Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society

Visual Dynamics
Author(s): Rudolf Arnheim
Source: American Scientist, Vol. 76, No. 6 (November-December 1988), pp. 585-591
Published by: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society
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Visual

Dynamics
RudolfArnheim

in the
has been themost important development
tangible about the physical forces operating out there.
And yet it takes only a bit of sensitive attention to
arts
twentieth
of
the
the
psychology
century? My
during
own answer would have to be the insight that theworld
notice that our visual observation of the animal is also a
of sensory experience ismade up primarily not of things
beyond the obser
thoroughly dynamic event?dynamic
can be all but
vation of mere locomotion. Locomotion
but of dynamic forces. This realization has had to oppose
a dancer about the difference
a
a
on
commonsense
Ask
devoid
of
view
tradition
based
the
that
dynamics.
long
and push
between just extending an arm mechanically
basic difference exists between the objects populating our
or
it
with
Even
caution.
forward
world and the forces setting them inmotion, forces that
ing
groping
aggressively
with eyes closed, the dancer feels the difference in her
either are located in an object itself or push and pull it
same differ
limb. But?and
here comes themiracle?the
from the outside. In the nineteenth century, as Leopold
ence is perceived at a distance through their eyes by the
Infeld explains in his book on Albert Einstein (Infeld
members of the audience. The shapes of the body on the
1950), physicists believed in two laws of conservation, of
mass and of energy. Energy, such as
_ stage are carriers of dynamic forces,
and only because
heat, occupies and drives things, for
they are do they
was
transmit
artistic
it
but
believed
to
The
expression.
engines,
example
expression
key
to possess neither weight nor mass
The forces inherent in visual per
art
in
visual
a
itself.
Einstein
this
distinc
ception are not without
physical
rejected
by
own. This basis, how
basis
of
their
tion. Energy, he taught us, is not
is the rendering
ever, is not situated in the objects
immaterial, and objects are bundles
nervous system
of energy.
perceived but in the
of the perceiver. Physiologists have
I have become convinced
that
about how
told us much
this changed conception of the phys
single
are generated in
and
colors
to
ical world
the
shapes
applies
equally
the retina and the cortical centers of the brain, but we
world of the mind, the world presented to us by our
and
senses. A change of emphasis
know next to nothing about the organizational
transforms the massive
life
of
visual
the
substance of familiar objects into configurations of almost
experi
dynamic processes constituting
ence. Even so, these processes must have physiological
dematerialized action. This change amounts not only to a
equivalents of their own, and my personal supposition is
fundamentally different way of experiencing the world
that the dynamics perceived in visual objects reflects the
around us; it also makes
for a decisive advance in our
arts.
is
the
the
of
Perceptual dynamics
understanding
very basis of expression, expression is themanifestation
of life, and life iswhat art is all about.
One of our sensory modalities makes iteasy forus to
experience the dynamics of objects or bodies because it
offers an immediate perception of the physical forces that
activate them. Kinesthesis, with its receptors located in
the muscles,
tendons, and joints, informs us about the
directed tensions working in our bodies and thereby also
about the forces operating in things with which we come
in touch. Think of playing with a kitten. Not only is the
commotion in your own body alive in your conscious
ness, but almost equally so is that of the small animal,
Figure 1. The most important development
during the twentieth
experienced as a bundle of energy.
century in the psychological
study of artistic expression has been
this
with
that
of
just watching
Compare
experience
the realization
that sensory experience
endows
stationary objects
see it moving,
the play of the kitten. We
jumping,
on observers
with dynamic force. The different impressions made
pushing, but now the physical forces generating the
two
for
the
features
of
the
faces
shown
here,
simplified
by
action are not available to us. This is so because vision
the face
face on the left seemed aged, sad, and mean,
example?the
is a sense that reaches across space. It reports about
on the right
serene?are
of
and
the
result
perceived
youthful
the muscular
contractions and expansions
pattern of
representing
shape and color by means of the light reflected from the
the human face. (After Galli
surface of an object, but it supplies us with nothing
1964.)

What

ofdynamicforces
infixed images

1988

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November-December

585

directed

forces brought

about when

stimuligeneratedby theoptical input

interactwith the forces thatmake up

the corresponding cortical field.
While
this is mere hypothesis,
there can be no question about the
ubiquity of dynamics in visual expe
rience. But there is no easy way to
measure and quantify these phenom
ena, and this is the reason that they
have not been given their due place
in the experimental literature. A sim
ple example from studies of visual
expression will illustrate the present
state of affairs. Figure 1 is taken from

a monograph by Galli (1964),which

91

and
psychologist
Figure 2. The German
the
aesthetician Theodor
Lipps pioneered
of expression.
Lipps's
study of the dynamics
is the classical column,
prime example
in
rises from the ground and expands
which
to the weight of the lintel, the
response
on top of it. The
horizontal member
shown in the picture on the left are
columns
at the ancient Roman
seaport of Leptis
in modern
Libya. Curves and
Magna,

impose flexibility
straight lines respectively
of
and rigidity on the visual appearance
A striking example of this
building material.
is the seventeenth-century
phenomenon
in
church of San Carlo aile Quattro Fontane
a
Rome
facade displays
(below), whose
combination

586

American

Scientist,

Volume

of the two effects.

76

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refers back to a well-known early investigation by Bruns

wik and Reiter (1937). In both cases experimenters asked,
as many would ask
today, what kind of facial expression
was created
variables of length and
by the measurable
distance in the features of the simplified faces.
Subjects
reported, for example, that the face on the left looked
the face on the right
aged, sad, and mean, whereas
looked youthful and serene.
however, what makes these faces look
Obviously,
the way they do is not the measurable
geometry of the
features but the dynamic
tension deriving from it,
namely the contraction and expansion and the stretching
of lines and proportions. Only the
dynamics explains the
expression, but no reference ismade to it in the pertinent
literature.
When visual dynamics has been
it
acknowledged,
has been explained, for the reason given above, as a loan
from kinesthesis. Significantly, itwas a clinical
psychol
ogist, Hermann Rorschach
(1921), who for the interpre
tation of his inkblot test needed to
distinguish between
two kinds of observers: those who while
looking, for
example, at a picture of a bird in flightmerely know that
the bird is flying and those who
vividly sense the dynamic
tension animating the wings. In keeping with the psy
chological conceptions of his time, Rorschach asserted
that the perceptual experience becomes
dynamic when a
kinesthetic resonance in the body of the viewer is added
to the information
gathered by the eyes.
The principle Rorschach used to explain this aspect
of the inkblot test is known as empathy. Itwas intro
duced by the influential psychologist, philosopher, and
aesthetician Theodor Lipps, who maintained
that visual
a
is
when
viewer
enriches
itby a
perception
dynamized
kinesthetic response generated within his own body.
What
this theory overlooked was the phenomenon
to
which this article is dedicated, namely the fact that visual
experience itself is thoroughly dynamic and that itawak
ens an
equally dynamic response in the body of the
viewer only because
it is dynamic.
Remarkably enough, itwas Theodor Lipps himself
who, guided by his personal sensitivity, which we may
call an artistic intuition, moved beyond his own
theory of
empathy and the psychological axioms of his generation.
The first section of Lipps's
on the aesthetics
monograph
of space and geometric-optical
in
illusions, published
1897, is in my opinion the most important statement
available to us on the subject of visual dynamics?a
piece
of pioneering entirely unappreciated
by psychologists up
to this day.
For a century, psychologists have accumulated an
enormous body of data on the
perception of shape, color,
movement, and so forth, but, as I showed by the exam
ple of Figure 1,with very few exceptions they have dealt
with the inventory of the visual world as
essentially static
objects defined by their size, shape, location, and loco
motion and related to other objects
by all sorts of con
nections. Thus although I said at the
beginning that I
consider the dynamics of perception themost important
acquisition in the field of the psychology of the arts, I
have to confess now that this progress has come about
essentially behind the back of the profession. A notable
exception to this general situation is Heinz Werner's
discussion
as distin
of "physiognomic
perception"
what
from
he
calls
guished
"geometrical-technical mat

from
Figure 3. As shown in this Greek relief of a dancing maenad
the late fifth century B.c., visual
form can transform marble
into
mobile
fabric. The opposite
insubstantial materials
effect?making
look solid?is

also possible.

ter-of-fact" qualities (Werner 1948) and the experiments

in which he and his collaborators showed that "some
perceptual objects express a vectorial quality definable in
terms of direction and force" (Werner and
1954;
Wapner
Kaden et al. 1955; Comalli et al. 1957).
Itwas not by coincidence that the first theoretical
acknowledgment of visual dynamics came from a scholar
whose psychological
interest was directed toward the
arts, for although the phenomenon
pervades perception
in general, it is particularly evident to persons whose
minds are geared to the expressive qualities of what the
eyes see; and these qualities are apprehended,
empha
in works of visual art. Lipps's
sized, and sharpened
prime example is the column of classical architecture
(Fig. 2). The column, he says, rises by an inherent visual
the physical force of gravity, which
force, opposing
draws the marble downward.
In its horizontal section
the column displays a tension between an expansion of
its girth and a counteracting constriction. These inherent
forces are not transmitted by the column as such but by
the spatial dimensions of its lines, planes, and volumes.
In other words, the carrier of visual
dynamics is the
perceived form, not thematerial ofwhich an art object is
1988

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587

4. Unlike
the flowing lines of the sculpture in Figure 3, strict
elements
such as the pyramid convey a pure but rigid
geometrical
visual experience.
This Mayan
of
pyramid on the Yucatan Peninsula
Mexico
demonstrates
the dynamics
of sharp pointedness
and
Figure

rise. Each

upward

edge

is straight and unchanging.

made. Form determines the experience to such an extent

that it overrules a viewer's knowledge
of the physical
medium. What
looks hard and heavy can be made of
flimsy Styrofoam, or, more often, what looks soft and
flexible may be made of stone. Lipps refers to architec
ture in this connection. An obvious example would be
certain baroque
such as Borromini's small
buildings,
church of San Carlo aile Quattro Fontane (Fig. 2), whose
facade softens the stone within the horizontal planes into
forward- and inward-swinging
shapes; at the same
sufficient straightness in the
time, the facade maintains
verticals to avoid a sense of flabby pliability, which

would sabotage the solidity of the building. Similarly, in

a Greek relief of a
dancing maenad
(Fig. 3), the curving
folds of the garment impose a gracefully undulating
motion upon the grainy texture of themarble.
Lipps also makes enlightening observations about
the expression of geometrical shapes. On the one hand,
the pure geometry of, say, a stone pyramid (Fig. 4)
displays the dynamics of sharp pointedness and upward
rise with the greatest clarity because each direction of
edge or plane is straight and unmitigated. On the other
hand, however, the obstinate uniformity of such shapes
makes
them internally rigid. The absence of change
within each element excludes new dynamic impulses. A
straight edge, once straight, remains straight throughout
its course. A circle maintains
its rate of curvature. The
effect can be illustrated by modifications made
in J?rn
Utzon's design for the Sydney opera house (Fig. 5). The
profile of the shells, resembling sails, was conceived by
the architect as reducible to parabolic curves, because a
parabola changes the rate of its curvature at every point
and therefore is dynamized by an internal crescendo.
This same change of curvature, however, would have
required the builder to provide a different form for
casting each section of the concrete shells. For economy's
sake, the paraboloidal surfaces were changed to spherical
ones, which allowed a single form to be used for the
casting throughout but also lessened the bold swing of
the shells intended by the architect.
The principal contribution of the fundamental geo
metrical shapes to visual dynamics becomes
evident
when one remembers that dynamics is created typically
by a deviation from a base. For example, in a photograph
by Robert Sowers (Fig. 6) the tension conveyed by the
leaning position of the sleeping man and the diagonal of
the railing ismade explicit by the door, the steps, and the
wall, supplying the horizontal and vertical framework,
the zero level fromwhich the obliquely oriented shapes
deviate.

Figure 5. The
and elements

difference

between unchanging
elements
geometrical
subject to change is illustrated by these pictures of the
to
Sydney opera house as originally designed
(top) and as modified
simplify the casting of the sail-like concrete shells (bottom). The
curvature
intended profiles are parabolic
curves, whose
changes at
each point; the final version uses unchanging
circular curves, with
the consequence
that the visual expression
of the roofline loses
some of its impetus.

(From The Other

Taj Mahal,

Yeomans.)

588

American

Scientist,

Volume

by John

that departures
from the
Lipps warns, however,
basic framework will lead to an effective result only when
they avoid arbitrariness. In all its complex detail, the
an inner consistency,
liberated pattern must possess
which Lipps calls its "natural flow." Thus when Matisse
cuts out the abstraction of a dancer with his scissors
there can be such a thing?
(Fig. 7), a fluid spine?if
pervades the entire figure, moving smoothly into all the
branches and integrating the whole to embody an indi
vidual logic all its own.
So far, I have talked about dynamics only as an
attribute of visual perception, and I have noted that
although it is an essential quality of sensory expression,
it has escaped
the attention of psychologists
almost
entirely. In another part of the field, not unrelated to the
arts, psychologists are quite familiar with the dynamics
of human behavior, namely in the theory ofmotivation.
Ifwe think of themind as operating on the infrastructure
of a homeostatic equilibrium, we can say that any stim
ulation from the outside or inside of an organism will
upset the balance of that basic state and lead directly to a
countermove. The upset motivates action.
Sigmund Freud (1920), in particular, formulated this
idea with great clarity in Beyond thePleasure Principle: "In
the theory of psycho-analysis we have no hesitation in
assurning that the course taken by mental events is

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Figure
oblique

6. As

in this photograph
of the sleeping man

shown

positions

is generated by deviations
from verticality
by Robert Sowers, visual dynamics
tension.
and the railing endow their immobile shapes with visual

automatically regulated by the pleasure principle. We

believe, that is to say, that the course of those events is
tension,
invariably set in motion by an unpleasurable
and that it takes a direction such that its final outcome
coincides with a lowering of that tension?that
is, with
an avoidance of
unpleasure or a production of pleasure"
(Standard Edition, vol. 18, p. 7). Freud had a preference
for immobility, or even death, as the final goal of the
organism's aspirations. We may want to compensate for
this one-sidedness
by observing that the stimulation
brought about by change, challenge, and adventure is as
desirable to the mind as the reestablishment of equilib
rium. In thismore comprehensive
formwe find Freud's
principle useful in accounting forwhat incites human
beings to respond with artmaking to the challenges of life
and to seek out works of art in search of questions and
answers.

The mechanism
ofmotivational dynamics in human
that present hap
behavior is reflected in the art media
in
and dance, and
time?the
cinema,
music,
penings
the
theater
the
prototype of sequential
especially
play,
action. Aristotle, in the Poetics (VII, 3; 1450b), describes
the drama as a whole,
consisting of a beginning, a
middle, and an end. "A beginning," he says, "is that
is not itself necessarily after anything else, and
which
which has naturally something else after it; an end is that

and horizontality.

The

is naturally after something itself, either as its

necessary or usual consequent, and with nothing else
after it; and a middle,
thatwhich is by nature after one
after it" (Aristotle 1940, p. 21).
and
also
another
has
thing
Ifwe translate this uninspiring enumeration of parts into
a configuration of directed
dynamic terms, it says that
face one another in conflict,
forces is set up, which
generating a crescendo of tension. The conflict is acted
out, with each force trying to obtain a reduction of
or
tension in its own way until a general denouement
zero. The
to
all
tension
knot
reduces
of
the
unraveling
commotion has stopped. The protagonist has attained
to the struggle. The drama
his goal or has succumbed
ends as an open system, as the physicists would
say,
when all the energy is dispersed and the action has run

which

out.

While

the temporal arts present

the motivational

Rudolf Arnheim is Professor Emeritus of thePsychology ofArt, Harvard

University. He has also taught at Sarah Lawrence College, theNew School

for Social Research, and theUniversity ofMichigan. He has published

an article in
numerous books and articles on art and
psychology, including
American
Scientist (January-February 1986) on "The Artistry of

Psychotics." Selections from his notebooks, 1959-1986, will be published by

theUniversity of California Press in 1989. Address: 1133 South Seventh
Street, Ann Arbor, Ml 48103.

1988

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November-December

589

forces in their coming and going, a timeless medium

such as painting portrays human life as a closed system
in which all relevant forces are shown together in con
figuration, each in its characteristic direction and appro
priate strength. Timeless
images have the function of
letting our rnind cope with the flight of events which in
our daily lives are consumed by the very moment that
them. To understand
their interaction, we
generated
must be able to set them against one another in a
confrontation. The German
philosopher Karl Philipp
in a curious meditation written in 1787, sug
Moritz,
in an
gested that the events experienced by humans
unrolling sequence exist in the consciousness of God as a
simultaneity. In God, he said, "the entire life of a person
stands eternally in juxtaposition like a painting, inwhich
the
light and shadow mterrningle beautifully, whereas
human being must live through it to comprehend
it"
(Werte, vol. 3, p. 307).
In a painting, then, the forces that make up its
composition are deprived of the motion of events and
their directed tension through immobile but
display
dynamically animated form. To understand visual art in
its own terms as a translation of live action into timeless
images is an intuitive ability given to everybody, even to
children. The difference between action and image was
clarified theoretically by the German dramatist and critic
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1766) in a classic essay on the

Figure
dynamic

7. A great artist like Henri Matisse

knows how to fit the
to the overall flow of the total
impulses of the components

His paper cutout La Danseuse

composition.
that winds
smoothly into all the branches
Robert Motherwell.)

590

American

Scientist,

Volume

a fluid spine
possesses
of the figure. (Courtesy of

confines of painting and poetry. Lessing explained that

painting relies on shapes and colors in space, and liter
ature uses sequences of words in time; so that painting
can represent action
only through the composition of
literature describes objects or situations
shapes whereas
best through scenes of action. But one can also ignore the
fact that images translate action into a medium governed
by different principles. One can force an image into the
dimension
of time and misinterpret
its immobility as
or
as
Keats
did, for poetical
John
paralysis
immortality,
a
on
in
Grecian
his
"Ode
Urn," where lovers
purposes,
never reach their objective and trees are in
foliage for
ever.

One can also overlook the difference between the

media out of pedantry, as happened
historically when
used
who
the
of
theater
painters
plots
plays as subjects
for their pictures were accused by critics of showing
persons and actions together that appeared separately in
sequence on the stage. For an example Iwill rely on an
article by the art historian James Henry Rubin (1977),
in 1802 when the French
which recounts what happened
painter Pierre-Narcisse Gu?rin exhibited a painting de
rived from Jean Racine's
tragedy Ph?dre. The play tells
themythological story of Phaedra, wife of King Theseus,
who falls in love with her stepson Hippolytus
and is
to accuse the son
persuaded by her confidante Oenone
of trying to seduce her. The enraged king has his
innocent son killed, while Phaedra, overcome by her
sense of guilt, takes poison. The death of the two leading
characters releases the tension created by the conflict.
The painter Gu?rin, a classicist follower of Jacques-Louis
shows the principal themes of the plot in their
David,
direct interaction (Fig. 8). Hippolytus
rejects the accusa
to
listens
him
with
his
father
tion;
deep apprehension;
and the queen, in the turmoil of her conflicting impulses,
turns away from the confrontation and is urged by her
confidante to insist on the false accusation.
Gu?rin, whom the poet Charles Baudelaire called an
abstractor of quintessences,
reduces each figure to its
dynamic theme. Hippolytus,
petrified and detached by
some distance from the group, does not
actively engage
in his defense. The verticality of his stance and the right
angle that straightens his gesture of rejection freeze his
response into immobility, whereas the king, closed offby
a
rectangular backwall, is swept away from his son in a
powerful diagonal wave. The queen is caught in this
rebound but is nevertheless kept out of itby her frontal
ity, which ties her to the equally frontal position of
The innocent youth and the gu?ty woman
Hippolytus.
are kept parallel by their detachment from the sweep of
the accusation, while the confidante seeks to increase the
intensity of the attack.
The schematic theatricality of Gu?rin's painting in
terfereswith its lifeas a work of art to the point ofmaking
it look ridiculous, but its very abstractness makes
it
particularly useful as an illustration of the perceptual
principle I have been trying to describe. An episode of
human life is reduced to a configuration of visual forces,
which spells out the conflict diagrammatically. The dia
is not given directly and nakedly. We
gram, however,
it only in the painted figures of the actors,
envisage
because perception does not consist in the simple record
ing of shapes but in the grasping of the structure under
of the objects. This perceptual
lying the appearance

76

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u,i
JBB^ ^winn!
Figure

8. In the painting Ph?dre

a sequence
of events

translating
forces. The
horizontal

. .
p^pn-T,,
*v\
t^fffl^g^^^psPj?fliF^^^^^^^Wi^^^ft?
^BP.ii;;,?. ,|; ^^^^^S?r
etHippolyte

Gu?rin
tells the mythological
(1802), the French artist Pierre-Narcisse
story of Phaedra,
from a theater play by the seventeenth-century
dramatist Jean Racine
into a single configuration of directed
on the right and the vertical and
lines created by the figures of Phaedra
and her husband King Theseus
interplay of the oblique
on the left presents the dramatic conflict in purely visual
terms. (Mus?es Nationaux,
lines of Hippolytus
Paris.)

reduction serves not only to clarify the nature of the

objects and their behavior; it also defines the material
presence of the pictorial scene as a dynamic happening
extracted from the flow of human events.
But there ismore. Any abstraction raises an individ
ual instance to the level of a more general validity, and
the reduction of a percept to its structural skeleton is
an abstraction. This is why any ordinary
already such
perception conveys to a reasonably alert rrtindmore than
the individual instance that gave rise to it?a desirable
an
gain, which is all themore effectively obtained when
artist sharpens the pattern of forces inherent in the form
of his work. He thereby helps us to acquire the kind of
thatmakes us espy a kernel of truthbeneath the
wisdom
surface of our images.

References
Aristotle.
Press.

1940. Aristotle's Art of Poetry,

trans. W.

H.

Fyfe. Clarendon

schematisierter
Brunswik, E., and L. Reiter. 1937. Eindruckscharaktere
Gesichter.
Zeitschrift ?r Psychologie 142:67-134.
and S. Wapner.
in phy
1957. Studies
Comalli,
P.E., Jr.,H. Werner,
III. Effect of directional dynamics and mean
siognomic perception:
sets on autokinetic motions.
/. Psych. 43:289-99.
ing-induced

In The Standard Edition of the

S. 1920. Jenseits des Lustprinzips.
trans. J.
Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 18,
1955.
Press and Inst. of Psycho-Analysis,
Strachey, Hogarth
Istituto di
Galli, G. 1964. Sulle qualit? formali dell'area fisionomica. Bologna:
Freud,

dell'Universit?.
Psicologia
Infeld, L. 1950. Albert Einstein. Scribner's.

and H. Werner.
1955. Studies in physiogno
S. E., S. Wapner,
Kaden,
mic perception:
II. Effect of directional dynamics of pictured objects
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