connected by a series of conducting wires. These circuit
elements and wires normally form one or more closed loops,
referred to as a circuit. It is also important to understand
Figure 5. Linear Resistance
10
that the characteristics of circuit elements such as resistors, depending on the geometry of
the circuit.
As can be seen by Ohms Law, current and voltage are linearly related. Figure 5 shows a plot
of current (I) vs. applied voltage (V). By solving Ohms law for current and comparing the
result to the basic form of a linear equation
gives
Now focus on the simple circuit as shown in Figure 6. This

circuit contains two voltage sources (batteries) and four
resistors; note that as previously mentioned the components
form a closed loop. Observe the placement of the two voltage
sources (VS1 and VS2). Components that are connected end to
end, as in the case of the voltage sources, are referred to as being
in series with respect to each other. In the case of a number of
voltage sources in series with one another, the total voltage or
equivalent voltage is the summation of the individual sources
(note: the orientation or sign of each voltage source must be
taken into consideration).
Similarly, resistors R1 and R2 are in series and their equivalent
resistance can be calculated. The equivalent resistance of n resistors in
series can be computed by taking the summation of the individual resistances as shown
below
Figure 6.
Now focus on the placement of R3 with respect to R4, which is obviously different from the
placement of R1 with respect to R2 that was previously discussed. The placement of R3 with
respect to R4 is referred to as parallel and the equivalent resistance of n resistors in parallel
can be computed by the equation
(
These equivalent quantities are useful for analysis of simple circuits and are useful in
developing more complex relationships. Two such examples are referred to as the current
divider rule (CDR) and the voltage divider rule (VDR) and will be discussed shortly. Before
discussing the CDR and VDR, let us focus on two fundamental relationships known as
Kirchhoffs Laws.
11
Kirchhoffs Current Law deals with the conservation of charge and states that the current
entering a junction is equal to the current leaving the junction. Shown mathematically as
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL): charge must be conserved
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law deals with the conservation of energy and states that the summation
of the voltages across components of a closed circuit loop is equal to zero. Shown
mathematically as
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL):
energy must be conserved
Lastly, focus on the previously mentioned current divider rule and voltage divider rule. CDR
is useful in determining the current that enters resistors that are in parallel when the
source current is known and VDR is used in determining the voltages across resistors that
are in series when the source voltage is known. These laws are derived and summarized as
follows (refer to Figures 7 and 8)
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR):
for resistors in series
This gives
- OR Figure 7
Current Divider Rule (CDR):
for resistors in parallel
This gives
Figure 8
- OR -
12
Potential Rise and Potential Drop (Potential Difference)

Potential is basically the energy required to move a unit of charge from infinity to a given
potential. Since it is known that earth or ground is defined as a zero potential, anything with
a charge greater than this value is known to have a higher potential or a lower potential.
This potential difference, also called Voltage, is measured in Volts. Positive electric chargers
will usually flow from a region of higher potential to a region of lower potential. For
example, going across a battery source, has a potential difference between its negative and
positive battery terminals.
13
Experiment and Procedure
Figure 9: Circuit #1
Note: when measuring current, or I, the ammeter should be placed in series with the
circuit as shown above in the figure. This should be done methodically for current to be
found. Current should flow through the Ammeter in order to get a desired reading.
Voltmeter should be placed parallel to the circuit and measured across the resistor or
voltage sources to get a desired reading.
1.
Assemble the circuit as shown above. Measure R1, R2, and R3 with the DMM.
Calculate the percentage error between actual and theoretical values.
2.
If voltage is taken going from A to B, is this a potential gain or loss across the battery?
3.
Measure VAB, VBA, VAC, VCA, VAD, VDA, VBC, VCB, VBD, VDB, VCD, VDC and record the values.
(remember VAB = VA VB)
4.
Measure I1, I2, I3, I4.
14
5.
What can you deduce from the measurement of I1 and I2? What is happening to I3
and I4? Should they be of the same I value?
6.
Remove R3 from the circuit and note the voltage drops between node C and D, and D
and A. What can you deduce from this change in voltage? How does the current change in
the whole circuit?
7.
Verify KCL at node D using measured current values.
8.
Verify KVL around the larger loop using measured voltage values.
9.
Solve the circuit mathematically for I1, I2, I3, I4, and compare to the measured values.
Figure 10
15
2
Lab
Linear and Non-Linear Devices

Introduction
n this lab, three different circuit components will be evaluated: a basic resistor, a light bulb,
and a light-emitting diode (LED). Load line analysis and graphical representations are used
to analyze these devices. Theoretical values and measured values are compared, showing
that the theory learned in class supports the measurements taken in the lab setting.
The previously mentioned circuit components fall into two different categories referred to
as linear and non-linear devices. A linear device is defined as a device in which the input into
the device (such as voltage) is linearly related to the output of the device (such as current).
As one would expect, a non-linear device has a non-linear relationship between input and
output. Understanding the difference between linear and non-linear devices is essential to
thoroughly understanding this lab.
Background and Theory

Comparing the voltage-current relationship given by Ohms Law to the basic form of a linear
equation
yields
This linear relationship between the applied voltage and

the current across a resistor is why a resistor is known as
a linear device. Figure 1 shows a plot of current (I) vs.
applied voltage (V).
In contrast with the resistor, the light bulb used in the
Figure 1: Linearity (Ohm's Law)
second section of this lab does not have a set resistance.
The resistance of the bulb, more specifically the resistance of the bulbs filament, is a
function of its temperature. As a result a light bulb is known as a non-linear device.
16
An LED or light-emitting diode is also a non-linear device.

LEDs are electric light sources that operate differently
from a standard light bulb. They have a non-linear
relationship between voltage and current given by an
exponential function that will not be discussed in this
lab. The idea is to gain a basic understanding of the
component.
Load line analysis is a graphical concept that is used in
the analysis of non-linear devices experiencing a direct
current. Initially, a non-linear device is analyzed in a
given circuit, varying the source voltage and measuring
the corresponding voltage across and current through
the non-linear device. From these measurements,
current through the non-linear device vs. voltage across
the device is plotted.
Figure 2: Light Emitting Diode

(Image source:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED)
The non-linear device is now placed in series with a linear

device (as in Figure 3) in the same circuit used previously.
This circuit is analyzed using KVL, resulting in the load line
equation. The load line equation gives a relationship
between the source voltage, the voltage across the resistor
(linear device) and the voltage across the non-linear device
(in this case, a light bulb or LED) at some location that is
yet to be determined.
Figure 3: Load Line Circuit (1)
By applying two boundary conditions, (1) when the voltage across the non-linear device is
zero and (2) when the current through the non-linear device is zero, and solving for the
corresponding voltage across or current through the non-linear device yields two sets of
voltages and their corresponding current values.
The two sets of data are plotted as two points on the graph
formed from the analysis of the non-linear device alone (see
circuit shown in Figure 4) and are connected by a straight line
referred to as the load line. The intersection of the load line and
the original data points plotted from Figure 4 (as shown in the
example Graph below) form the operating point.
The operating point is the location where the responses from the Figure 4: Load Line Circuit (2)
nonlinear device alone are equal to that of the responses from the
combination of the linear and non-linear device.
17
Example 1: Load Line Analysis
Load Line Analysis

25
Current (mA)
20
15
Non-Linear Device
10
Operating Line
5
0
0
10
15
20
25
Voltage(non-linear device) (V)
Example Graph 1: Load Line Analysis

The plot above denoted by the blue diamonds is obtained by measurements taken from the
circuit shown in Figure 4.
Applying Kirchhoffs Voltage Law to the circuit shown in Figure 3 yields the following
Using the boundary conditions of

and
This analysis yields the points
(
These points are plotted as squares and connected by the red line. This line is referred to as
the Load Line. The location where the original plot intersects the load line is called the
operating point. At the operating point, the response from the circuit containing both a nonlinear and linear device is the same as the response from the circuit containing only the
non-linear device.
The above analysis implies that in both circuit configurations the non-linear device has a
current of approximately 12 mA when a voltage of 10.5 V is applied to it.
18

CIRCUIT 1
Figure 5:
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Figure 5.
2. Measure the resistor R1 using the DMM and record its value.
3. Vary the power supply from 0 V to +20.0 V in increments of 2 Volt and record the
corresponding values of VR and IR in the closed circuit. (Values corresponding to
the resistor. VR = voltage across the resistor)
4. Plot the data as an IR vs. VR graph.(slope =1/R)
5. Determine the slope and calculate the resistance.
6. Compare the resistance obtained in step 5 with the measured value in step 2, and
calculate the percent error.
CIRCUIT 2
Figure 6:
1. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 6.
2. Vary the battery voltage from 0V to 20V (in increments of 2V) and measure the
corresponding values for the current through the bulb and the voltage across it.
Note: these bulbs are designed for 120V; they may not light up much, if at all.
3. Plot the characteristic graph for the incandescent bulb, ILamp vs. VLamp.
19
CIRCUIT 3
Now write the Load Line Equation (equation for the loop) for the circuit below by
applying Kirchhoffs Voltage Law. Note that this is purely a mathematical problem; this
does not need to be constructed.
Figure 7: Load line analysis circuit

1. Use this equation to determine two points to develop your load line analysis.
Label them A and B.
2. Plot these points on the I-V curve of the lamp and draw a line between these
points. Find the intersection point and label it Q1 (Operating Point).
CIRCUIT 4
Now set up the circuit below and measure the actual value of the Q1 point from the circuit.
Figure 8: Load line analysis circuit.

1. Record the value of I and V (current through the circuit and voltage across the
bulb).
20
2. Find the percent error between the actual values and the theoretical values for
Q1.
3. Change the resistor to a 1 K and a 2.2 K and repeat the load line analysis
process for each case. Repeat Circuit 3 for these two resistors as well.
CIRCUIT 5
Now we will repeat these steps for the Light Emitting Diode. Assemble the circuit as
show below to develop the characteristic curve of the diode:
Figure 9
1. Vary the power supply from 0V to 10V with increments of 1V. Record the values
of VDiode and IDiode in each case. Measure the voltage across the DIODE; do not use
the power supply voltages when constructing the plot! (Make sure the diode is in
a forward biased configuration i.e not connected backwards).
2. Record the voltage across the diode when it first lights up.
3. Plot IDiode vs VDiode.
CIRCUIT 6
Now write the Load Line Equation (equation for the loop) for the circuit below. This
circuit, like Circuit 3, is purely mathematical and does not need to be constructed.
21
1. Use this equation to determine two points to develop your load line. Label them C
and D.
2. Plot these points on the I-V curve of the diode and draw a line between these
points. Find the intersection point and label it Q2.
CIRCUIT 7
Now set up the circuit below and measure the actual value of the Q2 point from the circuit.

1. Record the value of I and V. (through the circuit and across the LED)
2. Find the percent error between the actual values and the theoretical values for
Q2.
3. What happens to the voltage drop across the LED if the resistor value is changed?
How does it affect the current in the circuit?
4. Change the resistor to a 1 K and a 2.2 K and repeat the load line analysis
process for each case. You should repeat Circuit 6 as well for these two resistors.
Lab Question:
1. Do the characteristic curves of each nonlinear component agree with the
theoretical behavior predicted? Elaborate your answer.
2.
Figure 12
22
The circuit above contains a non-linear element. The voltage across this element (VA) is
equal to the current through the element (I) squared. Write KVL and solve for VA. What size
resistor will result in the current I=2A?
23
3
Lab
Linearity, Proportionality, and

Superposition
Introduction
simple circuit containing a voltage source and a resistor (a linear circuit) is analyzed.
This circuit is then used to develop a proportionality constant (K) between the source
voltage and the voltage delivered to the resistor. Graphical analysis allows for
comparison between the measured values in the circuit and those values developed
from the concept of linearity and proportionality.
A more complex circuit is also created that contains multiple resistors and two voltage
sources. Copies of this circuit, containing one voltage source at a time, are also analyzed.
Measurements taken from these circuits are used to illustrate the principle of superposition.
Theory and Background

Linearity is a concept that implies a linear relationship between two quantities. In a linear
relationship, the changes that occur in the two quantities are related by the basic equation
of a line
One such example is a resistor, a basic component that provides a relatively constant
resistance in an electrical circuit. A resistor is an ohmic device: a device that follows Ohms
Law. By comparing the voltage-current relationship given by Ohms Law to the basic form of
a linear equation, the following result is obtained:
This linear relationship between the applied voltage and the current across the resistor is
why a resistor is known as a linear device. The graph in Figure1 shows a plot of current (I)
24
vs. applied voltage (V) as given by Ohms Law. Using this graphical representation, the
linear relationship between applied voltage and current is obvious.
Ohmic Relationship
10
Current (A)
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
12
Voltage (V)
Figure 1. Linear Relationship

The linear relationship investigated in this lab is the relationship between the source voltage
applied to a circuit, and the corresponding voltage delivered to a resistor in the circuit.
Proportionality is a concept similar to linearity in that it also deals with the relationship
between two quantities. Proportionality focuses on the change in one quantity and the
effect on another quantity. Quantities can be either directly proportional (often just referred
to as proportional) or inversely proportional.
If two quantities are directly proportional, an increase in one quantity results in an increase
in the second quantity. Conversely, if two quantities are inversely proportional, an increase
in one quantity results in a decrease in the second quantity. This is summarized in the
following relationships:
Directly Proportional:
Inversely Proportional:
Despite showing that the quantities are related, the above definitions do not specify the rate
at which these quantities change relative to one another. To overcome this, a proportionality
constant (K) is introduced. Proportionality constant allows the previously mentioned
relationships to be written in the form of mathematical equations and specifies the rate at
25
which these quantities change relative to one another. This is shown mathematically as
follows:
The above equation states that quantity1 is proportional to quantity2, related by a unique
proportionality constant k.
Likewise, the above equation states that quantity1 is inversely proportional to quantity2,
also related by a unique proportionality constant k.
The following examples are included to help illustrate some of the subtle differences
between linearity and proportionality.
Example 1: Current-Voltage Relationship
As described previously, the applied voltage to a resistor is linearly related to the current that
flows through the resistor
In a similar fashion, the applied voltage to a resistor is proportional to the current that flows
through the resistor, related by the proportionality constant K
In this case the applied voltage to the resistor and the current that flows through it are both
linearly related and proportional to one another.
Example 2: Speed of Sound - Temperature Relationship
In low speed aerodynamic analysis, it is useful to have a relationship between the speed of
sound (a) in a fluid and the temperature of that fluid (T).
An approximation that gives accurate results is that the speed of sound in a given fluid is
proportional to square-root of the temperature of that fluid
Comparing the above equation with that of the basic line shows that the speed of sound is
linearly related to the square-root of the temperature
26
Despite this, note that the speed of sound is not linearly related to the temperature, only to the
square-root of the temperature. This is shown below graphically in Figure 2.
Speed of Sound and Temperature Relation
Speed of Sound (m/s)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
Temperature (K)
Figure 2. Speed of Sound vs. Temperature

Example 3: Equation of a Line
Imagine two quantities Q1 and Q2, which are related by the following equation
This equation and the basic equation of a line are strikingly similar. In fact, Q1 and Q2 exhibit
a linear relationship. Values of Q1 and Q2 are plotted below in Figure 3.
27
Equation of a Line
0
-50
Q1
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
10
20
30
40
50
60
Q2
Figure 3. Equation of a Line

Despite the linear relationship shown above, Q1 is not proportional to Q2. By analyzing the
given equation, it can be seen that (Q1 - 1.1) is proportional to Q2. Shown mathematically
Superposition
The Principle of Superposition is a useful concept in many areas of study, including physics,
mathematics, and electrical analysis. The form applied to electrical engineering is used in
analysis of electrical circuits containing multiple voltage sources, current sources, or a
combination of the two and is stated as follows:
In a linear circuit containing multiple voltage or current sources, the net voltage or
current at any location is equal to the summation of the voltages or currents that
would be caused by each source individually (placed in the same circuit).
To consider a source individually, all other sources have to be zeroed. To zero a voltage
source, it is replaced by a short circuit (the voltage across a short circuit is zero); to
zero a current source, it is replaced by an open circuit (the current through an open
circuit is zero).
Analyzing a complex circuit is made easier by analyzing the circuit with one source at a
time, then taking the summation of the results obtained from individual analyses. The
following examples help to illustrate how to apply the principle of superposition.
28
Example 4: Voltage Source and Current Source

Determine the voltage delivered to resistor R1
in the circuit shown in Figure 4
V1
R1
I1
Applying the Principle of Superposition to the

FIGURE 4
circuit shown above in Figure 4, the net voltage
Figure Ex.4_F1
delivered to resistor R1 is given as the summation of the voltages supplied to resistor R1 in
the two circuits pictured below (Figure 5 and Figure 6).
FIGURE 5
V1
FIGURE 6
R1
R1
Figure Ex.4_F3
Figure Ex.4_F2
From Figure 5:
From Figure 6:
Therefore, Principle of Superposition yields:
This result shows that the current source shown in Figure 4 makes no contribution to the
voltage across resistor R1, a somewhat surprising result.
29
I1

CIRCUIT 1
FIGURE 10. PROPORTIO NALITY AND LINEARITY

1. Measure and verify all the individual 10 K resistors shown in Figure 10, then build
the given circuit.
2. Vary the power supply from 0V to 20V in 2V increments. Measure the corresponding
output voltages for each input.
3. Calculate the corresponding proportionality constant that relates the output and
input voltages. Use the equation:
4. Tabularize and plot all your answers in Excel and comment on the results.
CIRCUIT 2
FIGURE 11. SUPERPOSITION

1. Measure and verify the given resistors and build the given circuit shown in Figure
11. Note the sign inversion of the DC battery sources.
2. Measure V(out) across the 6.2 K resistor. Label this value V(out)total.
3. Measure I1 through the 6.2K resistor.
4. Remove the 15V battery source and replace it with a wire (short circuit). Measure
the voltage value of V(out) again for the given 5V battery shown in Figure 12. Label
this value V(out)1.
30
5. Measure I2 through the 6.2K resistor.
FIGURE 12.
6. Reconnect the 15 Volt power source, and disconnect the 5 Volt source and replace it
with a wire (short circuit) as shown in Figure 13.
FIGURE 13.
7. Measure the voltage value of V(out) and label it V(out)2
8. Measure I3 through the potentiometer.
9. Verify and comment on the theory of Superposition. Remember
10. Verify and comment on the current values with the change of voltage.
31
FIGURE 14.
11. Reconnect the circuit as shown in Figure 14 by switching the polarity of the 15V DC
power source, then repeat steps #2 to #10.
12. Reconnect the circuit as shown in Figure 11. Consider what will happen if each of the
voltages for the individual DC power supplies were increased by 1V. Which power
supply has a bigger effect on the output voltage? Show a full mathematical proof and
explanation to verify your answer for five 1V increments. Do not use any lab
measurements in your proof.
32
4
Lab
Internal Resistance
Discussing the concepts of internal resistance by analyzing a circuit
using the Simpson Meter
Resistance can be considered as friction that electrons encounter when traveling through a
conductor. The term internal resistance refers to the inherent resistance that all materials
have when current is flowing through them. Unlike the resistance associated with a resistor,
internal resistance in devices and components is a resistance that may or may not be
desired, and is mainly a property of the material that the device is made from.
For example, in most circuit analysis the internal resistances of the wires connecting circuit
components are neglected even though the wires do contribute resistance to the circuit. In
most cases, such as those involving short wires made of good conductors, this is a
reasonable approximation. Conversely, using this approximation for situations such as
power lines that transfer electricity over long distances may result in large calculation
errors.
Another example of internal resistance is the one associated with a battery. The theoretical
voltage supplied by a battery is referred to as the emf or electromotive force. This theoretical
voltage is not equal to the actual voltage supplied by the battery. The actual supplied
voltage is slightly less than that of the emf because of a small internal resistance present in
the battery.
Resistivity is a quantity associated with the internal resistance of a given material, and helps
to develop the concept of internal resistance. The resistivity of a material relates the length
and cross-sectional area of the material to the resistance that electricity would encounter
when traveling through the material. As previously mentioned, different materials resist the
flow of electricity differently. A high resistivity corresponds to a high internal resistance in
the material; such materials are called insulators. Likewise, materials that allow electricity
to pass easily through them have low resistivity and are referred to as conductors.
33
Two examples of good conductors are aluminum and copper, with resistivities of 2.82(10-8)
m and 1.7(10-8) m, respectively. In contrast, a good insulator like glass has a resistivity
of 1(1010) m. For resistivity of other materials, refer to Figure 1.
Figure 1: Resistivity of Common Materials

The internal resistance investigated in this lab is the internal resistance of a measurement
device called a Simpson meter (shown in Figure 2). The Simpson meter will be used to
measure the voltage across a resistor. The accuracy of this measurement depends on the
relationship between the internal resistance of the Simpson meter and the resistance of the
resistor being measured.
Figure 2: Simpson Meter
The measurement is taken by placing the meter in

parallel with the component being measured. As
dictated by Ohms Law, the voltage measurement
taken by the Simpson meter is only accurate if the
internal resistance of the Simpson meter is much
greater than the resistance of the component being
measured. If not, current that would normally pass
through the component being measured now
passes through the Simpson meter. As a result, the
measured value of voltage does not accurately
represent the voltage applied to the measured
component in the absence of the voltmeter.
Conversely, if the internal resistance of the Simpson meter is much greater than the
resistance of the component being measured, little or no current will pass through the
Simpson meter; this results in accurate measurements that represent the voltage applied to
the measured component in the absence of the voltmeter. Further understanding of this
concept can be obtained by the subsequent analysis and discussion in this lab.
34
Experiment and Procedures
Figure 7
1. Connect the Simpson meter to the voltage source and set it to 5V. Vary the scales on the
Simpson meter and learn how to read the different scales for the different voltage settings.
2. Set the power supply voltage back to 10 V per figure 7.
3. Build the circuit shown in Figure 7 without the Simpson Meter connected.
4. Measure current IAB using one of the Digital Multimeters (DMM), not the Simpson Meter. Do
not disconnect the DMM after measuring IAB.
5. Measure current IBC with the second DMM at your station.
6. Connect the Simpson Meter, as seen in Figure 7. Record the voltage drop across R2 displayed
by the Simpson meter. Be careful how you connect the Simpson meter such that the second
DMM is not measuring the same current as the first.
7. Use Kirchhoffs current law at point B and calculate the current IERROR, the current through
the Simpson Meter.
8. Calculate the internal resistance of the Simpson Meter.
9. Change the scale of the Simpson meter to each higher scale. Repeat steps 5-7.
10. What is the limit of IERROR as RINTERNAL of the Simpson goes to infinity?
11. What conclusion can you draw from Step 9?
35
12. Now repeat the experiment, replacing the 100K resistors with 2.2K resistors. What is
IERROR in this case? What can be concluded in relation to Ohms Law? Calculate the internal
resistance of the Simpson Meter.
13. What conclusions can we draw about this Simpson Meter regarding its internal resistance
and the IERROR caused?
14. Comment on what the internal resistance of an ideal voltmeter should be.
15. Take one of the DMMs at your station and connect it directly to the Simpson meter. Set the
DMM to measure resistance and vary the voltage scales as you did previously. Record the
internal resistance reported by the DMM. Calculate the percent difference between your
measured values and the DMM reported values.
36
5
Lab
Thevenin Equivalence and

Maximum Power Transfer
Introduction
n this lab the concepts of Maximum Power Transfer and Thevenin Equivalent will be
introduced and used to analyze a basic circuit. Measurements obtained in the lab will be
compared with theoretical values computed using the previously-mentioned concepts.
First, a linear circuit containing four resistors and two voltage sources is assembled.
Multiple load resistors with a variety of resistances are selected and measured for exact
resistances. These resistors are then placed in the circuit one at a time, with the voltage
across the load resistor measured and recorded.
Using these measured values the power dissipated to the load resistor is computed for each
case. Plotting the measured load resistances and computed power for each load resistor
results in a graphical relationship between power and resistance known as a Power Curve.
The concept of Thevenin Equivalent Circuits is applied to the previously constructed circuit.
Following the guidelines given by this concept, the Thevenin resistance and voltage for the
circuit are measured. A short circuit current in a segment of the circuit is also measured.
Thevenin equivalence and other engineering concepts are used to mathematically compute
the previously mentioned values. The values obtained by theory are then compared to the
values obtained by measurements in the laboratory.
37

An understanding of voltage, current, and power is essential to this lab. Definitions of these
properties are discussed below.
General Power Derivation:
A general definition of voltage states that the electrical potential difference (or voltage)
between two locations is the required energy per unit charge necessary to move a charged
particle (electron) from one location to another. This is shown below mathematically as
where V is the voltage, W is the required work or energy to move the charged particle, and
Q is the electrical charge of the particle. Stated simply, voltage is energy per unit charge.
Current is generally defined as a measure of the motion of charge through a conductor.
Current refers to the amount of charge that passes by a point in some time interval. Stated
simply, current is charge transfer per unit time. This is shown mathematically as
Power (denoted by P) is defined as the time rate at which energy is transferred. In general,
power is either consumed or produced. In the case of this lab and resistors in general,
power is consumed or dissipated by a resistor. Stated simply, power is energy transfer per
unit time. This is shown mathematically as
Returning to the basic equation for voltage, it can be rewritten as

Solving for energy (or work) gives
Dividing both sides by a time increment t yields
Applying the definition of power and the definition of current yields the following
relationship between power, current, and voltage
Variations of this relationship can be obtained by applying Ohms Law to the relationship
above. This yields:
38
Thevenin Equivalence Derivation:

Thevenin Equivalence is used when analysis of a
particular resistor in a complex circuit (circuit
containing multiple voltage or current sources and
resistors) is desired; this resistor is referred to as
the load resistor.
Thevenin Equivalence states that in the analysis of a
load resistor contained in a complex circuit, the
Figure 1.Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
complex circuit can be replaced with a simple
circuit containing one voltage source, one resistor,
and the aforementioned load resistor, all in series with respect to one another. This
simplified equivalent circuit, shown in Figure 1, produces the same effects in regard to the
load resistor as the previous, complex circuit.
The following outline contains the guidelines used to determine the Thevenin voltage and
Thevenin resistance and corresponding diagrams.
Outline: Thevenin Equivalence
Determine the voltage across the load resistor
Figure 2. Voltage across a resistor

SOLUTION:
To create the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit, two values must be calculated: the Thevenin
voltage and the Thevenin resistance. These quantities are different in different circuits and
can be calculated following the following guidelines.
39
Thevenin Voltage:
1. Remove the load resistor from the circuit. The open circuit voltage at the location
where the load resistor was removed is the Thevenin Voltage.
2. Use previously learned concepts to determine the open circuit voltage described
above. The above circuit with these guidelines applied is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3.Thevenin Voltage

Thevenin Resistance:
1. Remove the load resistor from the circuit.
2. Zero all voltage and current sources.
Note:
Note:
Voltage sources are replaced by a short circuit

(no change in voltage across a short circuit).
Current sources are replaced by an open circuit
(no change in current through an open circuit).
3. The Thevenin resistance is the equivalent resistance of the circuit measured from the
location where the load resistance was removed, after all voltage and current
sources have been zeroed.
4. Use previously learned concepts to determine the equivalent resistance described
above. The initial circuit with these guidelines applied is shown below.
Figure 4.Thevenin Resistance
40
The initial circuit shown is equivalent to the Thevenin Equivalent circuit in Figure 5.
NOTE: Thevenin Equivalence is only valid when analyzing the load resistor.
Figure 5.Thevenin Equivalence

Analysis of the Thevenin Equivalent circuit for the load resistor yields the desired solution.
Maximum Power Transfer Derivation:
For a given circuit, it is possible to change the resistance of the load resistor such that a
maximum transfer of power to the load resistor will occur. Thevenin Equivalence is useful
in determining this value of load resistance that is associated with a maximum power
transfer to the resistor.
After following the previous outline given for reducing a circuit to its Thevenin Equivalent
circuit, the voltage divider rule is applied to the equivalent circuit to determine the voltage
delivered to the load resistor, as shown below
Ohms Law gives
Using these values, the power delivered to the load resistor is obtained
To simplify analysis, define a new variable P, such that
Note that if P is a maximum value, it will correspond to a maximum value for PL. Differentiating
P with respect to the load resistance and setting it equal to zero yields the following
41
The above calculations show that P (and therefore PL) reaches a maximum value when the
load resistance RL is equal to that of the Thevenin resistance RTH
42
Figure 6.
Part A: Follow the steps below to gather the initial data for the first part of the lab; do not break
the circuit after finishing Part A as it is needed for Part B.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Assemble the circuit shown above. Do not add the R(load) yet.
Pick 5 resistors of any of these values for R(load):10, 100, 220, 820, 1K,
1.1K, 1.2K, 1.3K, 1.4K, 1.45K 1.5K, 2.0K, 2.2K, 2.7K, 3.8K, 4.7K.
Measure with DMM and record their exact values. Note that for resistors not
available in the equipment bins a 5K potentiometer can be used.
Insert these resistors in the circuit between the terminals A and B (Rload). Record the
voltage VAB in each case.
Calculate the power (PL) dissipated in the resistor in each case using V2L /RL
Plot a curve of power (PL) dissipated versus Resistance (RL)
Part B:Thevenin equivalent circuit for Figure 6.

1.
2.
3.
4.
Measure VThevenin using DMM at the terminals AB and calculate it mathematically.

Measure the RThevenin at terminals AB. Make sure to zero all independent sources.
Calculate RThevenin mathematically and draw the equivalent circuit.
Measure the short circuit current IAB and record the value. Derive an equation for IAB ,
calculate the value of IAB and then compare the results for accuracy.
5. Now imagine the circuit as shown in Figure 7. What value of RL will result in maximum
transfer of power from the system to the attached load RL? Use the graph in Part A to
determine this value and mathematically calculate it.
6. Using this maximum power resistor value, repeat step 3 of Part A taking readings 50
and 100 around the max power transfer resistor value. Add these values to the power
curve plotted. This is to obtain a defined curve around the max value. You will need to
use a potentiometer for these values.
43
7. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 7, setting a 10k potentiometer to the value of
RTH.
8. Using a resistor of your choice from part A to act as RLoad , verify the voltage drop across
the load matches what was found in part A.
Figure 7
Lab questions: (This part can be done in the

lab if opted, answer all questions in the
appendix section of the lab report.)
1. What will happen to VThevenin and RThevenin if (recall that diodes restrict current to flow in
one direction):
a. Add two diodes as shown in Figure 8.
b. Replace the 5V power supply with a short circuit wire in Figure 9.
Figure 8
44
Figure 9
45
6
Lab
Oscilloscope Introduction
Introduction to oscilloscope and function generator
Much information can be obtained from a display showing how voltage amplitude behaves
during a given time period. The oscilloscope is designed for this purpose, making it one of
the most useful tools in an engineers arsenal. Modern oscilloscopes are equipped with an
assortment of analytical tools to help quantify various aspects of an electrical event. Even
the most basic functions of such an instrument can be quite useful. As an electrical
engineers education progresses, more and more of the scopes functionality will come into
play.
CONCEPTS
Reading y-t display
Adjusting the t and y scales
Appropriately selecting triggering modes
Interpreting displayed electrical events
Using horizontal and vertical cursors to take measurements.
46
Oscilloscope
Figure 1. Oscilloscope
Triggering Function
The triggering function is used primarily when the AC Coupling setting is on. On this setting,
AC (time varying) signals are allowed to pass through the oscilloscope. Two options
associated with the triggering function include the AUTO and NORM options. The AUTO
option automatically refreshes the display regardless of the input, while the NORM option is
used to capture an event that then can be manipulated for analysis. In summary, the
triggering function allows manipulation of the time varying signals, allowing for a stationary
image to be caught and analyzed.
Coupling
AC and DC Coupling are used to filter signals in a portion of a circuit. AC Coupling allows
only AC (time varying) signals through a portion of the circuit. In contrast, DC Coupling
allows both AC and DC signals through the circuit. In this case, coupling is used to filter the
signals passing through the oscilloscope.
AC Coupling is also known as capacitance coupling because it is often accomplished by
connecting a capacitor in series to the signal to be coupled. One disadvantage of AC Coupling
is the degradation of low frequency performance of the system.
47
Be careful when you use the oscilloscope. The human body produces electricity in a variety
of ways. Operation of the brain relies upon electrical impulses. An EKG is the measurement
of electrical activity associated with the heart through measured using skin electrodes.
Similar to the EKG, the electrical characteristics of the body can be read by the oscilloscope.
Tapping the lead of the oscilloscope allows it to measure a small voltage when in contact
with our finger.
Measuring
One of the more common buttons on the oscilloscope is the Measure button, located on the
upper right hand side in a cluster of six other buttons. When selecting the Measure button, the
screen displays several options. Some of the more commons options to select include: frequency,
pk-pk, amplitude, and voltage. Peak to peak and amplitude can be seen below in figure 2.
Peak to Peak (Pk-pk)
Amplitude
Figure 2. Waveform analysis
48
Function Generator/Oscillator
ERAU 2013 Scott/Dabrowski
Figure 3. Function Generator
49
Experiment
Part 1: Operation for periodic inputs
1. Connect the 1X probe to the CH1 input of the scope. Turn scope ON.
2. Attach the hook end of the probe to the probe compensation signal. (Located to right of CH2
input, upper of 2 silver electrodes.) The probe compensation signal is a 1 kHz square wave
with a 5V amplitude.
3. Press the black Autoset button. A square wave should appear.
4. Yellow CH1 screen display reads 2.00 V.
QUESTION 1: How many cm tall is the wave? (Note: 1 cm is a single large block on
the display)
5. Change y-scale and note changes in display.
QUESTION 2: How tall is the display now? What does the CH1 scale read?
6. Rotate t-scale knob clockwise so 2 cycles of square wave are displayed. Notice time scale
display (bottom screen, center) reads M 200s.
QUESTION 3: How many cm across is 1 complete cycle?
7. Press Autoset button again.
QUESTION 4: What is the value on the time display? How many cm across is 1
complete cycle?
8. Press the white REF button then the yellow CH1 button. Using the grey square buttons to
the right of the screen, the top 3 labels say: DC, AC, and GND (respectively), describing
coupling.
9. Press the AC button. Locate column of buttons/adjustments label Trigger. (It may be
necessary to turn the trigger level knob to stabilize the display.)
QUESTION 5: How does the displayed waveform compare with the AC coupled mode
when DC is selected? What happens when GND is selected?
10. Find cluster of 6 gray buttons at top right. Press the button that is labeled CURSOR. Notice
(on right side of screen) selection of either horizontal bars (H Bars) or vertical bars (V
Bars). Select V Bars.
11. Find large, white knob next to cluster of 6 gray buttons. Turn white knob to place V Bar on
the rising edge of square wave. Press the white button next to knob labeled SELECT. Turn
white knob again until the second V Bar is on falling edge of the square wave. At top center
of screen, the is the delta (difference) in time between the vertical bars. The @ is the
distance of the selected V Bar from the trigger point, indicated by a red T at top center of
screen.
12. Press the button for H Bar. Place one at bottom of wave and the other at top of wave. At top
of the screen, the indicates the amplitude of the square wave and the @ indicates the
voltage differential from the reference point of the wave.
13. Press the button labeled QUICKMENU. A triggering menu will appear. Find the button that
corresponds to AUTO or NORMAL triggering modes. In AUTO mode, the display updates
constantly regardless of input level. In NORMAL mode, the display is updated only when an
event crosses the trigger threshold. NORMAL mode is useful when one wishes to capture
50
a transient event. Once an event is captured into memory, the image can be manipulated for
optimal viewing and measurement.
14. Measure amplitude and frequency of compensation signals using cursors.
QUESTION 6: What is the amplitude of the comp signal? What is the frequency of it?
Part 2: Function Generator Internal Resistance
Figure 5. Internal Resistance Circuit

1. Measure the following resistors: 10, 22, 47, 100, 220.
2. Recalibrate the function generator with the o-scope if necessary.
3. Construct circuit (shown above). Attach one resistor at a time to the circuit (shown above)
and place the o-scope probe across the resistor.
4. Note the voltage drop across the resistor. Use the formula
VS is
Source Voltage, VR1 is voltage drop across resistor and R1 is resistor value.
5. Plot internal resistance versus resistor value for each of the resistors used. This will yield
the plot of how internal resistance of the function generator changes with resistance of the
circuit. This value should be ~ 50.
Lab Appendix Questions:

1. Based on the result of step 5, what conclusion can you draw regarding how internal
resistance changes with resistance of the circuit?
2. Explain the purpose of the triggering function.
51
3. What is the difference between AC and DC coupling?

4. Why does the probe display a signal whenever its tip is tapped by your finger?
52
7
Lab
RC and RL Circuits
Introduction
he following lab explores the concepts behind RC and RL circuits. An oscilloscope is used
to obtain measurements, while an oscillator, also known as a function generator, is used
to supply a voltage to the circuits at a given frequency. The internal resistance of the
oscillator is also determined prior to the analysis of the two circuits.
A simple circuit containing the oscillator, a resistor, and the oscilloscope is created. This
circuit is then used to determine the internal resistance of the oscillator.
Next, the RC circuit is constructed. It contains the oscillator, a resistor, the oscilloscope, and
a capacitor. The circuit is used to analyze the charging and discharging of the capacitor
contained in the circuit. The RL circuit is then created. As with the RC circuit, a time
constant is determined and the characteristics of the resistor-inductor circuit are observed.

This lab introduces AC or alternating current. A basic understanding of this concept is
essential to this lab. An explanation of AC and a brief description of the lab device used to
produce this current are given here.
AC Current and the Function Generator:
DC or direct current has been analyzed in previous labs. For DC circuits, a constant
magnitude voltage is supplied to the circuit, maintaining a given polarity or direction. In
contrast, with AC current the voltage polarity is changed repeatedly.
With AC current, the applied voltage increases while maintaining its polarity (direction)
until a maximum is reached; the polarity is then reversed and the voltage returns to zero. It
now climbs again to the maximum magnitude but with a polarity opposite to the previous
voltage climb. This process is repeated continuously, producing a push then pull of
voltage in the circuit.
53
The familiar sine wave represents a type of AC

current. Equal magnitudes are repeatedly reached,
but with difference signs (or polarity). In this lab,
AC current is used to repeatedly charge and
discharge a capacitor. This current is also used to
analyze another electrical device, called an
inductor. A plot of a sinusoidal AC current is
shown to the right in Figure 1. Note that according
to the Ohms Law (given a constant resistance), the
voltage in the circuit is proportional to the current.
Therefore, the sinusoidal representation in figure 1
is valid for both current and voltage.
Figure 1: Sine Wave
The voltage source used in previous labs is strictly a DC voltage source. For the circuits in
this lab, we will be using a device called an oscillator (also known as a function generator).
The oscillator is a time varying voltage source that produces an AC voltage. The voltage can
be varied in two ways: the frequency and the magnitude.
Corresponding to the
oscillator,
the
oscilloscope is a device
used
to
take
measurements from
an AC circuit. Refer to
the Figures 2, 3, and 4.
Figure 2: Oscillator
Figure 3: Oscilloscope
A discussion of the electrical devices known as capacitors and

inductors is given below, along with important related
concepts.
Figure 4
Capacitor:
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical potential energy by means of an electrical field,
which is created by electrically charged particles. A capacitor is normally made of two
conducting plates separated by an insulator. One plate gains a negative charge (electrons)
when connected to a voltage source. In order to reach equilibrium, this causes the second
plate to gain an equal positive charge (see Figure 5). This potential difference (voltage) is
similar to the potential difference supplied by a voltage source.
54
The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the

ratio of the charge stored on the capacitor to the
magnitude of the voltage across the two plates of
the capacitor. Shown below mathematically as
In general, the capacitance of a capacitor is

constant and determined by the design of the
capacitor itself. Recall that current is defined as
the flow of charge per unit time. Keeping this in
mind, rearrange the above equation and
Figure 5(Source:
differentiate
http://www.qsl.net/ng3p/haminfo/
ham-tutor/circuit_components.htm
Dividing both sides by the capacitance C and integrating yields
The above equation describes the voltage stored across a capacitor. In general, by
increasing the voltage across a capacitor, the amount of energy stored by the capacitor is
increased. This stored energy can then be used by other components in the circuit.
In addition to the characteristics described previously, it is important to understand how a
capacitor is charged by and discharges to a circuit. The analytical equations that govern
these two processes and corresponding graphs are shown below.
Charging a Capacitor:
The charge on a capacitor versus time
in a circuit that contains the capacitor,
a voltage source, and a resistor is
governed by the following equation
)
Figure 6: Capacitor charge curve
55
Where the source voltage multiplied by the capacitance of the capacitor (CVs) is the
maximum charge stored on the capacitor. A plot of this relationship is shown in Figure 6.
The current delivered to a capacitor versus time in the circuit is described by the following
equation
Where the source voltage divided by the

resistance of the resistor (Vs/R) is the initial
current delivered to the circuit (and the
capacitor) denoted by Io. A plot of this
relationship is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Current delivered to

capacitor
Similarly, by solving the first order differential equation governing a capacitor (shown
below) yields the relationship between the voltage across the plates of the capacitor and the
timethe capacitor has been charging. This relationship is given by the following equation
Discharging a Capacitor:
If the voltage source is removed from the circuit
after the capacitor has been charged, the capacitor
will discharge the voltage across its plates to the
other components in the circuit. This relationship
is also an exponential relationship and is governed
by the following equation
Figure 8: Capacitor discharge
Where VR(t) is the voltage delivered to the resistor in the circuit

by the discharging capacitor. A plot of this relationship is shown
to the right in Figure 8. Note that the initial voltage delivered to
the resistor is the initial voltage of the charged capacitor
(denoted by VC0 in Figure 8). As time passes, the voltage across
the capacitor decreases, causing the voltage delivered to the
resistor to also decrease, until the capacitor is fully discharged
and has no voltage across its plates. At this point, there is no
longer voltage across the resistor.
56
FIGURE 9.50mH
INDUCTOR
Inductor:
An inductor is an electrical device similar to a capacitor in that it stores electrical energy. In
contrast to the capacitor, which stores energy by means of an electric field, an inductor
stores energy by means of a magnetic field. A magnetic field is created by charged particles
that are in motion.
Time Constant:
The time constant (denoted by ) is an important quantity that appears in the previously
described equations for a capacitor and an inductor. The time constant is a measure of the
time it takes for the circuit to reach equilibrium or steady state. A large time constant
corresponds to a slow response circuit (one that takes a long time to reach steady state),
while a small time constant corresponds to a fast response circuit (a circuit where steady
state is reached quickly).
Measured in units of time, the time associated with one time constant () is defined as the
time required for approximately 63.2% of a quantity to be changed from its initial state to
its final steady state. This can be seen by substituting for t in the equation that relates the
voltage across a charging capacitor. In the case of the RC circuit, is defined as the
resistance in the circuit multiplied by the capacitance of the capacitor (RC).
Substituting this value into the mentioned equation yields
In conclusion, when the amount of time equal to the time constant has passed, the
capacitor will reach a voltage equal to 63.2 % of the source voltage. Substituting values of 2
and 3 into the same equation yields
and
In the case of an RL circuit, the time constant is defined as the inductance divided by the
resistance in the circuit, as shown below
57

The objective of this lab is to analyze the behavior of first order RC and RL circuits.
CIRCUIT 1
Pulse 5Vpp
Figure 11: RC circuit

1. Measure internal resistance of the capacitor with the LCR machine.
2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 11. Set the oscilloscope to DC coupling and
connect it to the circuit.
3. Set the pulse parameters as follows: Offset voltage = 2.5V, f = 40Hz, width = 10ms,
peak to peak voltage as shown in Figure 11.
4. Set the scales of the oscilloscope to 1V and 2ms.
5. Using the H-bars, determine the maximum amplitude.
6. Determine the time constant. Remember, = Tau = RtC (units are milliseconds). This
resistance value will include the internal resistance of the function generator (you
may assume 50 from now on) and capacitor.
7. Using the Charge equation,
compute Vc at t = , which
should be around 63.2% of the input voltage. Use the value obtained from Step 6.
8. Suppose we do not know the value. Use
and
the V bars on the o-scope to get an approximate value of the time constant.
9. Determine how many time constants (rounded to the nearest integer) are needed to
charge a capacitor to reach 99% of its full potential of 10V.
58
CIRCUIT 2
Pulse 5Vpp
Figure 12: RL circuit

1. Use the LCR machine to measure the internal resistance of the inductor.
2. Construct the circuit in Figure 12.
3. Keep all of the pulse parameters the same as in circuit 2, except the pulse width;
pulse width = 500s.
4. Calculate the time constant for the circuit. Remember, Rt used in this equation is the
total resistance value and = Tau = L/Rt.
5. Use the V-Bars and H-Bars to collect 10 coordinates of the curve, 5 for each half cycle.
Plot the curve for the entire period.
Appendix Questions
1. The unit for RC is seconds and the unit for L/R is also seconds. What will the appropriate
units be for LC?
2. Explain why the measurements are done across the resistor and not the inductor.
3. Why is it important to include internal resistance in calculations?
59
8
Lab
RC Filters, RL Filters, and

Mechanical Resonance
Introduction
n this lab two concepts will be introduced and illustrated: Filters and Mechanical
Resonance. Measurements obtained in the lab will be compared with theoretical values
computed using the theoretical method.
Beginning with the RC filter analysis, multiple circuits are constructed using a variety of
resistors and capacitors. Graphical representations are used for identifying the type of filter
each circuit represents. Then theoretical cutoff frequencies are computed, which are
compared to approximations obtained from the graphical representations (bode plots).
Initially, the oscillator is calibrated to the appropriate voltage and frequency for the internal
resistance to be computed. After the internal resistance of the oscillator is computed, an RL
circuit is created. By varying the frequency and measuring the corresponding voltage in the
circuit, a bode plot is developed. The cut off frequency corresponding to the RL circuit is
calculated, and the bode plot is used to determine the type of filter formed by the circuit.
Mechanical resonance is illustrated by including a speaker in the circuit, first in a circuit
containing a resistor and then in a circuit with both a resistor and a capacitor. Again plots
are obtained by graphing voltage vs. frequency applied to the speaker. Mechanical
resonance will be observed, and comparisons made between the data obtained from
individual circuits.
60
Background and Theory

Filters:
Filters are networks used in electrical circuits to limit the frequency delivered to a portion
of the circuit to a specific range. In other words, given a specific input frequency (such as
the voltage supplied by an oscillator), a filter only allows a set range to pass through the
circuit. The analysis of these networks focuses on the frequency response of the circuit,
which illustrates how the circuit reacts differently to different input frequencies.
The four most common filters are the high-pass, low-pass, band-pass, and band-stop filters.
In this lab, the focus will be on the high-pass and low-pass filters created using a
combination of resistors and capacitors. Before filters are investigated in more depth, it is
necessary to discuss the following concepts.
Phasors:
In AC-Steady-State analysis, complex numbers are used to represent a time varying current
or voltage in a circuit. Eulers equation is of particular use.
For example, voltage can be represented by the following
And similarly, current can be represented as
Phasors are complex number representations of voltages or currents in an AC circuit.

Phasors represent both the magnitude and the phase angle (the phase shift of the voltage or
current when compared to the source voltage or current). When we convert time-varying
voltages or currents to phasor form, they can be used in combination with DC circuit
analysis techniques.
61
As the phasor is the transformation of a time-varying voltage or current, impedance is used

for the analysis of components such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Impedance is
similar to resistance, and it is used to perform analysis with phasors. The impedance
(denoted by Z) of these common components are given below
Applying DC circuit analysis, the following relationships are obtained
Equivalent Impedance is computed in the same way as equivalent resistance in DC circuit

analysis, as shown below
Note: It may be necessary to review these concepts in more depth. The previous
discussion is a relatively brief introduction to complex number analysis, phasors, and
impedance.
Returning to filters, this lab focuses on the high-pass
filter and the low-pass filter. Observe the simple
circuit shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Low-Pass Filter
Low-Pass Filter:
The network shown in Figure 1 is an example of a
simple low-pass filter. A low pass filter allows only a
range of frequencies below a given value to pass
through the circuit to the capacitor. This voltage across
the capacitor (at the filtered frequency) is denoted by
V (response).
Figure 2: Low-Pass Bode Plot
62
A plot of source voltage vs. frequency (using a logarithmic scale on the x axis) is shown in
Figure 2. This is the characteristic bode plot (input voltage vs. frequency) for a low-pass
filter.
High-Pass Filter:
Likewise, the network shown in Figure 3 is an
example of a simple high-pass filter. A high-pass
filter allows frequencies greater than a given value
to pass through the circuit.
Figure 3: High-Pass Filter
A plot of source voltage vs. frequency (using a

logarithmic scale on the x axis) is shown in Figure 4.
This is the characteristic bode plot (input voltage vs.
frequency) for a high-pass filter.
Applying a Voltage Source to an Inductor:
A basic RL circuit is shown in Figure 5. Note the
switch shown; at t < 0 the switch is open and at t = 0
the switch closes.
Figure 4: High-Pass Bode Plot
Figure 5: Circuit (A)
The relationship between the current through the

RL circuit versus time is governed by the following
equation (obtained by applying KVL to the circuit
shown in Figure 5) and shown graphically in
Figure 6
where the time constant for an RL circuit is
Figure 6: Current through an

Inductor
This equation (valid only for the switch

shown being open for t < 0 and closing at t =
0) shows that as time passes, the current
through the circuit approaches its maximum
value of V/R.
63
Removing a Voltage Source from an Inductor:

A basic RL circuit is shown in Figure 7.
Note the switch shown; at t < 0 the
switch is closed for a time long enough
such that the current through the circuit
reaches its maximum value of V/R. At
t = 0 the switch is moved to the new
location (switched downward), isolating
the resistor and the inductor from the
voltage source.
Figure 7: Circuit (B)
The relationship between the current through the RL circuit versus time is governed by the
following equation (obtained by applying KVL to the circuit shown in Figure 7) and shown
graphically in Figure 8
This equation shows that initially the current through the circuit is its maximum value of
V/R. Also note that as time passes the current through the circuit approaches zero.
Mechanical Resonance:
Mechanical Resonance is a phenomenon
that can be seen in a wide variety of
situations including, but not limited to,
electrical
circuits
and
buildings.
Mechanical resonance occurs when the
frequency of the oscillations of a
mechanical system matches the natural
frequency of the system. The natural
frequency of a system can be described as
the frequency at which a system is most
easily excited. The natural frequency varies
for different systems and is based on many
factors, such as composition and geometry.
Figure 8: RL Circuit Current vs. Time
In the following lab a speaker is used to illustrate mechanical resonance. The speaker is a
device that relies on vibrations to produce sound waves. The output frequency of the
speaker is determined by the input frequency of the voltage source. Mechanical resonance
occurs in the speaker when the voltage across the speaker is equal to the natural frequency
of the speaker. When this natural frequency is reached, large responses in the frequency
characteristics of the circuit are encountered.
64

CIRCUIT 1
Figure 9
1. Calibrate the oscilloscope with the function generator for 10V Sine wave pk-pk
and 10 Hz. Assume the function generator internal resistance is 50.
2. Assemble the circuit as shown in Figure 9.
3. Vary the frequency from 10 Hz to 50 kHz with a size step of 1-4-7. Start at 10 Hz,
then move to 40 Hz, then to 70 Hz. Once this is complete, jump to 100 Hz, 400 Hz,
and 700 Hz, and so on. Repeat this process to obtain all measurements and
record the corresponding voltages from the oscilloscope.
4. Plot a bode plot (graph of voltage vs. frequency). Use logarithmic scale for
frequency on the x-axis. To do this, right click on the x-axis in EXCEL, click Format
Axis, and click the option logarithmic scale.
5. What can you deduce from this graph? What kind of filter is it?
1
6. Calculate the cut off frequency using the formula f c
. Remember, Rt is the
2 Rt C
total resistance in the circuit. This includes internal resistance of the function
generator and the capacitor.
7. Approximate the cut off frequency from the bode plot by estimating it as the
frequency at which
, and then find the percentage error.
65
CIRCUIT 2
Figure 10
1. Measure the value of the resistor, internal resistance of the inductor, and note any
percentage errors.
1
L
2. Calculate the cut off frequency, where f c
, , and
2
Rt
3. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 10..
4. Vary the frequency from 10 Hz to 40 kHz with a size step of 1-4-7 and record the
corresponding voltages from the oscilloscope.
5. Plot a bode plot of voltage vs. frequency. Use logarithmic scale for frequency on the
x-axis.
6. What can you deduce from this graph? What kind of filter is it? Use the equation
given in step 7 from circuit 1 with VS set to the voltage when f = 10Hz, to determine
the cutoff frequency.
66
CIRCUIT 3
5Vpp
Figure 11
1. Set the function generator to a setting of 5Vpk-pk. Next assemble the circuit as shown
in Figure 11.
2. Vary the frequency from 10 Hz all the way to 40 kHz with a size step of 1-4-7 and
record the corresponding voltages across the speaker. Note that mechanical
resonance takes place approximately between 100 Hz and 600 Hz. Be sure to plot
more frequency points in this range.
3. Plot the graph of voltage vs. frequency. Use logarithmic scale for frequency.
CIRCUIT 4
5Vpp
Figure 12
1.
2.
3.
4.
Repeat the experiment performed on Circuit 3 for the circuit shown in Figure 12.
Gather the VS data for the same frequency range as before.
Plot the graph of VS vs. frequency (logarithmic scale for frequency).
Explain the difference between results obtained from Circuit 3 and Circuit 4.
67
9
Lab
RLC Circuits
Introduction
he following lab explores and analyzes an RLC circuit. The important components and
concepts in this lab include the capacitor and the inductor, second order transient
analysis (RLC circuit), circuit responses and their different forms, and how to create a
band pass filter.
Initially, the oscillator is calibrated to the necessary voltage and frequency and the internal
resistance is computed. Then, an RLC circuit is created and analyzed. A wide range of
frequencies are used with the oscillator on both the sine wave output and the square wave
output. Measurements from these variations are recorded. The natural responses for these
circuits are identified and observed by varying the value of the resistor in the circuit. Again,
cutoff frequencies are determined and bode plots are formed for use in analysis. In this lab,
emphasis is placed on the natural response of the circuit shown in all three forms:
underdamped, overdamped, and critically damped.

Inductor:
An inductor is an electrical device similar to a capacitor in that it
stores electrical potential energy. In contrast to the capacitor,
which stores energy by means of an electric field, an inductor
stores energy by means of a magnetic field. As our discussion
progresses, the connection between magnetism and electricity will
become evident. A magnetic field is created by charged particles F i g u r e 1 : I n d u c t o r
that are in motion. Magnetic fields are represented by magnetic
field lines, and the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the density or
number of magnetic field lines created by a field.
The purpose of placing an inductor in a circuit is to create an induced current (or voltage) in
the circuit. This induced current/voltage is caused by a change in magnetic flux through the
coils of the inductor. Magnetic flux is a measure of the strength of a magnetic field contained
68
in a given area or the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given area. Note that
the stronger the magnetic field, the denser the distribution of the magnetic field lines, and
the greater the magnetic flux for a constant specified area. The previous characteristics are
summarized by Faradays Law of Induction.
Faradays Law of Induction:
The electromotive force (voltage) induced in a circuit is equal to the time rate change of the
magnetic flux through the circuit.
where
represents the magnetic flux through the circuit .
An inductor consists of a conductor wrapped around an insulator, forming a number of

coils. The current passing through these coils creates a magnetic field that also passes
through the coils (which are part of the circuit). By varying the current through the
inductor, the strength of the magnetic field created changes. As a result, the magnetic flux
through the inductor is not constant, and a voltage is induced in the circuit.
Note: an induced voltage is only created by a changing magnetic flux, which corresponds to a
varying magnetic field, which in turn corresponds to a varying current through the inductor. If
the current through the inductor is constant, there is no induced voltage caused by the
inductor.
For an inductor containing N coils, Faradays Law of Inductance becomes
where L represents a proportionality constant referred to as the inductance of the inductor

and I represents the current through the inductor.
The negative sign seen in Faradays Law implies that the voltage/current induced by the
inductor opposes the inductors source voltage/current.
69
RLC Circuit:
An RLC circuit is a circuit that contains a
resistor, a capacitor and an inductor, along
with a source. The natural response of this
type of circuit is the expected response or
behavior of the circuit given either an initial
current through the inductor or an initial
voltage across the capacitor. The natural
response can be understood by a discussion
of the components in the circuit and the
equation that governs their properties.
Figure 2: RLC Circuit
Note that for a capacitor in a simple circuit, the current through the circuit decays
exponentially with time, as previously discussed. This can be seen by the following
equation:
As the time increases, the current through the circuit approaches a constant value of zero.
Thus, at some later time, the circuit is in equilibrium with no current flow. Also note that an
inductor relies upon a change in current, which in turn causes a change in magnetic flux
through the coils of the inductor and an induced voltage/current. Therefore, the expected or
natural response of the circuit would be the state of equilibrium the circuit will reach over
time. Keep this in mind as the RLC circuit is discussed.
To further understand the RLC circuit, Kirchhoffs Voltage Law is applied to the RLC circuit
shown in Figure 2. This yields the second order differential equation as shown below
Note: in the following derivation lower case v and a lower case i denote a time varying
voltage and a time varying current, respectively.
The general form of the second order differential equation is shown below
70
A comparison of these equations shows that, the damping coefficient () and the natural
frequency (o) correspond to the below values
The previously discussed differential equation has a corresponding characteristic equation:
where the roots or solutions to this equation are (using the quadratic formula)
The solutions to the characteristic equation, s1 and s2, are referred to as natural frequencies
because they determine the natural response of the circuit. The natural response can occur
in three ways. The form the natural response takes is determined by the ratio of the
damping coefficient () and the underdamped natural frequency (o). This ratio is called
the damping ratio ().
These three forms are summarized and plotted below
Frequency
Time
Also note the following relationships:

Underdamped:
s1 and s2 are unequal complex values
Critically Damped: s1 = s2 = -
Overdamped:
s1 and s2 are unequal real values
Figure 3: Damping
71
Note that for a circuit to have a natural response such that critical dampening occurs, the
following relationship is necessary
Comparing the case of critical damping to the underdamped and overdamped forms, it can
be seen that the circuit reaches equilibrium in the shortest possible time without
oscillations.
Overdamping is similar to that of critically damping, although the time required to reach
steady-state conditions requires a longer time.
Lastly, in the case of underdamping, an initial overshoot above or below the equilibrium
state occurs with further oscillations known as ringing before reaching steady state
conditions. Note that a maximum time is required to reach steady state conditions.
Band-pass and Band-stop Filters:
Band-pass and band-stop filters are similar
to the high-pass and low-pass filters
introduced in the previous lab. These new
types of filters are created using an RLC
circuit and have some interesting
characteristics. For these filters, a set range
or band of frequencies are transmitted or
blocked from a section of the network.
In the case of a band-pass filter, any
frequenciy within the band will be allowed to
pass through the circuit, while all frequencies
outside of the band will not.
Figure 4: Band-Pass Bode Plot
In contrast, the band-stop filter does not allow

frequencies that are in the band to pass, while all
Figure 5: Band-Pass Circuit
frequencies outside the given range are allowed
pass to through the circuit. See Figures 4 through
7 for typical circuits that form a band-pass and band-stop filter, along with their
corresponding bode plots.
72
Figure7: Band-Stop
Circuit
Figure 6: Band-Stop/Rejection
Bode Plot
In order to understand band-pass and band-stop
filters, it is necessary to understand RLC circuits
first. RLC circuits are typically analyzed by looking
at their resonant frequency () and either their
attenuation () or damping factor (). The resonant
frequency, attenuation, and damping factor within
an RLC circuit directly relate to its quality factor (Q).
This quality factor is important because it
determines the effectiveness of band-pass and bandstop filters. To solve for the resonance frequency,
use the following:
Figure 8
Attenuation is simply equal to:
Finally, the damping factor is equal

to:
Figure 9: Plot for Band Stop/ Rejection Filter

73
Band-pass filters are used to tune to a specific frequency and reject all others. These filters
are used in standard AM/FM radios, in addition to their many other applications, making
them capable of picking up a single station instead of all of them at once. They do this by
using resonance in order to amplify a specific frequency while attenuating the surrounding
frequencies.
The attenuation or damping factor is chosen such that it allows for the appropriate
bandwidth to be received. Conversely, a band-stop filter attenuates a specific frequency
rather than amplifying it. Instead, the surrounding frequencies are all received. Though
band-pass filters and band-stop filters have opposite purposes, the only difference is the
order in which the RLC circuit is built. For band-pass filters, the inductor and capacitor
come right after the voltage source, with the resistor at the end, while in band-stop filters,
the resistor comes first with the inductor and capacitor following in series.
As has already been stated, the effectiveness of a band pass or band rejection filter is
determined by its quality factor. This factor describes the rate of energy loss in an oscillator.
For the purposes of a band pass filter, the higher the Q the better. For example, a high
quality factor band pass filter (Q >20) can allow a specific frequency to be received without
other nearby frequencies leaking through. A low Q band pass filter has a larger bandwidth,
and thus will allow unwanted frequencies to pass. This occurs in radios when two or more
stations can be heard at once. Quality factor (Q) can be calculated as follows:
( ) ( )
74

CIRCUIT 1
Figure 10
1. Set the function generator to 15Vpk-pk square wave at 1 KHz.
2. Measure the values of the capacitor and inductor, as well as their internal
resistances.
3. Find the critical value of resistance using the equation
4.
5.
6.
7.
, and set the
potentiometer to the difference between RTotal and the sum of the internal
resistances. Notice the type of graph displayed on the O-scope for a critically
damped circuit.
Vary the 5K potentiometer from 0-5K. Notice changes in the system response
on the oscilloscope. What happens to pk-pk values as the potentiometer value
increases?
Disconnect the potentiometer wires and change its resistive value to 260. This
is the graph for an under-damped case. Do the same for an over-damped case. Set
the potentiometer to 4.9K.
1
Determine the natural frequency given by f 0
2 LC
Determine the damping parameters (,
for the two cases in Step 5.
75
CIRCUIT 2
Figure 11
1. Set the function generator to 15Vpk-pk sine wave, starting out at a frequency of
either 10 Hz or 20 Hz depending on the stability of the signal.
2. Set the resistor to 260 for the under-damped case and set up the circuit
depicted in Figure 11.
3. Vary the frequency from 10 Hz to 70 kHz with a size step of 1-4-7 and record the
corresponding voltages from the oscilloscope. From the range of 4000 Hz to 9000
Hz, take the frequency intervals at 250 hertz.
4. Graph a bode plot of voltage vs. frequency. Use logarithmic scale for frequency on
the x-axis.
5. What kind of filter is it? From the graph determine the peak frequency.
CIRCUIT 3
Figure 12
1. Redo the procedure for the over-damped case by first setting the resistor to 4900 and
setting up the circuit depicted in Figure 12.
76
2. Place the O-scope probe across the capacitor. Vary the frequency from 10 Hz to 70 kHz
with a size step of 1-4-7 and record the corresponding voltage from the oscilloscope.
3. Graph a bode plot of voltage vs. frequency. Use logarithmic scale for frequency on the xaxis.
4. From the graph determine the cutoff frequency by finding the frequency at which
Vout= VS.
5. Calculate
the
cutoff
frequency
by
using
fc
Rt RResistor Rinternal Rinductor Rcapacitor . Assume Rinternal 50 .
1
2
where RC .
Assume
CIRCUIT 4
Figure 13
1. Set up the circuit in Figure 13.
2. Measure the exact capacitance of the capacitor, the inductance of the inductor, and the
resistance of the resistor for later use. Also, be sure to know the resistance values of the
capacitor, inductor, and the function generator.
3. Place the O-scope probe across the 10 resistor. Starting with 10 Hz, increase the
frequency to 70 kHz with a 1-4-7 pattern.
5. From your plot, what kind of filter is this?
6. From the graph estimate the resonance frequency ( wo , in rad/sec), the frequency at the
peak voltage.
7. Now, calculate the actual resonance frequency and compare this value to your
experimental value. Find the percentage error.
8. Find the filters high and low cutoff frequencies. Note that these equations are in terms
of rad/sec, not hertz! Note: R = RTotal.
Rtotal RRe sistor RInductor RCapacitor RInternal
77
9. From the graph, what are the corresponding voltage values at the high and low cutoff
frequencies?
CIRCUIT 5
Figure 14
1. Setup the circuit in Figure 14.
2. Place the O-scope probe across the inductor and capacitor. Starting with 10 Hz, increase
the frequency to 70 kHz with a 1-4-7 pattern.
4. From your plot, what kind of filter is this?
5. Estimate the resonance frequency ( wo ), the frequency at the peak voltage.
6. Now, calculate the actual resonance frequency and compare this value to your
experimental value. Find the percentage error.
7. Find the filters high and low cutoff frequencies. Recall that these equations are in terms
of rad/sec!
78

8. From the graph, what are the corresponding voltage values at the high and low cutoff
frequencies?
Appendix Questions
1. Now that you have determined the cutoff frequencies for the two filters in Part 4 and
Part 5, are they the same or different? What type of filters are they?
2. What are the bandwidths of these filters in Part 4 and Part 5? Show your
calculations.
3. Determine the quality factor, Q, for the filters in Part 4 and Part 5. Note: ALL values
in the equations given for Q are in rad/sec, NOT hertz. Thus, w0 and BW are both in
rad/sec.
79
10
Lab
Operational Amplifier
Introduction
n this laboratory we will learn how an operational amplifier works and how to set it up for
various purposes. We will learn that the open loop gain goes to infinity, and learn how to
find the closed-loop gain and the output voltage of an op-amp circuit. We will then discuss
the inverting operational amplifier and compare the input and output waveforms. It is
important to study how the output of an op-amp circuit changes with different input voltages
and feedback resistances. For the third part of the laboratory, we will study the relationship
between the input and output waveforms when there is a capacitor in the feedback path of the
op-amp circuit.
Figure 1: Operation Amplifier Schematic (Source: http://www.standrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/datasheets/Opamps/741.html)

In this laboratory we study the definition and behavior of an operational amplifier,
traditionally known as an op-amp. The operational amplifier is a high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier. The op-amp studied in this laboratory has two differential inputs and a
80
single output. The output of the op-amp is controlled by negative feedback or positive
feedback. The negative feedback determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, while
the positive feedback allows for gain and oscillation.
The op-amp amplifies the difference in voltage between its two input signals. If there is no
feedback signal coming back to either input, the amplifier is said to be running in an open
loop; its output is the differential input voltage multiplied by the total gain of the amplifier.
This is shown by the equation
Since it is an open loop configuration and A (the open-loop gain) tends to infinity, the
equation results in
This means:
If they are not the same, the output wave in the oscilloscope goes to infinity. Clipping occurs
based on the supply voltage level.
A closed loop op-amp circuit is a control system with an active feedback loop, as shown in
Figure 2.
I2
R2
V-
R1
I1
I3
Figure 2: Op-amp circuit with feedback loop

The formula of A for a non- inverting operational amplifier is derived by:
81
I2 =
I1 =
A=
It is important to remember that for an inverting operational amplifier, the polarity of an

input signal is reversed at the output pin.
By placing another probe across the input source, we should observe a second wave that
should be the opposite of the one at the output.
An amplifier is a device that increases or decreases the amplitude of the signal. The signal in
this lab is voltage. The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier is usually
expressed as a function of the input frequency. The ratio of output to input is called the
transfer function, and the magnitude of the transfer function is termed the gain.
Figure 3: Ideal 741 OP Amp (Source:

http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonsHTML/Miscellaneous/Pinout741.html)
82

CIRCUIT 1
Set up the inverting amplifier circuit with Open Loop Gain:
Figure 4: Open loop gain op-amp circuit

1. Sketch the output curve versus time.
What is the max output voltage recoded?
V = _____________
2. What can you conclude from this max value and why does it occur?
What is the gain (A) for this circuit?
A = _____________
3. Now change each battery voltage from 15V to 20V and note the difference in peakpeak amplitude. What is the new amplitude?
83
CIRCUIT 2
Set up the inverting amplifier circuit with a Closed Loop Gain:
Figure 5: Closed loop gain op-amp circuit

1. Why is it called an inverting operational amplifier?
2. Change each battery voltage from 15V to 20V and increase the input voltage from
the function generator, first to 2V, 3V, and then 4V. Comment on the difference in
output. Record the output for each input and supply voltage combination.
3. Change battery voltage and input voltage back to the original values.
4. Replace the 100K resistor with a 270K resistor. What is the gain? What was the
original gain with the 100K?
A=______________
5. Take a second probe, activate a second channel on the O-scope and place it across
the input source as shown in Figure 6.
6. Press the measure button on the O-Scope and scroll through and select the option
for phase angles. Choose the phase angles between Channel 1 and Channel 2 to
visualize the difference in phase angles between the Input and the Output Sine wave.
What happens? Does the value make sense?
84
Figure 6. Closed loop gain op-amp with 2nd probe

CIRCUIT 3
Set up the integrating amplifier circuit:
Figure 7
1. Change the Sine wave to a Square wave. What happens?
2. Sketch the output waveform in each case (sine and square input).
85
3. Take a second probe, activate a second channel on the O-scope and place it across
the input source.
4. Press the measure button on the O-Scope, scroll through, and select the option for
phase angles. Choose the phase angles between Channel 1 and Channel 2 to
visualize the difference in phase angles between the Input and the Output Sine wave.
What happens? Again, does the value make sense? Why?
Lab Question:
1. When the two nodes of the capacitor are touching your fingers, the output voltage
changes and there is a shift in the waveform. Why?
86
Appendix
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
Figure 1: Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Digital Multimeters (DMMs) are devices used to measure voltage, current, and
resistance in electrical circuits. The Agilent DMM to be used in lab measures the
following range of parameters:
Voltage Millivolts (mV), Volts (V)
Current Milliamperes (mA)
87
Resistance Ohms (), Kilo-Ohms (k)

DMM Layout
Figure 2: Front panel of Agilent U3401A DMM used in the laboratory

(1) LCD Digital Display
(2) Function Switches toggle between measurement parameters.
(3) mA Input Connector is a fuse-protected test lead connector used for current
measurements less 500mA
(4) COMMON Input Connector This is the test lead connector used as the low
or common input for all measurements. It is associated with black lead.
88
(5) V/ Input Connector This is the test lead connector used for all voltage,
resistance, continuity and conductance measurements. This is associated with the
red lead.
(6) 10A Input Connector This is used for the 10A Range current function.
(7) Power Switch. IN is ON
Voltage Measurements - The DMM as a Voltmeter

Voltage is measured ACROSS a given element by placing the meter in PARALLEL
with the element. The positive (red) lead is connected to the assumed positive
reference and the negative (black) lead to the assumed negative reference. With this
connection the meter will read positive if the assumed polarities (i.e. the +
directions) are correct. See Figure 3 for instructions.
89
Figure 3: Voltage measurement using the DMM
90
Current Measurements - The DMM as an Ammeter

Current THROUGH an element is measured by placing the meter in SERIES with
the element. This may require the circuit connection to be broken (open-circuited) and
the meter placed in the circuit. Power should be OFF when disconnecting any
element. The meter will read positive when conventional current is flowing into the
positive (red) lead. See Figure 4 for instructions.
Figure 4: Current measurement using the DMM
91
Resistance Measurements - The DMM as an Ohmmeter

The resistance of a resistor can be measured using the DMM. The resistor is
connected between the positive voltage lead and the common lead. When the k
mode is selected, the resulting display is a measure of the resistance. See Figure 5 for
instructions.
Figure 5: Measuring resistance using the DMM
92
Appendix
Power Source
DC Power Supply
The power supply provides a constant direct current (DC) to power the circuit. Lab
experiments will utilize a maximum of 40 volts (40V), achieved by connecting two
outputs in series.
Figure 1: DC Power Supply (battery source)
93
In Figure 1, the switch circled in green is the Power Switch, used to turn on and off
the power supply. The gauge directly above it indicates the voltage of each output.
There are a total of three outputs from this power supply: one variable, 6V output
(circled in yellow), one +20V variable output and one -20V variable output (circled in
blue).
The knobs circled in red are used to adjust the three variable outputs, with the gauge
displaying the corresponding output voltage. The remaining buttons toggle between
the outputs.
Note: Use the Digital Multimeter (DMM) to verify the voltage of each output as
needed.
94
Appendix
Simpson Meter
How to Operate
The Simpson Meter is used to

measure resistance, voltage, and
current. The meter is divided into
two main sections: the bottom
section and the top section.
Within the bottom, there are two
knobs for selecting type of
current along with what the
device will be measuring. For the
top section, which includes the
screen, different ranges are shown
for each type of measuring given.
For any other issues or questions
related to the Simpson Meter and
its operations, please refer to the
Operating Manual for the 260-8P,
which can be found at Simpsons
website SimpsonElectric.com.
Figure 1: Simpson Meter
95
Bottom Section
On the left of the bottom section is a knob, called the function switch, to select whether
the circuit being measured is in DC (positive or negative depending on the way a circuit is
connected), AC, or a position for turning the device off, since it runs on battery power.
The large knob in the center of the bottom section is to select what the Simpson Meter will
be measuring, similar to the more familiar Digital Multi-Meter, or DMM.
Figure 2. Bottom view of the Simpson Meter

Black Plug
Red Plug
In order to actually take any measurements, two

holes, located on the bottom left of the bottom
section, are for the black and red plugs, as seen in
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Plugs for Simpson Meter
96
Top Section
The top section of the meter in the analog screen for the readings the meter is taking. As
shown in Figure 4, there is a red needle that points to 4 different arcs: 2 black, 1 green, and
1 red.
Figure 4. Scaled ranges of measurement
97
Resistance Measurements
To measure resistance, turn the main range knob,

located in the center of the bottom section, to the
desired range in Ohms: R x 1, R x 100, or R x
10,000. Use the top black arc for resistance
measurements.
R x 1: 0 200 Ohms
R x 100: 200 20,000 Ohms
R x 10,000: 20,000 and above
Direct Current Measurements
DC Voltage Measurements
To measure current, turn the main range knob to

the appropriate range for current: 1mA, 10mA,
100mA, or 500mA. Use the top black arc and
the numbers in the three ranges below for
current readings.
To measure voltage, turn the main range knob to

the appropriate range for current: 2.5V, 10V, 25V,
50V, or 250V. Whenever measuring, always select
a voltage range higher than expected. If the
voltage is lower than that range, then it is safe to
scale down.
If the voltage is around 50V, use the top black
arc, looking at the values right underneath which
run from 0-250V.
AC Voltage Measurements
Decibel
Turn the function switch to AC and the main

knob to the desired current range.
Use the bottom black arc to read decibels.
98

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EMBRY-RIDDLE AERONAUTICAL UNIVERSITY

Department of Electrical, Computer, Software & Systems Engineering

EMBRY-RIDDLE AERONAUTICAL UNIVERSITY

EE336 Lab Manual

EE 336 Laboratory Policies

Responsibilities of Graduate Teaching Assistants (GTAs)

Lab Report Formats

Memo Lab Report

EE 336 Lab Report # xx

Title of the Lab

Performed on January 23, 2009

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University

I. Abstract (not in memo format)

III. Lab Description and Procedure (not in memo format)

VII. Statement (optional)

first digit of resistance

The designations for different color bands are given in the

An electrical circuit is a combination of electrical

Now focus on the simple circuit as shown in Figure 6. This

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL):

energy must be conserved

for resistors in series

for resistors in parallel

Potential Rise and Potential Drop (Potential Difference)

Experiment and Procedure

Measure I1, I2, I3, I4.

Verify KCL at node D using measured current values.

Linear and Non-Linear Devices

Background and Theory

This linear relationship between the applied voltage and

An LED or light-emitting diode is also a non-linear device.

Figure 2: Light Emitting Diode

The non-linear device is now placed in series with a linear

Example 1: Load Line Analysis

Load Line Analysis

Voltage(non-linear device) (V)

Example Graph 1: Load Line Analysis

Using the boundary conditions of

Experiment and Procedure

Figure 7: Load line analysis circuit

Figure 8: Load line analysis circuit.

Figure 10: Load line analysis circuit

Figure 11: Load line analysis circuit

Linearity, Proportionality, and

Theory and Background

Figure 1. Linear Relationship

Speed of Sound and Temperature Relation

Speed of Sound (m/s)

Figure 2. Speed of Sound vs. Temperature

Figure 3. Equation of a Line

Example 4: Voltage Source and Current Source

Applying the Principle of Superposition to the

Experiment and Procedure

FIGURE 10. PROPORTIO NALITY AND LINEARITY

FIGURE 11. SUPERPOSITION

5. Measure I2 through the 6.2K resistor.

Figure 1: Resistivity of Common Materials

Figure 2: Simpson Meter

The measurement is taken by placing the meter in

Experiment and Procedures

Thevenin Equivalence and

Theory and Background

Returning to the basic equation for voltage, it can be rewritten as

Thevenin Equivalence Derivation: