-.

'lcreasing need for money compelled thc ern

e ta \:cs, to press hard on their subjects. and to
- n by debasing the coinage. These el eme nts
:: o n the desperate crises that ultima teh de

n of the Roman Empire depended on the vi

While the typical city had about 20,000 in
mc had more than 500,000, and some scholars
,.a\ e had more than a million. Newcomers found
he lming and were either thrilled or horrified by
~ . e . and noise.

" of its inhabitants were squeezed into increas

1Il ri p le dwellings. Most Romans during the im

.d lived in apartment buildings called insulae

Lha t rose to five or six stories and sometimes cven

_ .pa rt ments were cramped and uncomfortable, hot
_- co ld in winter, and stuffy and smoky when the
_-;: li t. These buildings were also dangerous. They
built of concrete and brick, far too high for their
. and so they often collapsed. Even more serious

\\'as the threat of fire. The n OOfS \\'ere supported bY \\'ooden

beam~. and the room~ were li t b\' tOrch es. candles. and oil
lamps and heated bY brazier~. Fire~ broke Out ea~ih- but. with
Out running \\'ater. \\'ere not easily PUt our: once ~tafted. the\
usually led to disas ter.
\\'hen \\'e compare these apartmems to the anracri\'e pub
lic places in the city, we can easily und e rstand why the peo
ple of Rome spent most of their time outdoors.

' I'

. ~ i es .

Rise of Christianity
The story of how Christianity emerged, spread, survived, and
ultimately conquered the Roman Empire is one of the most re
markable in history. Its origin among poor people from an
unimportant and remote pnwince of the empire gave little
promise of what was to come. Christianity faced the hostility
of the established religious institutions of its native Judaea and
had to compete not only against the official cults of Rome and
the highly sophisticated philosophies of the educated cl asses,
but also against "mystery" religions like the cults of .\ l ith ra,
Isis, and Osiris. The Christians also faced the opposition of the
imperial government and suffered formal persecuti on, yet
Christianity finally became the official religion of the e m pire.

Chapter 5

$6

Republican and Imperial Rome

157

r co ntained shops, and

:"-,, .ories above it held many
a

aments , IMuseo della Civilta

F'nmana , Rome, Italy/Scala/Art

'e::~ u rc e,

N,y']

Jesus of
,\n attempt to understand this amazing outcome must begin
\\'ith a discussion of Jesus of Nazareth. The most important
e, idence of his life and teachings is in the Gospel accounts.
Th eir authors believed that Jesus was the son of God and
th at he came into the world to redeem humanity and to bring
immortality to those who believed in him and followed his
\\'ay; to the Gospel writers, Jesus' resurrection was striking
proof of his teachings. The Gospels also regard Jesus as a fig
ure in history, and they recount events in his life as well as his
sayIngs.
There is no reason to doubt that Jesus was born in the
pro\'ince ofJudaea in the time of Augustus and that He was
a mos t effective teacher in the tradition of the Jewish
prop he ts. This tradition promised the coming of a Messiah
(in Gree k, christos-so Jesus Christ means "Jesus the Messi
ah " ). the redeemer who would make Israel triumph over
enem ies and establish the kingdom of God on earth. In
-ac . Jesus se e ms to have insisted that the Messiah would
no t e tab lis h an earthly kingdom but, at the Day of Judg
men. woul d br ing an end to the world as human beings
kne\\' it On that day God would reward the righteous and
conde mn {he \\icked , Until that day, which his followers
bel ie\'ed \\'oul d co me soon, Jesus taught the faithful to
abandon sin and \\'orl dl y concerns; to follow the moral code
described in th e ermo n on the Mount, which preached
love, charity, and humility; and to believe in him and his
d ivi ne mission.
Jesus won a considerClble following, especially among the
poor. This success caused great suspicion among the upper
classes and provoked the hostility of the religious establish
ment in Jerusalem. They convinced the Roman governor

158

Empires and Cultures of the Ancient World

that Jesus and his followers might be dangerous revolutio n

aries. He was put to death in Jerusalem by the cruel and de
grading device of crucifixion, probably in 30 C.E. H i
followers believed that he was resurrected on the third da\
after his death, and that belief became a critical element in
their religion.
Although the new belief spread quickly to the Jewish com
munities of Syria and Asia Minor, without the conversion and
career of Saint Paul it might have had only a short life as a d
spised Jewish heresy.

Paul (?5- 67 C.E.) was born Saul, a citizen of the city of 'Tar
sus in Asia Minor. Even though he was trained in Helle ni
tic culture and was a Roman citizen, he was a zealous membe
of the Jewish sect known as the Pharisees, who were t he
strictest adherents of the Jewish law. He took a vigorous par.
in the persecution of the early Christians until his own con
version outside Damascus about 35 c. E. The great probl e rr.
facing the early Christians was their relationship to Judai sm
If the new faith was a version of Judaism, then it must ad
here to the Jewish law and seek converts only among Je \r
James, called the brother of Jesus, held that view, wherea
Hellenist Jews tended to see Christianity as a new and LI n
versal religion_
Paul, converted and with his new name, supported the p
sition of the Hellenists and soon won many converts am on _
the gentiles. Paul believed it important that the followers
Jesus be evangelists ("messengers"), to spread the gos pe
("good news") of God's gracious gift. He taught that Je u
would soon return for the Day of Judgment, and that a
should believe in him and accept his way. Faith in Jesus as [h

was necessary but not sufficient for salvation, nor could

KI deeds alone achieve it. That final blessing of salvation
- a gift of God's grace.
-1S t

e ne,,- religion spread throughout the Roman Empire and

en be yond its borders. It had its greatest success in the
and among the poor and uneducated. The rites of the
-Iy co mmunities appear to have been simple and few. Bap
by ,rater removed original sin and permitted participa
n in the community and its activities. The central ritual
s a co mmon meal called the agape ("love feast"), followed
the ceremony of the eucharist ("thanksgiving"), a celebra
n of the Lord's Supper in which unleavened bread was
[e n and unfermented wine drunk. There were also prayers,
mns.. and readings from the Gospels.
A.t fi rst the churches had little formal organization. Soon,
ap pears, affairs were placed in the hands of boards of pres
'er5 ("'e lders") and deacons ("those who serve"). By the sec
d ce m ury C.E., as their numbers grew, the Christians of
c h city tended to accept the authority and leadership of
ho ps (episkopoi or "overseers"), who were elected by the
ngregation. As time passed, bishops extcnded theif au
rin over the Christian communities in outlying towns and
countryside. The power and almost monarchical author
of the bishops were soon enhanced by the doctrine of
'1()sw lic Succession, which asserted that the powers Jesus

had given his original disciples were passcd on from bishop

to bishop by the rite of ordination.
The bishops kept in touch with one another, maintained
communications between different Christian communities,
and prevented doctrinal and sectarian splintering, which
would have destroyed Chri stian unity. They kept internal
discipline and dealt with the civi l authorities. In time they
began coming together in counc il s [() settle difficult ques
tions, to establish ortho dox opinio n. a nd even to expel as
heretics those who would not accept ir. C hr is tianity could
probably not have survived wit hout such strong internal or
ganization and governmcnt.

Christians
The new faith soon incurred the dis tru st of the pagan " -orl d
and of the imperial government. Th e Ch ristians' refusal [()
worship the emperor was considere d tre ason. The priyaey
and secrecy of Christian life and worshi p ran counter to a tra
ditional Roman dislike of any pri,ate association. e,pecial h
any of a religious nature, and the Christi ans [hu~ earned the
reputation of being "haters of humanity." By (he end of th e
first century "the name alone"-th at is. simple members hip
in the Christian community-was a crime.
Most persecutions during thi s period. howe\-er. '\-ere in
stituted not by the government but by mob... But e\-e n this
adversity had its benefits. It \\ eeded om the weakli ngs among
the Christians, brought greate r un iry 0 [h,~e who rema ined

I llS a~ ,

Cr~&lan

a'i sho,.,s

a""'-cS:=O I}J soldiers on th e

nlgt;: b'Ure ~s cruCifixion. Note
at CnnSl S oortrayed cl ean

O'.en and dressed in the toga of

a Roman aristocrat [Hirmer
KrJlilfchlV,

Chapter 5

Munich ]

Republican and Imperial Rome

159

~Iark

Describes the Resurrection of Jesus

Bdie/ that Jesus rose from the dead after his Crucifixion (about 30
"",as and is central to traditiollal Christian doctrille. The record
ofthe Resurrection in the GmpelojAla,.!.:, written a generatiort later
It -OId 7iJ c./C.), is the earliest ff2ie have. The signijimrtce to most
Christiall groups revolves about the assurance given them that death
alld the grave arc 170t filial and that, instead, salvation for a jittlm:
life is possible. The appeal ofthese z;iew's ff2'as to be nearly universal
III the West during the Middle Ages. Tlie dunh was commonly thought
to be the means of implemeJltlllg the promise ofsalvation; hence the
enormous imp071ance of the chl/ rcl! \- sacramental system, its rules,
and its clergy.
C.F.)

Why are the sto ries of miracles such as the one described here im
portant fo r the growth of Christianity? What is special and important
about th is miracle? Why is it important in the story that days passed
betwee n the death of Jesus and the opening of the tomb? Why might
the early Ch ri stians believe this story? Why was belief in the resurrec
tion impo rtant for Christianity in the centuries immediately after the
life of Jesus? Is it still important today?

An d when evening had comc, since it was the day of

Preparation, that is, thc day before the sabbath, Joseph of
.'uimathea, a respected member of thc council, who was
also himselflooking for thc kingdom of God, took courage
and went to Pilate, and asked for the body of Jesus, And
Pilate wondered if hc were already dead; and summoning

faithful, and provided martyrs who inspired still greater de

votion and dedication.

Emergence of Catholicism
'-l ost Christians held to what even then were traditional, sim
ple, conservative beliefs. This body of majority opinion and
th e church t hat enshrined it came to be called Catholic, which
mea ns " univ ersa1." Its doctrines were deemed orthodox;
those holding contrary opinions were he retics.
The need to combat heretics, however, compelled the or
thodox to for mulate their own views more clearly and firm
ly. By the end of the second century an orthodox canon had
been shaped that in cluded the Old Testament, the Gospels,
and thc Epistles of Paul , amo ng other writings, ' I'he process
was not completed for at least two more centuries, but a vi
tally important start had been made. The orthodox declared
t he church itself to be the depository of Christian teaching
and the bishops to be its receivers. They also drew up creeds,

160

Empires and Cultures of the Ancient World

the centurion, he asked him whether he was already de ad.

And when he learned from the centurion that he was dead.
he granted the body to Joseph. And he bought a lin e n
shroud, and taking him down, wrapped him in the lin e n
shroud, and laid h'i m in a tomb which had been hewn ou[
of the rock; and he rolled a stone against the door of the
tomb. Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus sa I\"
where he was laid.
And when the sabbath was past, Mary Magdalene, and
Mary the mother of James, and Salome, bought spices, so
that they might go and anoint him. And very early on th
first day of thc week they went to the tom b when the sun
had risen. And they were saying to one another, "Who \\'i ll
roll away the stone for us from the door of the tomb?" And
looking up, they saw that the stone was rolled back; for i
was very large. And entering the tomb, they saw a you ng
man sitting on the right side, dressed in a white robe; and
they were amazed, And he said to them, "Do not be
amazed; you seek Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucifi ed.
He has risen, he is not here, see the place where they laid
him. But go, tell his disciples and Peter that he is goi n ~
before you to Galilee; there YOU \\ill see him, as he to ld
you." And they went out and fled from the tomb; for trc m
bling and astonishment had come upon them; and th e ~
said nothing to anyone, for thn were afraid.
From Gospel of Mark 15:42-47; 16: I-H. Rn D'ed Stalldatd Versioll of
Bible (New York: Thomas Nelson an d Suns, 1946, 1952).

brief statements of faith to \\hich true Christians shou ld

here. Tn the first century all that was required of one to _
Christian was to be baptized , to partake of the eucharis r.
to call Jesus the Lord. 8\ the end of the second centu ~
orthodox Christian-that is, a member of the ea rh
church-had to accept its creed, its canon of holy wri [i _
and the authority of the bishops, '1 'he loose structure of
apostolic church had givcn way to an organized body \
recognized leaders able to define its faith and to excl
those who did not accept it.

Home as a Center of
During th is same period the church in the city of Rome
to have special prominence. Besides having the largest si _
congregation of Christians, Rome also benefited from the
dition that both Jesus' apostles Peter and Paul were mam
there , Peter, moreover, was thought to be the first bis h
Rome, and the Gospel of Matthew (16:18) reported J ~

'1IIIl'Illl:nt to Peter: "Thou art Peter [in Greek, Petros] and

"1'1111 this rock [in Greek, petra] I will build my church." As
II tt~IIIt. later bishops of Rome were to claim supremacy in the
t :111 III" ic church.

,f Jesus
the centurion, he asked him whether he was already dead.
And when he learned from the centurion that he was dead,
he granted the body to Joseph. And he bought a linen
shroud, and taking him down, wrapped him in the linen
shroud, and laid him in a tomb which had been hewn out
of the rock; and he rolled a stone against the door of the
tomb. Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus saw
where he was laid.
And when the sabbath was past, Mary Magdalene, and
Mary the mother of James, and Salome, bought spices, so
that they might go and anoint him. And very early on the
first day of the week they went to the tomb when the sun
had risen. And they were saying to one another, "Who will
roll away the stone for us from the door of the tomb?" And
looking up, they saw that the stone was rolled back; for it
was very large. And entering the tomb, they saw a young
man sitting on the right side, dressed in a white robe; and
they were amazed. And he said to them, "Do not be
amazed; you seek Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified.
He has risen, he is not here, see the place where they laid
him. But go, tell his disciples and Peter that he is going
hefore you to Galilee; there you will see him, as he told
you." And they went out and fled from the tomb; for trem
bling and astonishment had come upon them; and they
said nothing to anyone, for they were afraid.
From Gospel of Mark 15:42-47; 16:1-8. Revised Standard t{!rsion of tht

lIiMr (New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1946, 1952).

'l'lll.' ( :risis of the Third Century

Till' pn:ssure on Rome's frontiers reached massive propor
IIIIII~

ill the third century C.E. In the east, by 224 C.E. a new
dynasty, the Sasanids, reinvigorated Persia (see Chap
10). They soon recovered Mesopotamia and raided deep
hlln ({oman territory.
IUltli.II1

'''I

U""harian Invasions
western and northern frontiers the threat came from
Clt'rlllan tribes. The most aggressive in the third century C.E.
W,'I" 1he ('oths. In the 220s and 230s they began to put pres
IIItH' II11 the Danube frontier, and by about 250 C.E. they over
filII IlIl' Balkan provinces. The need to meet these threats
nllllll' t he Romans weaken their western frontiers, and other
Ch'lIIl:Illic peoples broke through there. There was a con
lI"kmhit' danger that Rome would be unable to meet this
l'hull,'nge.
Sel't ilililis Severus (emperor 193-211 C.E.) and his suc
"'~~II" t l'ansformed the character of the Roman army. Septi
hllll~ was a military usurper who owed everything to the
1111'1'"11 III' his soldiers. He was prepared to make Rome into
" 1Ill1li . . glliscd military monarchy. Septimius drew recruits
1\11 1h,' army increasingly from peasants of the less civilized
ttlill lillI'S, and the result was a barbarization of Rome's mil

( )" I Ill'

Ihll\

brid' statements of faith to which true Christians should

here. (n the first century all that was required of one to bo
( :h ristian was to be baptized, to partake of the eucharist,
to call Jesus the Lord. By the end of the second century
oJ'thouox Christian-that is, a member of the Cath
dlllrch-hau to accept its creed, its canon of holy wri
and the authority of the hishops. The loose structure of
apostolic church hau given way to an organizeu body
recognized kaders abk to define its faith anu to l!xcI
those who did not accept it.

Rome

liS II

(~el1ler

of the Enrlv

(~hllrch

brigandage, and the neglect of roads and harbors hampered

trade. So, too, did the debasement of the coinagl! and the re
sulting inflation. Imperial exactions and confiscations of the
property of the rich removed badly needed capital from pro
ductive use.
The government now had to demand services that had
once been gladly volunteered. Because the empire lived on
a hand-to-mouth basis, with no significant reserve fund and
no system of credit financing, the emperors had to compel
the people to provide food, supplies. money. and lahor, The
upper classes in the cities were made to serve as adlllinisrru
tors without pay and to meet deficits in revenue out of their
own pockets. There were provincial rebellions. und peu!iunts
and even town administrators fled to escape their hurden",
These difficulties weakened Rome's economic strength when
it was most needed.

The Social Order

The new conditions caused important changes in the so
cial order. The Senate and the traditional ruling class were
decimated by direct attacks from hostile emperors and by
economic losses. Their ranks were filled by military men.
The whole state began to take on an increasingly military
appearance. Distinctions among the classes by dress had
been traditional since the republic, but in the third and
fourth centuries C.E. people's everyday clothing became a
kind of uniform that precisely revealed their status, Titles
were assigned to ranks in society as to ranks in the army.
The most important distinction was the one formally es
tablished by Septimius Severus, which drew a sharp lint'
between the honestiores (senators, equestrians, the munkipal

11I1lIS.

I )ifficulties
had li)rced Commodus (r. 180-192 C.E.) to raise the
IlIldll'l~' Ilay. hut the Severan emperors had to double it to
~"I'I' III' wilh prices, which increased the imperial budget by
111111 h a~ ~.'i percent. The emperors invented new taxes,
"fliti'll'" I he cllinage. and even sold the palace furniture to
,.Iu' It 111111' V. Even tllI.:n it was hard to recruit troops, and the
".." ,.1,11' of Illilitary life introduced by Septimius-with its
1 dl'llplilll', more pleasant duties. and greater opportunity
IlIh IIIHl'lm'nt. not only in the army bllt also in ({oman so
1111111111111

~~ \l' ....

np,..dt.. d

t" !lttr!II't

In,--n int" tlUiI nnnv 'I'hr- nnli,'v

Reigns of Selected Late Empire Rulers

(all dates are C.E.)
180-192
193-211
249-251
253-260
270-275
284-305
306-337
324-337

Commodus
Septimius Severus
Decius
Valerian
Aurelian
Diocletian
Constantine
Constantine sole emoaror