Module 4Do questions 4, 5, and 7.

Module 5Do questions 5, 7, and 10.

Module 6Do questions 2, 4, and 8.

Module 4
Question #4

2
V
ol
ta
g
e
(
m
V)

Time (ms)
1. Resting state
Ion channels:
Na+ leakage channels open
K+ leakage channels open
Na+/K+ pump open
Na+ voltage gated channels closed
K+ voltage gated channels closed
Movement of ions:
Na+ out of cell
K+ into cell
2. Depolarization
Ion channels:
Na+ leakage channels open
K+ leakage channels open
Na+/K+ pump open
Na+ voltage gated channels open
K+ voltage gated channels closed

Movement of ions:
Na+ into cell
K+ into cell
3. Repolarization
Ion channels:
Na+ leakage channels open
K+ leakage channels open
Na+/K+ pump open
Na+ voltage gated channels closed
K+ voltage gated channels open
Movement of ions:
Na+ out of cell
K+ into cell

5. A myelinated axon can conduct a signal faster than an unmyelinated axon

because of the presence of Nodes of Ranvier between the Schwann cells in
myelinated axons. These Nodes of Ranvier are gaps between the Schwann
cells that allow the electrical current to jump from one node to the next along
an axon. In unmyelinated axons, the electrical current cannot jump from
nodes because there are no Schwann cells that create the myelin sheath.
The myelinated part of the axons are very much resistant to electrical
currents, so therefore the current jumps from one node of ranvier to the next.

7.
7
/

8
5
6
3
1

2
1 Pons
- relay information between cerebrum/cerebellum
- breathing, swallowing, balance control

2 Medulla oblongata
- heart rate, blood vessel diameter
- breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, etc control
3 Midbrain
- transports information from auditory nerve pathways to CNS
- coordinating eye movements, controlling pupil diameter
- regulating general body movements
4 Cerebellum
- transfer of information between cerebellum and parts of CNS
5 Thalamus
- sends sensory input through to cerebral cortex
- alters mood
6 Hypothalamus
- maintains homeostasis (body temperature, hunger, thirst)
- controls hormone secretion from pituitary gland
7 Cerebrum
- voluntary motor functions
- aggression, mood, smell reception
- receives sensory information
- abstract thought and judgement
8 Corpus callosum

Module 5
5. As light hits the surface of the eye, the light rays converge at a point
called the focal point, and then is focused on the retina behind the lens.
Because the human lens is convex, the light rays converge. It is important
because it allows us to view images clearly and focused instead of being
blurry. When focusing on images closer than 20 feet, there has to be a
greater refraction of light in order for the image to be focused. The ciliary
muscles in the ciliary body contract and move the ciliary body closer to the
lens. The tension is lowered on the ligaments holding the lens together, and
as a result the lens becomes more sphere-like. This allows the lens to
become more convex in nature, which results in a higher refraction degree.
7. Sound waves first make their way through the external auditory canal and
toward the tympanic membrane. After, the sound waves cause the tympanic
membrane to vibrate, which results in the vibration of the three ossicles in
the middle ear. This vibration is amplified and conducted to the oval window.
The vibration is then transferred to the perilymph in the scala vestibule,
which causes the vestibular membrane to vibrate. This vibration causes
vibrations in the endolymph, which then causes the displacement of the
basilar membrane.

10. Kinetic equilibrium is measurement of the change of direction or head

movement detected by the ear. The utricle and saccule are two chambers of the
vestibule inside the inner ear. There are regions of epithelium inside both chambers
called maculae which contain hair cells. Otoliths which are embedded inside a
gelatinous matrix reside on top of the tips of the microvilli of the maculae. When
one moves their head, the gelatinous matrix sways and bends the microvilli. This
produces an action potential which travels to the brain and are interpreted as a
change in head position. There are three semicircular canals which help determine
kinetic equilibrium. Each semicircular canals base enlarges into an ampulla. The
epithelium inside each ampulla is differentiated into a ridge of gelatinous matrix
called the crista ampullaris. This is referred to as the cupula, which is structurally
and functionally similar to the maculae. However, it does not contain otoliths. The
cupula moves as a result of endolymph movement. When there is head movement,
the cupula moves and causes the microvilli of the hair cells to bend. This bending of
the microvilli causes action potentials to be sent down to the brain where it is
interpreted as head movement.
Module 6
2.
a. Autocrine Autocrine signals are released in the same region in which they
perform a specific function or duty. They perform their effects on the same types of
cells from which they were released from. i.e. eicosanoids
b. Paracrine Paracrine signals perform duties on different types of cells also in the
same region from which they are released from. i.e. somatostatin
c. Hormones Hormones are chemical signals which are transported in the blood to
various parts of the body where they perform their duties. i.e. testosterone
d. Neurohormones Neurohormones are similar in function to hormones, but they
are produced by neurons. i.e. antidiuretic hormone
e. Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitters are produced by neurons and function to
produce and transfer action potentials in nerve cells. They also play important roles
in nervous system function. i.e. Acetylcholine
f. Pheromone Pheromones are signals that are released into the environment and
interact with other organisms and the external environment. i.e. dog urine
4. There are water-soluble hormones and lipid-soluble hormones, both of which
have different receptor site specificity. Membrane-bound receptors can activate G
proteins on the surface of the cell, which intracellular receptors pass through the
lipid bi-layer and bind to different types of receptors. An example of a membranebound receptor that activates G proteins is oxytocin, while testosterone is an
example of a hormone that combines with intracellular receptors.
7. Hormone secretion is regulated three ways. Firstly, hormone secretion is
controlled by blood levels of certain chemicals. For example, blood calcium levels
control secretion of parathyroid hormone. This hormone is secreted from the

parathyroid glands and targets bone and kidneys. Some of the responses include an
increased rate of bone breakdown, and an increase in vitamin D synthesis. Next,
hormone secretion is controlled through other hormones. For example, sex hormone
secretion is regulated by hormones from the pituitary gland. Growth hormone,
released from the pituitary gland and targeting most tissues, results in increased
gene expression and the breakdown of lipids and release of fatty acids from cells.
Lastly, hormone secretion is regulated through neural control. Hormones such as
epinephrine is released from the adrenal medulla and is responsible for an increase
in cardiac output and blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart. Epinephrine
targets the heart, blood vessels, liver and fat cells.