03.

WELDING IMPERFECTIONS
3.1

WELD IMPERFECTION

Any deviation from the ideal weld

3.2

WELD DISCONTINUITY

Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part

3.3

DEFECT

An unacceptable imperfection

3.4

PLANER DEFECTS

Planer defects are two dimensional defects e. g. Cracks, Lack of Penetration, Lack of Side Wall
Fusion etc.

3.5

VOLUMETRIC DEFECTS

Volumetric (Non-Planer) defects are three dimensional e.g. Porosity / Pores, Slag etc.

3.6

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPERFECTIONS ACCORDING TO BS EN ISO

6520-1
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

3.7

Cracks
Cavities
Solid Inclusions
Lack of Fusion and Penetration
Imperfect Shape and Dimension
Miscellaneous Imperfections

CRACKS

An imperfection produced by a local rupture in the solid state, which may arise from the effect of
cooling stresses.

3.7.1

TYPES OF CRACKS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

3.7.2

Longitudinal Cracks
Transverse cracks
Radiating Cracks
Crater Cracks
Branching Cracks

LOCATION OF CRACKS

Cracks can be situated:

1)
Weld Metal
2)
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
3)
Parent metal

3.7.3 NATURE OF CRACKS

Depending upon their nature, these cracks can be:
1)
Hot Cracks (Solidification Cracks, Liquation Crack)
2)
Precipitation Induced cracks (Reheat Cracks, present in creep resisting steels)
3)
Cold Cracks (Hydrogen Induced cracks)
4)
Lamellar Tearing

Page 1 of 10

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.7.4

COMMON CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CRACKING

Causes

Remedies

Highly rigid joint

Preheat
Relieve residual stresses mechanically
Minimize shrinkage using backstep or block welding sequence

Excessive Dilution

Change welding current and travel speed

Weld with covered electrode negative
Butter the joint faces prior to welding

Defective Electrodes

Change to new electrode

Bake electrodes to remove moisture

Poor fit-up

Reduce root opening

Build up the edges with weld metal

Small weld bead

Increase electrode size

Raise welding current
Reduce travel speed

High sulfur base metal

Use filler metal low in sulfur

Angular distortion

Change to balanced welding on both sides of joint

Crater Cracking

Fill crater before extinguishing the arc

Use welding current decay device when terminating the weld bead

Hydrogen in welding
atmosphere

Use low hydrogen process

Preheat and hold for two (2) hours after welding or postweld heat treat
immediately

Hot cracking

Use low heat input

Deposit thin layers
Change base metal

Low ductility

Use preheat
Anneal base metal

High residual stresses

Redesign the weldment

Change welding sequence
Apply intermediate stress-relief heat treatment

High hardenability

Preheat
Increase heat input
Heat treat without cooling to room temperature

Brittle fracture in the

microstructure

Solution heat treat prior to welding

Page 2 of 10

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.8

CAVITIES
1)
2)

3.8.1

Gas Cavities
Shrinkage cavities

GAS CAVITIES

Cavities formed by entrapped gas. Gas cavities are:

1)
Gas pore
2)
Uniformly Distributed porosity
3)
Clustered (Localized) porosity
4)
Linear Porosity
5)
Elongated porosity
6)
Worm-hole
7)
Surface pore

3.8.1.1

GAS PORE

A gas cavity essentially of spherical shape trapped within the weld metal. Gas cavity can be present in
various forms:
1)
Isolated Porosity
2)
Clustered (Localized) Porosity
3)
Linear Porosity
4)
Elongated Porosity
5)
Surface Pore

3.8.1.1.1

COMMON CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF GAS CAVITIES

Causes

Remedies

Damp fluxes / corroded electrode (MMA)

Use dry electrodes

Contamination of prepared surface

Clean prepared surface

Air entrapment in gas shield

Check hose connections

Incorrect/ insufficient deoxidant in electrode,

filler wire or parent metal

Use electrodes with sufficient deoxidation

activity

Too high an arc voltage or arc length

Reduce voltage and arc length

Gas evolution from priming paints / surface

treatment

Identify risk of reaction before surface treatment

is applied

Too high shielding gas flow rate

Optimise gas flow rate

3.8.1.2
WORM HOLE (PIPING)
Elongated or tubular cavities formed by entrapped gas during solidification of weld metal

Causes

Remedies

Gross contamination of preparation surface

Introduce preweld cleaning process

Laminated work surface

Replace parent metal with an unlaminated piece

Crevices in work surface due to joint geometry

Eliminate joint shapes which produce crevices

Page 3 of 10

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.8.1.3
SURFACE POROSITY
A gas pore that breaks the surface of the weld

Causes

Remedies

Damp or contaminated surface or electrode

Clean surface and dry electrodes

Low fluxing activity

Use a high activity flux

Excess sulphur

Use high manganese electrodes

Loss of shielding gas due to long arc or high

breezes

Improve screening against draughts and reduce

arc length

High shielding gas flow rate

Optimize gas flow rate

3.8.1.4
CRATER PIPE
A shrinkage cavity at the end of a weld run

Causes

Remedies

Lack of welder skill

Retrain welder

Current high

Reduce current

Inoperative crater fill

Use correct crater filling technique

Page 4 of 10

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.9

SOLID INCLUSIONS

Solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld metal.

1)
Slag Inclusions
2)
Flux Inclusion
3)
Oxide Inclusion
4)
Metallic Inclusion

3.9.1

SLAG INCLUSIONS

Slag entrapped during welding

Causes

Remedies

Incomplete slag removal

Slag floating ahead of arc
Entrapment of slag in work surface

3.9.2

Remove slag properly

Reposition work to gain control of slag
Dress work surface smooth

FLUX INCLUSIONS

Flux trapped during welding.

Causes

Remedies

Unfused flux due to damaged coating

Use electrodes in good condition

Change the flux / wire
Adjust welding parameters

Flux fails to melt

3.9.3

OXIDE INCLUSIONS

Oxides trapped during welding.

Causes

Remedies

Heavy mill scale on work surface

Heavy rust on work surface

3.9.4

Grind surface prior to welding

Remove rust prior to welding

TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS

Particles of tungsten embedded during TIG welding

Causes

Remedies

Contact of electrode tip with weld pool

Contact of filler metal with hot tip of electrode
Contamination of electrode tip by spatter from
weld pool
Exceeding the current limit for an electrode size
or type
Inadequate tightening of collet
Shielding gas flow rate too high
Excessive wind drifts (oxidation of electrode tip)
Splits or cracks in the electrode
Inadequate shielding gas

Page 5 of 10

Keep tungsten out of weld pool

Use high frequency start
Avoid contact between electrode and filler metal
Reduce welding current
Adjust shielding gas flow rate
Reduce welding current
Replace electrode with a larger diameter one
Tighten the collet
Adjust gas flow rate
Protect the weld area
Replace the electrode
Change to correct gas composition

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.10

LACK OF FUSION

Lack of union between the weld metal and the parent metal or between the successive layers of weld
metal.
1)
Lack of side wall fusion
2)
Lack of inter-run fusion
3)
Lack of root fusion

3.10.1

LACK OF SIDE WALL FUSION

Lack of union between the weld and parent metal at one or both sides of the weld

Causes

Remedies

Low heat input

Increase arc voltage / current

Decrease travel speed

Molten metal floating ahead of arc

Improve electrode angle and work position

Increase travel speed

Oxide or scale on weld preparation

Clean surface prior to welding

Excessive inductance (MAG dip transfer)

Reduce inductance

3.10.2

LACK OF INTER-RUN FUSION

A lack of union along the fusion line, between the weld beads

Causes

Remedies

Low arc current (Low fluidity of weld pool)

Increase current

Too high travel speed

Reduce travel speed

Inaccurate bead placement

Retrain welder

3.10.3

LACK OF ROOT FUSION

Lack of fusion between the weld and parent metal at the root of a weld

Causes

Remedies

Low heat input

Increase welding current / arc voltage

Excessive inductance (MAG dip transfer

welding)

Use correct induction setting for the parent metal

thickness

MMA electrode too large

Reduce electrode size

Use of vertical down welding

Switch vertical up procedure

Large root face

Reduce root face

Small root gap

Ensure correct root opening

Incorrect angle

Use correct electrode angle

Incorrect electrode manipulation

Retrain welder

Excessive misalignment at root

Ensure correct alignment

Page 6 of 10

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.11

3.11.1

LACK OF PENETRATION
1)

Incomplete penetration

2)

Incomplete root penetration

INCOMPLETE PENETRATION

Difference between actual and nominal penetration

Causes

Remedies

Low heat input

Increase welding current / arc voltage

Reduce travel speed

MMA electrode too large

Reduce electrode size

Use of vertical down welding

Switch to vertical up procedure

Excessive inductance in MAG (dip transfer)

Improve electrical setting

Switch to spray arc transfer

Excessive thick root face

Insufficient root gap

Ensure the edge preparation is as per approved

WPS

Failure to cut back to sound metal in a back

gouging operation

Improve back gouging technique

3.11.2

INCOMPLETE ROOT PENETRATION

One or both fusion faces of the root are not melted

Causes

Remedies

Low heat input

Increase welding current / arc voltage

Excessive inductance (MAG dip transfer

welding)

Use correct induction setting for the parent metal

thickness

MMA electrode too large

Reduce electrode size

Use of vertical down welding

Switch vertical up procedure

Large root face

Reduce root face

Small root gap

Ensure correct root opening

Incorrect angle

Use correct electrode angle

Incorrect electrode manipulation

Retrain welder

Excessive misalignment at root

Ensure correct alignment

3.12

UNDERCUT

An irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal or in a previously deposited weld metal due
to welding. It is characterised by its depth, length and sharpness
1)
Continuous undercut
2)
Intermittent Undercut
3)
Inter run undercut

Causes
High welding current
High travel speed
Excessive / incorrect weaving
Incorrect electrode angle
Incorrect shielding gas selection (MAG)

Page 7 of 10

Remedies
Reduce welding current
Reduce travel speed
Reduce weaving width or switch to multirun
Direct arc towards thicker member
Ensure correct gas mixture for material type and
thickness

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.13

EXCESS WELD METAL

Excess weld metal is the extra metal that produces excessive convexity in fillet welds and a weld
thickness greater than the parent metal plate in butt welds

Causes

Remedies

Excess arc energy (MAG, SAW)

Reduce heat input

Shallow edge preparation

Deepen edge preparation

Faulty electrode manipulation build-up

sequence

Improve welder skills

Incorrect electrode size

Reduce electrode size

Too slow a travel speed

Use correct travel speed

Incorrect electrode angle

Use correct electrode angle

Wrong polarity used

Ensure correct polarity

3.14

EXCESS PENETRATION

Projection of the root bead penetration beyond a specified limit. Excess penetration can be local or
continuous

Causes

Remedies

Heat input too high

Reduce arc voltage / welding current and

increase welding speed

Incorrect weld preparation

Improve work piece preparation

Electrode unsuitable to welding position

Use correct electrode for position

Lack of welder skill

Retrain welder

3.15

OVERLAP

Imperfection caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing at the toe of
weld

Causes

Remedies

Poor electrode manipulation

Retrain welder

High heat input

Reduce heat input

Incorrect positioning of weld

Change to flat position

Wrong electrode coating causing too high fluidity

Use fast freezing / less fluid electrode coating

3.16

LINEAR MISALIGNMENT

Misalignment between members of a weld joint such that their surface planes are parallel but they
are not in the required same plane

Causes

Remedies

Incorrect joint assembly

Check alignment prior to welding

Distortion caused due to heat input

Use clamps or wedges to maintain alignment

Hot rolled plates or sections Out of flatness

Inspect rolled sections prior to welding

Page 8 of 10

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.17

ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT

Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their surface planes are not parallel or at the
intended angle

Causes

Remedies

Incorrect joint assembly

Distortion caused due to heat input
Hot rolled plates or sections Out of flatness

3.18

Check alignment prior to welding

Use clamps or wedges to maintain alignment
Inspect rolled sections prior to welding

INCOMPLETELY FILLED GROOVE

A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld metal due to insufficient deposition of
weld filler metal

Causes

Remedies

Insufficient weld metal

Increase the number of weld runs

Irregular weld bead surface

Retrain welder

3.19

IRREGULAR WIDTH

Excessive variation in width of the weld

Causes

Remedies

Severe arc blow

Switch from DC to AC
Arc length shall be as short as possible

Irregular weld bead surface

Retrain welder

3.20

ROOT CONCAVITY

A shallow groove that occurs due to shrinkage at the root of a butt weld

Causes

Remedies

Insufficient arc power to produce positive bead

Raise arc energy

Excessive backing gas pressure (TIG)

Reduce gas pressure

Lack of welder skill

Retrain welder

Slag flooding in back bar groove

Tilt work to prevent slag flooding

3.21

BURN THROUGH

A collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in the weld

Causes
Insufficient travel speed
Excessive welding current
Lack of welder skill
Excessive grinding of root face
Excessive root gap

Page 9 of 10

Remedies
Increase the travel speed
Reduce welding current
Retrain welder
Retrain welder
Ensure correct fit up

Section 3

Welding Imperfections

3.22

STRAY ARC (ARC STRIKES)

Local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent to the weld, resulting from arcing or striking
the arc outside the weld groove.

Causes

Remedies

Poor access to the work

Missing insulation on electrode holder or torch
Loose current return clamp
Absence of an insulated resting place for the
electrode holder or torch when not in use
Adjusting wire feed (MAG) without isolating
welding current

3.23

Improve access
Regularly inspect electrode holders and torches
Maintain current return clamps regularly
Provide an insulated resting place
Retrain welder

SPATTER

Globules of weld metal or filler metal expelled during welding and adhering to the surface of parent
metal or solidified weld metal

Causes

Remedies

High arc current

Magnetic arc blow
Damp electrodes
Wrong selection of shielding gas (100% CO2)
Incorrect setting for GMAW process

Page 10 of 10

Reduce arc current

Reduce arc length
Switch to AC power
Dry electrodes properly
Increase Argon content
Modify electrical settings

Section 3

Welding Imperfections