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qxp
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Page 779
Chapter 11
Selected Applications
Limit concepts have many real-life
applications. The applications listed
below represent a small sample of
the applications in this chapter.
Free-Falling Object, Exercises 77
and 78, page 799
Communications, Exercise 80,
page 800
Market Research, Exercise 64,
page 809
Rate of Change, Exercise 65,
page 809
Average Cost, Exercise 54,
page 818
School Enrollment, Exercise 55,
page 818
Geometry, Exercise 45, page 827
The limit process is a fundamental concept of calculus. In Chapter 11, you will learn
many properties of limits and how the limit process can be used to find areas of
regions bounded by the graphs of functions. You will also learn how the limit process
can be used to find slopes of tangent lines to graphs.
Inga Spence/Index Stock
Americans produce over 200 million pounds of waste each year. Many residents and
businesses recycle about 28% of the waste produced. Limits can be used to determine
the average cost of recycling material as the amount of material increases infinitely.
779
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Chapter 11
Page 780
Solution
Let w represent the width of the rectangle and let l represent the length of the
rectangle. Because
2w 2l 24
Perimeter is 24.
it follows that l 12 w, as shown in Figure 11.1. So, the area of the rectangle
is
A lw
12 ww
Substitute 12 w for l.
12w
Simplify.
w 2.
l = 12 w
Photo credit
Figure 11.1
Using this model for area, you can experiment with different values of w to see
how to obtain the maximum area. After trying several values, it appears that the
maximum area occurs when w 6, as shown in the table.
Width, w
5.0
5.5
5.9
6.0
6.1
6.5
7.0
Area, A
35.00
35.75
35.99
36.00
35.99
35.75
35.00
In limit terminology, you can say that the limit of A as w approaches 6 is 36.
This is written as
lim A lim 12w w2 36.
w6
w6
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Section 11.1
781
Introduction to Limits
Definition of Limit
Definition of Limit
If f x becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x approaches c
from either side, the limit of f x as x approaches c is L. This is written as
lim f x L.
xc
Solution
Let f x 3x 2. Then construct a table that shows values of f x for two sets
of x-valuesone set that approaches 2 from the left and one that approaches 2
from the right.
(2, 4)
1.9
1.99
1.999
2.0
2.001
2.01
2.1
f(x)
3.700
3.970
3.997
4.003
4.030
4.300
f(x) = 3x 2
x
2 1
From the table, it appears that the closer x gets to 2, the closer f x gets to 4. So,
you can estimate the limit to be 4. Figure 11.2 adds further support to this
conclusion.
Figure 11.2
x 0
lim f (x) = 2
x 0
x
.
x 1 1
(0, 2)
Solution
Let f x xx 1 1. Then construct a table that shows values of f x for
f(x)
0.01
0.001
1.99499
1.99949
0.0001
1.99995
0.0001
0.001
0.01
2.00005
2.00050
2.00499
f is undefined
at x = 0.
x
1
Figure 11.3
From the table, it appears that the limit is 2. The graph shown in Figure 11.3
verifies that the limit is 2.
x
x+11
two sets of x-valuesone set that approaches 0 from the left and one that
approaches 0 from the right.
x
f(x) =
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Chapter 11
Page 782
In Example 3, note that f x has a limit when x 0 even though the function
is not defined when x 0. This often happens, and it is important to realize that
the existence or nonexistence of f x at x c has no bearing on the existence of
the limit of f x as x approaches c.
x1
x3 x 2 x 1
.
x1
Numerical Solution
Let f x x3 x2 x 1x 1. Because you are finding the
limit of f x as x approaches 1, use the table feature of a graphing
utility to create a table that shows the value of the function for x
starting at x 0.9 and setting the table step to 0.01, as shown in
Figure 11.4(a). Then change the table so that x starts at 0.99 and set
the table step to 0.001, as shown in Figure 11.4(b). From the tables,
you can estimate the limit to be 2.
Graphical Solution
Use a graphing utility to graph y
x3 x2 x 1x 1 using a decimal
setting. Then use the zoom and trace features
to determine that as x gets closer and closer to
1, y gets closer and closer to 2 from the left
and from the right, as shown in Figure 11.5.
Using the trace feature, notice that there is no
value given for y when x 1, and that there is
a hole or break in the graph when x 1.
5.1
(a)
Figure 11.4
(b)
4.7
4.7
1.1
Figure 11.5
0,
2,
x3
.
x3
Solution
lim f x 2.
f (x ) =
2, x 3
0, x = 3
x3
The fact that f 3 0 has no bearing on the existence or value of the limit as x
approaches 3. For instance, if the function were defined as
f x
2,4,
x3
x3
1
x
1
1
Figure 11.6
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Section 11.1
783
Introduction to Limits
x 0
x
x
Solution
Consider the graph of the function given by f x x x. In Figure 11.7, you can
see that for positive x-values
x 1,
x
f (x ) =
x > 0
f(x) = 1
x
1,
x
x
x
x < 0.
f(x) = 1
This means that no matter how close x gets to 0, there will be both positive and
negative x-values that yield f x 1 and f x 1. This implies that the limit
does not exist.
Figure 11.7
x 0
1
x2
Solution
Let f x 1x 2. In Figure 11.8, note that as x approaches 0 from either the right
or the left, f x increases without bound. This means that by choosing x close
enough to 0, you can force f x to be as large as you want. For instance, f x will
f(x) = 12
x
1
be larger than 100 if you choose x that is within 10
of 0. That is,
0 < x <
1
10
f x
1
> 100.
x2
0 < x <
1
1000
f x
1
> 1,000,000
x2
1
3
Figure 11.8
x
1
1
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Chapter 11
Page 784
x 0
x
1
Solution
Let f x sin1x. In Figure 11.9, you can see that as x approaches 0, f x oscil-
lates between 1 and 1. Therefore, the limit does not exist because no matter
how close you are to 0, it is possible to choose values of x1 and x 2 such that
sin1x1 1 and sin1x 2 1, as indicated in the table.
x
sin
1x
2
3
2
5
2
7
2
9
2
11
x0
Limit does
not exist.
()
f(x) = sin 1
x
Figure 11.9
Example 6
Example 7
Example 8
1.2
TECHNOLOGY TIP
0.25
0.25
1.2
Figure 11.10
((
f(x) = sin 1
x
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Section 11.1
Introduction to Limits
Substitute c for x.
xc
Basic Limits
Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.
lim b b
1. xc
lim x c
2. xc
lim x n c n
3. xc
n c,
n x
lim
4. xc
0
and
lim cos x cos 0
x 0
1.
By combining the basic limits with the following operations, you can find limits
for a wide variety of functions.
Properties of Limits
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let f and g be
functions with the following limits.
lim f x L
xc
and
1. Scalar multiple:
2. Sum or difference:
3. Product:
4. Quotient:
5. Power:
lim g x K
xc
lim b f x bL
xc
lim f x gx L K
xc
lim f x gx LK
xc
lim
xc
f x
L
,
gx K
lim f xn Ln
xc
Exploration
Use a graphing utility to graph
the tangent function. What are
lim tan x and lim tan x?
x 0
provided K 0
785
x 4
x 2
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Chapter 11
Page 786
a. lim x 2
b. lim 5x
c. lim
d. lim x
lim x cos x
e. x
f. lim x 42
x 4
x 4
x9
x3
Exploration
Sketch the graph of each function. Then find the limits of
each function as x approaches
1 and as x approaches 2. What
conclusions can you make?
Solution
a. f x x 1
You can use the properties of limits and direct substitution to evaluate each limit.
a. lim x 2 42
Direct Substitution
b. gx
x2 1
x1
c. hx
x3 2x2 x 2
x2 3x 2
x 4
16
b. lim 5x 5 lim x
x4
x4
54
20
lim tan x
tan x x
x
x
lim x
x
c. lim
Quotient Property
0
0
d. lim x 9
x9
3
e. lim x cos x) lim x lim cos x
x
Product Property
cos
f. lim x 42
x3
lim x lim 4
x3
x3
3 42
72 49
Now try Exercise 49.
TECHNOLOGY TIP
Figure 11.11
17
3.5
4.5
15
Figure 11.12
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Section 11.1
The results of using direct substitution to evaluate limits of polynomial and
rational functions are summarized as follows.
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
1. If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then
lim
px pc.
xc
pc
.
qc
a. lim x 2 x 6
b. lim
x1
Solution
The first function is a polynomial function and the second is a rational function
with a nonzero denominator at x 1. So, you can evaluate the limits by
direct substitution.
a. lim x 2 x 6 12 1 6
x1
6
x 2 x 6 12 1 6
x1
x3
1 3
b. lim
6
2
3
Now try Exercise 53.
Exploration
Use a graphing utility to graph the function
f x
x 2 3x 10
.
x5
Use the trace feature to approximate lim f x. What do you think lim f x
x4
x5
equals? Is f defined at x 5? Does this affect the existence of the limit as
x approaches 5?
Introduction to Limits
787
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Chapter 11
Page 788
11.1 Exercises
Vocabulary Check
Fill in the blanks.
1. If f x becomes arbitrarily close to a unique number L as x approaches c from either side, the _______ of f x
as x approaches c is L.
2. The limit of f x as x c does not exist if f x _______ between two fixed values.
3. To evaluate the limit of a polynomial function, use _______ .
1. Geometry You create an open box from a square piece of
material, 24 centimeters on a side. You cut equal squares
from the corners and turn up the sides.
(a) Draw and label a diagram that represents the box.
(b) Verify that the volume of the box is given by
V 4x12 x2.
(c) The box has a maximum volume when x 4. Use a
graphing utility to complete the table and observe the
behavior of the function as x approaches 4. Use the table
to find lim V.
x 4
3.5
4.1
4.5
2. Geometry You are given wire and are asked to form a right
triangle with a hypotenuse of 18 inches whose area is as
large as possible.
(a) Draw and label a diagram that shows the base x and
height y of the triangle.
(b) Verify that the area of the triangle is given by
0.9
0.99
0.999
x3
2.01
2.1
1.001
1.01
1.1
3.001
3.01
3.1
x3
x2 9
2.9
2.99
2.999
f x
6. lim
x1
?
x1
x2 x 2
1.1
1.01
1.001
f x
x2.
2.001
f x
x1
5. lim
1.999
4. lim 2x2 x 4
1
2 x18
1.99
f x
1.9
0.999
?
0.99
0.9
f x
x 3
2.5
2.9
3.1
3.5
A
(d) Use a graphing utility to graph the area function. Verify
that the area is maximum when x 3 inches.
7. lim
x0
sin 2x
x
0.1
0.01
f x
x
f x
0.001
0
?
0.01
0.1
0.001
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Page 789
Section 11.1
8. lim
x0
tan x
2x
In Exercises 2528, graph the function and find the limit (if
it exists) as x approaches 2.
0.1
0.01
0.001
f x
0.001
0.1
f x
e2x 1
x0
x
9. lim
0.1
0.01
0.001
f x
29. lim x 2 3
0.001
12
8
4
x
6 3
0.99
f x
0.999
1.001
1.01
1.1
31. lim
x2
3 6 9
x 2
x1
x1 x 2 2x 3
x 5 5
13. lim
x 0
x
11. lim
x
2
x2
15. lim
x4
x4
x 0
sin x
x
sin2 x
x0
x
8 4
32. lim
x2
x1
x2
x2 x2 5x 6
1 x 2
x3
1
1
x2 4
16. lim
x2
x2
cos x 1
18. lim
x 0
x
2x
x0 tan 4x
20. lim
e2x 1
21. lim
x0
2x
1 e4x
22. lim
x0
x
2
24. lim lnx
x1
x1
x
1
x
2
x
2
x3
19. lim
2
3
12. lim
14. lim
3
2
1
x1
17. lim
y
16
15
12
9
6
0.1
10. lim ln x
x1
x1
0.9
x2
f x
3x 2 12
x2
30. lim
x4
?
0.01
25. f x
?
0.01
789
Introduction to Limits
2
1
x
1 2 3
1
2
35. x
lim
tan x
2
x 2
3
2
1
1
x
3 2 1
3
2
3
2
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Chapter 11
Page 790
In Exercises 37 46, use a graphing utility to graph the function and use the graph to determine whether or not the limit
exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why.
59. lim
x2
5x 3
2x 9
61. lim x 2
x1
5
, lim f x
2 e1x x 0
ex 1
38. f x
, lim f x
x 0
x
1
39. f x cos , lim f x
x x 0
40. f x sin x, lim f x
37. f x
63. lim
x7
5x
x 2
60. lim
x3
x2 1
x
3 x2 1
62. lim
x3
64. lim
x8
x 1
x4
65. lim ex
66. lim ln x
lim tan x
68. x
x3
xe
x12
x1
x1
41. f x
x 3 1
x4
x 5 4
lim f x
x
2
Synthesis
x 4
, lim f x
x1
, lim f x
x 2 4x 3 x1
7
44. f x
, lim f x
x 3 x3
42. f x
x2
x2
43. f x
45. f x lnx 3,
46. f x ln7 x,
lim f x
x 4
lim f x
x1
In Exercises 47 and 48, use the given information to evaluate each limit.
(a) Use a graphing utility to graph the corresponding functions using a standard viewing window. Do the graphs
reveal whether or not the limit can be reached? Explain.
xc
(b) lim f x gx
(c) lim f x
xc
g x
(d) lim f x
xc
xc
(b) Use a graphing utility to graph the corresponding functions using a decimal setting. Do the graphs reveal
whether or not the limit can be reached? Explain.
xc
xc
(b) lim 6 f x gx
5gx
(c) lim
xc 4f x
(d) lim
xc
xc
xc
f x
x2
x2
x2
49. f x x3,
50. f x
gx
x2 5
2x2
x5
x
, gx sin x
3x
Skills Review
21x3 5x
51. lim 10 x 2
52. lim
54. lim x3 6x 5
x5
x3
9
55. lim
x3
x
3x
57. lim 2
x3 x 1
x2
5x
3x 15
78.
x2 81
9x
79.
15x2 7x 4
15x2 x 2
80.
x2 12x 36
x2 7x 6
81.
x3 27
x x6
82.
x3 8
x2 4
x2
6
x2
x1
58. lim 2
x 4 x 2x 3
56. lim
x 5
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Page 791
Section 11.2
791
x3
x2 x 6
x3
3.01
2.999
2.99
x2 x 6
x3
5.01
5.001 5.0001
4.999
4.99
4.9999
x3
x2 x 6
.
x3
Solution
Begin by factoring the numerator and dividing out any common factors.
lim
x3
x2 x 6
x 2x 3
lim
x3
x3
x3
lim
x3
x 2x 3
x3
Factor numerator.
lim x 2
Simplify.
3 2
Direct substitution
Simplify.
x3
Prerequisite Skills
x2 x 6
x3
and
gx x 2
agree at all values of x other than x 3. So, you can use gx to find the limit
of f x.
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Chapter 11
Page 792
The dividing out technique should be applied only when direct substitution
produces 0 in both the numerator and the denominator. The resulting fraction, 00,
has no meaning as a real number. It is called an indeterminate form because you
cannot, from the form alone, determine the limit. When you try to evaluate a limit
of a rational function by direct substitution and encounter this form, you can
conclude that the numerator and denominator must have a common factor. After
factoring and dividing out, you should try direct substitution again.
x1 x3
x1
x2 x 1
Solution
Begin by substituting x 1 into the numerator and denominator.
110
Numerator is 0 when x 1.
13 1 2 1 1 0
Denominator is 0 when x 1.
Because both the numerator and denominator are zero when x 1, direct
substitution will not yield the limit. To find the limit, you should factor the
numerator and denominator, divide out any common factors, and then try direct
substitution again.
lim
x1
x1
x1
lim
x3 x 2 x 1 x1 x 1x 2 1
lim
x1
x1
x 1x 2 1
Factor denominator.
1
x1 x 2 1
Simplify.
1
12 1
Direct substitution
1
2
Simplify.
lim
In Example 2, the factorization of the denominator can be obtained by dividing by x 1 or by grouping as follows.
x3 x 2 x 1 x 2x 1 x 1
x 1x 2 1
f (x ) =
f is undefined
when x = 1.
(1, 12)
x
1
Figure 11.13
x1
x3 x2 + x 1
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Section 11.2
793
Rationalizing Technique
Another way to find the limits of some functions is first to rationalize the numerator of the function. This is called the rationalizing technique. Recall that rationalizing the numerator means multiplying the numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the numerator. For instance, the conjugate of x 4 is x 4.
x 1 1
x 0
Solution
0
x 1 1
x 0
0 1 1
0
0
Indeterminate form
In this case, you can rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the numerator.
x 1 1
x 1 1
xx 1 1
x 1 1
x x 1 1
Simplify.
x x 1 1
x 1 1
x 1 1
x 1 1
Prerequisite Skills
x0
Simplify.
f (x ) =
x 1 1
x 0
lim
x 0
1
1
1
1
11 2
x 1 1
0 1 1
1
2
You can reinforce your conclusion that the limit is by constructing a table, as
shown below, or by sketching a graph, as shown in Figure 11.14.
x
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.001
0.01
0.1
f(x)
0.5132
0.5013
0.5001
0.4999
0.4988
0.4881
x 1 1
x 1 1
Figure 11.14
x+11
x
f is undefined
when x = 0.
(0, 12 )
x
1
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Chapter 11
Page 794
Using Technology
The dividing out and rationalizing techniques may not work well for finding
limits of nonalgebraic functions. You often need to use more sophisticated
analytic techniques to find limits of these types of functions.
Numerical Solution
Let f x 1 x1x. Because you are finding the
Graphical Solution
To approximate the limit graphically, graph the function
y 1 x1x, as shown in Figure 11.16. Using the zoom and
trace features of the graphing utility, choose two points on the
graph of f, such as
limit when x 0, use the table feature of a graphing utility to create a table that shows the values of
f for x starting at x 0.01 and setting the table
step to 0.001, as shown in Figure 11.15. Because 0
is halfway between 0.001 and 0.001, use the
average of the values of f at these two
x-coordinates to estimate the limit as follows.
0.00017, 2.7185
and
0.00017, 2.7181
2.7196 2.7169
2.71825
2
The actual limit can be found algebraically to be
e 2.71828.
lim 1 x1x
x 0
lim 1 x1x
x 0
2.7185 2.7181
2.7183.
2
Figure 11.15
f(x) = (1 + x)1/x
2
0
Figure 11.16
2.728
0.008
0.008
2.708
Figure 11.17
Solution
0
f(x) =
2
x0
Figure 11.18
sin x
x
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Page 795
Section 11.2
795
TECHNOLOGY TIP
The graphs shown in Figures 11.16 and 11.18 appear
to be continuous at x 0. But when you try to use the trace or the value
feature of a graphing utility to determine the value of y when x 0, there is
no value given. Some graphing utilities can show breaks or holes in a graph
when an appropriate viewing window is used. Because the holes in the graphs
in Figures 11.16 and 11.18 occur on the y-axis, the holes are not visible.
TECHNOLOGY SUPPORT
For instructions on how to use the
zoom and trace features and the
value feature, see Appendix A;
for specific keystrokes, go to this
textbooks Online Study Center.
One-Sided Limits
In Section 11.1, you saw that one way in which a limit can fail to exist is when a
function approaches a different value from the left side of c than it approaches
from the right side of c. This type of behavior can be described more concisely
with the concept of a one-sided limit.
lim f x L 1 or f x L 1 as x c
lim f x L 2 or f x L 2 as x c
xc
xc
2x.
x
f(x) = 2
Solution
From the graph of f, shown in Figure 11.19, you can see that f x 2 for all
x < 0. Therefore, the limit from the left is
lim
x0
2x 2.
x
x0
2x 2.
x
In Example 6, note that the function approaches different limits from the left
and from the right. In such cases, the limit of f x as x c does not exist. For the
limit of a function to exist as x c, it must be true that both one-sided limits exist
and are equal.
Existence of a Limit
If f is a function and c and L are real numbers, then
lim f x L
xc
if and only if both the left and right limits exist and are equal to L.
2x
x
x
1
1
f(x) = 2
f (x ) =
Figure 11.19
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Chapter 11
Page 796
44xx,x ,
2
Prerequisite Skills
For a review of piecewise-defined
functions, see Section 1.2.
x < 1
x > 1
Solution
Remember that you are concerned about the value of f near x 1 rather than at
x 1. So, for x < 1, f x is given by 4 x, and you can use direct substitution
to obtain
y
7
6
lim f x lim 4 x 4 1 3.
x1
For x > 1, f x is given by 4x x 2, and you can use direct substitution to obtain
lim f x lim 4x x2 41 12 3.
x1
Because the one-sided limits both exist and are equal to 3, it follows that
lim f x 3.
x1
x1
x1
f(x) = 4 x, x < 1
2 1
1
x
1
Figure 11.20
17.80, 0 < x 1
f x 19.20, 1 < x 2
20.60, 2 < x 3
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.21. The limit of f x as x approaches 2 from
the left is
lim f x 19.20
x2
Solution
Overnight Delivery
y
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
x
x2
Because these one-sided limits are not equal, the limit of f x as x 2 does not
exist.
Now try Exercise 81.
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Section 11.2
797
h 0
f 3 h f 3
.
h
Solution
Direct substitution produces an indeterminate form.
lim
h 0
f 3 h f 3
3 h2 1 32 1
lim
h 0
h
h
2
lim 9 6h h 1 9 1
h0
h
2
lim 6h h
h0
h
0
h0
f 3 h f 3
6h h2
h6 h
lim
lim
h0
h0
h
h
h
lim 6 h
h0
60
6
So, the limit is 6.
Now try Exercise 73.
Note that for any x-value, the limit of a difference quotient is an expression
of the form
lim
h 0
f x h f x
.
h
Direct substitution into the difference quotient always produces the indeterminate
0
form 0. For instance,
lim
h0
f x h f x f x 0 f x f x f x 0
.
h
0
0
0
Prerequisite Skills
For a review of evaluating difference
quotients, refer to Section 1.2.
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Chapter 11
Page 798
11.2 Exercises
Vocabulary Check
Fill in the blanks.
1. To evaluate the limit of a rational function that has common factors in its numerator and denominator,
use the _______ .
2. The fraction 00 has no meaning as a real number and therefore is called an _______ .
3. The limit xc
lim f x L is an example of a _______ .
4. The limit of a _______ is an expression of the form lim
h0
f x h f x
.
h
1 2x 3x 2
x1
1x
7. lim
x6
6
2
9. lim
x
t2
11. lim
(b) lim gx
(b) lim hx
(c) lim gx
(c) lim hx
17. lim
x2 1
4. f x
x1
19. lim
x1
x 4 2x2 8
x 4 6x2 8
x3 2x2 x 2
x3 4x2 x 4
14. lim
x3 2x2 9x 18
x3 x2 9x 9
x3 2x2 5x 6
x3 7x 6
16. lim
x3 4x2 3x 18
x3 4x2 x 6
y
4
(b) lim gx
(b) lim f x
(c) lim gx
(c) lim f x
x3
x3
18. lim
7 z 7
z
4 18 x
20. lim
x2
x2
z0
1
1
x8 8
22. lim
x0
x
1 sin x
cos x
sec x
tan x
24. lim
25. lim
cos 2x
cot 2x
26. lim
sin x x
sin x
28. lim
1 cos x
x
x0
(a) lim f x
x3
x2
a3 64
a4
23. lim
x0
(a) lim gx
x 0
x 7 2
1
1
x1
21. lim
x0
x
2
x
x1
x3
a4
5 y 5
y0
x3
x3 x
3. gx
x1
x1
x2
x 0
x2
15. lim
x2
2x2 7x 4
x4
12. lim
x1
(a) lim hx
x 0
lim
8. x4
x4 1
x 3x2 4
13. lim
x9
10. lim
x
2
9x
x2 81
6. lim
t3 8
t2
4
x1
(a) lim gx
x6
x2 36
5. lim
x 2 3x
2. hx
x
27. lim
x 2
x 2
x0
sin x 1
x
x1
x2
In Exercises 2936, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate the limit.
x1
29. lim
x 0
x 3 3
30. lim
x0
x 4 2
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Section 11.2
31. lim
2x 1 1
x0
x5 32
33. lim
x2 x 2
1
1
x4 4
35. lim
x0
x
3 x
x9 x 9
32. lim
1
x1
1
1
2x 2
36. lim
x 0
x
x4
34. lim
x1
In Exercises 37 48, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate the limit. Write an approximation
that is accurate to three decimal places.
e2x 1
x0
x
1 ex
x0
x
37. lim
38. lim
39. lim x ln x
40. lim x2 ln x
sin 2x
41. lim
x 0
x
tan x
43. lim
x 0
x
3 x
1
45. lim
x1 1 x
sin 3x
42. lim
x0
x
x0
x0
x1
x1
x2 1
51. lim
x16
4 x
x 16
x0
4 x2, x 0
x 4, x > 0
61. f x x cos x
63. f x x sin x
64.
1
65. f x x sin
x
66. f x x cos
46. lim
3 x x
x5
52. lim
5x
25 x2
x 2 2
x0
x 0
x
cos x
h0
x 0
50. lim
sin x 2
x 0
x2
1 cos x
(b) lim
x 0
x
(b) lim
x1
x1
1
x
1 cos 2x
x 0
x
f x x cos x
62. f x x sin x
x0
44. lim
799
f x 1 h f x
.
h
69. f x 3x 1
70. f x 5 6x
71. f x x
72. f x x 2
73. f x x 2 3x
74. f x 4 2x x 2
75. f x
1
x2
76. f x
1
x1
sa st
.
at
x6
x 6
x6
1
55. lim 2
x1 x 1
54. lim
x2
x1
x2x1,3,
2x 1,
58. lim f x where f x
4x,
4x ,
59. lim f x where f x
3 x,
x2
x1
x1
x2
1
x 1
x 2
x > 2
x < 1
x 1
x 1
x > 1
56. lim
x 2
2
t
C
3.3
3.4
3.5
?
3.6
3.7
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Chapter 11
Page 800
2.5
2.9
3.1
3.5
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
2.5
2.9
px 0
qx 1
(b) lim
px 1
qx 1
(c) lim
px 1
qx 0
(d) lim
px 0
qx 0
xc
Synthesis
3.1
3.5
32.50, 0 < t 1
f t 39.00, 1 < t 2
46.80, 2 < t 3
xc
xc
xc
Skills Review
87. Write an equation of the line that passes through 6, 10
and is perpendicular to the line that passes through 4, 6
and 3, 4.
88. Write an equation of the line that passes through 1, 1
and is parallel to the line that passes through 3, 3 and
5, 2.
In Exercises 8994, identify the type of conic algebraically.
Then use a graphing utility to graph the conic.
89. r
3
1 cos
90. r
12
3 2 sin
91. r
9
2 3 cos
92. r
4
4 cos
93. r
5
1 sin
94. r
6
3 4 sin
14.40, 0 < x 1
f x 18.30, 1 < x 2
22.20, 2 < x 3
95. 7, 2, 3, 1, 4, 5
98. 2, 3, 1, 2, 2, 2
96. 5, 5, 0, 0, 5, 1
97. 4, 3, 6, 12, 9, 18
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Section 11.3
801
(x3, y3)
(x2, y2)
(x4, y4)
(x1, y1)
Figure 11.22
Richard Hutchings/Corbis
To determine the rate at which a graph rises or falls at a single point, you can
find the slope of the tangent line at that point. In simple terms, the tangent line
to the graph of a function f at a point Px1, y1 is the line that best approximates
the slope of the graph at the point. Figure 11.23 shows other examples of tangent
lines.
y
Prerequisite Skills
For a review of the slopes of lines, see
Section 1.1.
P
x
Figure 11.23
From geometry, you know that a line is tangent to a circle if the line intersects the circle at only one point. Tangent lines to noncircular graphs, however,
can intersect the graph at more than one point. For instance, in the first graph in
Figure 11.23, if the tangent line were extended, it would intersect the graph at a
point other than the point of tangency.
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Chapter 11
Page 802
Slope of a Graph
Because a tangent line approximates the slope of a graph at a point, the problem
of finding the slope of a graph at a point is the same as finding the slope of the
tangent line at the point.
y
5
Solution
From the graph of f x x 2, you can see that the tangent line at 1, 1 rises
approximately two units for each unit change in x. So, you can estimate the slope
of the tangent line at 1, 1 to be
Slope
change in y
change in x
1
3
2
1
f(x) = x2
1
x
1
Figure 11.24
2.
Because the tangent line at the point 1, 1 has a slope of about 2, you can
conclude that the graph of f has a slope of about 2 at the point 1, 1.
Now try Exercise 1.
When you are visually approximating the slope of a graph, remember that the
scales on the horizontal and vertical axes may differ. When this happens (as it
frequently does in applications), the slope of the tangent line is distorted, and you
must be careful to account for the difference in scales.
Monthly Normal
Temperatures
Solution
From the graph, you can see that the tangent line at the given point falls approximately 16 units for each two-unit change in x. So, you can estimate the slope at
the given point to be
change in y 16
Slope
90
80
Temperature (F)
Figure 11.25 graphically depicts the monthly normal temperatures (in degrees
Fahrenheit) for Dallas, Texas. Approximate the slope of this graph at the indicated
point and give a physical interpretation of the result. (Source: National Climatic
Data Center)
16
70
(10, 69)
60
50
40
30
x
2
Month
Figure 11.25
10
12
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Page 803
Section 11.3
803
(x + h, f (x + h))
f (x + h ) f (x )
(x, f (x))
The right side of this equation is called the difference quotient. The denominator h is the change in x, and the numerator is the change in y. The beauty of this
procedure is that you obtain more and more accurate approximations of the slope
of the tangent line by choosing points closer and closer to the point of tangency,
as shown in Figure 11.27.
y
(x + h, f (x + h))
(x + h, f (x + h))
Figure 11.26
(x + h, f (x + h))
(x, f (x))
(x, f (x))
f (x + h ) f (x )
(x, f (x))
f (x + h ) f (x )
h
Using the limit process, you can find the exact slope of the tangent line at
x, f x.
Definition of the Slope of a Graph
The slope m of the graph of f at the point x, f x is equal to the slope of its
tangent line at x, f x, and is given by
m lim msec
h 0
lim
h 0
Tangent line
f (x + h ) f (x )
f x h f x
h
From the above definition and from Section 11.2, you can see that the
difference quotient is used frequently in calculus. Using the difference quotient to
find the slope of a tangent line to a graph is a major concept of calculus.
(x, f (x))
x
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Chapter 11
Page 804
Solution
Find an expression that represents the slope of a secant line at 2, 4.
msec
f 2 h f 2
h
2 h2 22
h
4 4h h 2 4
h
Expand terms.
4h h 2
h
Simplify.
h4 h
h
4 h,
f(x) = x2
Tangent
line at
(2, 4)
4
3
2
h0
Simplify.
m = 4
4
h 0
The graph has a slope of 4 at the point 2, 4, as shown in Figure 11.28.
Figure 11.28
Solution
m lim
h 0
f x h f x
h
2(x h 4 2x 4
lim
h0
h
lim
h 0
2x 2h 4 2x 4
h
Expand terms.
3
2h
lim
h 0 h
Divide out.
2
Simplify.
m = 2
You know from your study of linear functions that the line given by f x
2x 4 has a slope of 2, as shown in Figure 11.29. This conclusion is
consistent with that obtained by the limit definition of slope, as shown above.
Now try Exercise 7.
f(x) = 2x + 4
x
1
1
Figure 11.29
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Section 11.3
805
It is important that you see the difference between the ways the difference
quotients were set up in Examples 3 and 4. In Example 3, you were finding the
slope of a graph at a specific point c, f c. To find the slope in such a case, you
can use the following form of the difference quotient.
m lim
h 0
f c h f c
h
In Example 4, however, you were finding a formula for the slope at any point on
the graph. In such cases, you should use x, rather than c, in the difference quotient.
m lim
h 0
f x h f x
h
Except for linear functions, this form will always produce a function of x, which
can then be evaluated to find the slope at any desired point.
Solution
f x h f x
msec
h
x h2 1 x2 1
h
Substitute into f x x2 1.
x 2 2xh h 2 1 x 2 1
h
Expand terms.
2xh h 2
h
Simplify.
h2x h
h
2x h,
h0
TECHNOLOGY TIP
Try verifying the result in
Example 5 by using a graphing
utility to graph the function and
the tangent lines at 1, 2 and
2, 5 as
y1 x2 1
y2 2x
y3 4x 3
in the same viewing window.
Some graphing utilities even have
a tangent feature that automatically graphs the tangent line to
a curve at a given point. If you
have such a graphing utility, try
verifying the solution of Example
5 using this feature. For instructions on how to use the tangent
feature, see Appendix A; for
specific keystrokes, go to this
textbooks Online Study Center.
Simplify.
7
6
h 0
Using the formula m 2x for the slope at x, f x, you can find the slope at the
specified points. At 1, 2, the slope is
m 21 2
and at 2, 5, the slope is
m 22 4.
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.30.
Now try Exercise 13.
f(x) = x2 + 1
Tangent
line at
(2, 5)
4
3
Tangent
line at
(1, 2)
4 3 2 1
1
Figure 11.30
x
1
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Chapter 11
Page 806
STUDY TIP
Solution
f x lim
h 0
f x h f x
h
3x h2 2x h 3x2 2x
h0
h
lim
lim
3x 2
6xh
3h 2
h 0
2x 2h
h
3x 2
2x
6xh 3h 2 2h
h 0
h
lim
lim h6x 3h 2
h 0
h
lim 6x 3h 2
h 0
6x 30 2
6x 2
So, the derivative of f x 3x 2 2x is f x 6x 2.
Now try Exercise 29.
Note that in addition to fx, other notations can be used to denote the
derivative of y f x. The most common are
dy
,
dx
y,
d
f x,
dx
and
Dx y.
Exploration
Use a graphing utility to graph
the function f x 3x2 2x.
Use the trace feature to approximate the coordinates of the
vertex of this parabola. Then
use the derivative of
f x 3x2 2x to find the
slope of the tangent line at the
vertex. Make a conjecture about
the slope of the tangent line at
the vertex of an arbitrary
parabola.
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Page 807
Section 11.3
807
Solution
f x h f x
h
f x lim
h 0
lim
x h x
h0
0
Because direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0, you should use the
rationalizing technique discussed in Section 11.2 to find the limit.
f x lim
h 0
x h x
lim
x h x
hx h x
lim
h
hx h x
h 0
h 0
lim
h 0
x h x
x h x
STUDY TIP
Remember that in order to
rationalize the numerator of an
expression, you must multiply
the numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the
numerator.
1
x h x
1
x 0 x
1
2x
1
.
21 2
1
2 x 1
1
1
2 x 2.
Point-slope form
Tangent line
1
.
24 4
y2
y
Point-slope form
1
Substitute 4 for m, 4 for x1, and 2 for y1.
Tangent line
The graphs of f and the tangent lines at the points 1, 1 and 4, 2 are shown in
Figure 11.31.
Now try Exercise 39.
1
2
(4, 2)
f(x) =
Figure 11.31
m=
y y1 mx x1
m=
1
2
y = 14 x + 1
(1, 1)
y = 12 x +
1
4
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Chapter 11
Page 808
11.3 Exercises
Vocabulary Check
Fill in the blanks.
1. _______ is the study of the rates of change of functions.
2. The _______ to the graph of a function at a point is the line that best approximates the slope
of the graph at the point.
3. A _______ is a line through the point of tangency and a second point on the graph.
4. The slope of the secant line is represented by the _______ msec
f x h f x
.
h
5. The _______ of a function f at x represents the slope of the graph of f at the point x, f x.
In Exercises 1 4, use the figure to approximate the slope of
the curve at the point x, y.
y
1.
3
(b) 2, 12
(x, y)
2 1
2
y
3.
4.
(x, y)
1
x
2 1
(x, y)
x
2 1
1
x2
(a) 0, 12
18. f x x 4
(a) 5, 2
(a) 5, 1
(b) 10, 3
(b) 8, 2
In Exercises 1924, use a graphing utility to graph the function and the tangent line at the point 1, f 1. Use the graph
to approximate the slope of the tangent line.
16. f x
(b) 1, 1
17. gx x 1
(x, y)
1
x
1
x4
(a) 0, 14
2.
15. gx
19. f x x 2 2
20. f x x 2 2x 1
21. f x 2 x
22. f x x 3
23. f x
4
x1
24. f x
3
2x
x2
4x, 3, 3
7. gx 5 2x, 1, 3
4
9. gx , 2, 2
x
11. hx x, 9, 3
6. f x 10x
2x 2,
3, 12
8. hx 2x 5, 1, 3
10. gx
1
,
x2
4, 2
1
25. f x 5
26. f x 1
27. f x 9
1
3x
29. f x 4 3x2
31. f x
1
x2
37. f x
30. f x x 2 3x 4
32. f x
33. f x x 4
35. f x
28. f x 5x 2
1
x2
1
x 9
1
x3
34. f x x 8
36. f x
38. f x
1
x5
1
x 1
(a) 0, 4
(a) 1, 1
(b) 1, 3
(b) 2, 8
39. f x x2 1, 2, 3
13. gx 4 x 2
14. gx x3
40. f x 4 x2, 1, 3
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Page 809
Section 11.3
41. f x x3 2x, 1, 1
42. f x x3 x, 2, 6
43. f x x 1, 3, 2
44. f x x 2, 3, 1
45. f x
1
, 4, 1
x5
46. f x
1
, 4, 1
x3
2
1.5
1
0.5
0.5
1.5
f x
Year
Population
(in thousands)
2010
2015
2020
2025
9018
9256
9462
9637
809
Table for 63
fx
47. f x 12x 2
48. f x 14 x3
49. f x x 3
50. f x
x2 4
x4
In Exercises 51 54, find the derivative of f. Use the derivative to determine any points on the graph of f at which the
tangent line is horizontal. Use a graphing utility to verify
your results.
51. f x x 2 4x 3
52. f x x2 6x 4
53. f x 3x3 9x
54. f x x3 3x
In Exercises 5562, use the function and its derivative to
determine any points on the graph of f at which the tangent
line is horizontal. Use a graphing utility to verify your
results.
55. f x x4 2x2, fx 4x3 4x
56. f x 3x4 4x3, fx 12x3 12x2
57. f x 2 cos x x, fx 2 sin x 1, over the interval
0, 2
58. f x x 2 sin x, fx 1 2 cos x, over the interval
0, 2
59. f x x2ex, fx x2ex 2xex
60. f x xex, fx ex xex
61. f x x ln x, fx ln x 1
62. f x
ln x
1 ln x
, fx
x
x2
Price, p
Number of books, N
$10
$15
$20
$25
$30
$35
900
630
396
227
102
36
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Chapter 11
Page 810
derivative
when
the
radius
is
70. A tangent line to a graph can intersect the graph only at the
point of tangency.
Library of Parent Functions In Exercises 7174, match
the function with the graph of its derivative. It is not
necessary to find the derivative of the function. [The graphs
are labeled (a), (b), (c), and (d).]
2 3
x
1
y
(c)
1 2 3 4 5
y
(d)
5
4
3
(b) Find the average rate of change of the balloon after the
first three seconds of flight. Explain your results.
(c) Find the time at which the balloon reaches its maximum
height. Explain your method.
5
4
3
2
1
(b)
(a)
3
2
1
x
1 2 3
2 1
2
3
x
1 2 3
71. f x x
73. f x x
72. f x
1
x
74. f x x 3
Skills Review
In Exercises 77 80, sketch the graph of the rational
function. As sketching aids, check for intercepts, vertical
asymptotes, horizontal asymptotes, and slant asymptotes.
Use a graphing utility to verify your graph.
77. f x
78. f x
(d) Find the time when the coins velocity is 60 feet per
second.
1
x2 x 2
x2
x2 4x 3
79. f x
80. f x
x2 x 2
x2
x2 16
x4
Synthesis
True or False? In Exercises 69 and 70, determine whether
the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
69. The slope of the graph of y x2 is different at every point
on the graph of f.
81. 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1
82. 10, 0, 6, 7, 0, 0
83. 4, 10, 0, 4, 1, 0
84. 8, 7, 14, 1, 8, 4
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Page 811
Section 11.4
811
x1
.
2x
The graph of f is shown in Figure 11.32. From earlier work, you know that y 2
is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of this function. Using limit notation, this
can be written as follows.
f x
1
2
lim f x
1
2
lim
AP Photos
1
These limits mean that the value of f x gets arbitrarily close to 2 as x decreases
or increases without bound.
f(x) = x + 1
2x
3
1
y=
1
2
Figure 11.32
Limit as x approaches
lim f x L 2
Limit as x approaches
and
x
denote the limits at infinity. The first statement is read the limit of f x as x
approaches is L1, and the second is read the limit of f x as x
approaches is L 2.
TECHNOLOGY TIP
Recall from Section 2.7 that some
graphing utilities have difficulty
graphing rational functions. In
this text, rational functions are
graphed using the dot mode of a
graphing utility, and a blue curve
is placed behind the graphing
utilitys display to indicate where
the graph should appear.
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Chapter 11
Page 812
To help evaluate limits at infinity, you can use the following definition.
Limits at Infinity
Exploration
1
0.
xr
y1
lim
x
Limits at infinity share many of the properties of limits listed in Section 11.1.
Some of these properties are demonstrated in the next example.
1
x
and
y2
1
3 x
1
?
xr
4 x3
2
Algebraic Solution
Graphical Solution
lim
4 x3 lim 4 lim x3
2
x
lim 4 3 x
lim
x2
y=4
4 30
4
So, the limit of f x 4
y = 4 32
x
3
as x approaches is 4.
x2
20
120
1
Figure 11.33
4 x3 4.
2
The graph of a rational function need not have a horizontal asymptote. If it does,
however, its left and right asymptotes must be the same.
When evaluating limits at infinity for more complicated rational functions,
divide the numerator and denominator by the highest-powered term in the
denominator. This enables you to evaluate each limit using the limits at infinity
at the top of this page.
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Section 11.4
2x 2 3
b. f x
3x 2 1
2x 3 3
c. f x
3x 2 1
Solution
In each case, begin by dividing both the numerator and denominator by x 2, the
highest-powered term in the denominator.
2
3
2
2x 3
x
x
lim
x
lim
a. x
3x2 1
1
3 2
x
3
x2
1
3 2
x
2
3
2x3 3
lim
x
lim
c. x
3x2 1
lim
1
0.
x
10 0
10 1
10 2
10 3
10 4
10 5
1
x
2 0
30
0 0
30
2x 2 3
x
lim
3x2 1
Exploration
1
x
lim
b. x
813
2x
3
3
x2
1
x2
In Example 2, observe that when the degree of the numerator is less than the
degree of the denominator, as in part (a), the limit is 0. When the degrees of the
numerator and denominator are equal, as in part (b), the limit is the ratio of the
coefficients of the highest-powered terms. When the degree of the numerator is
greater than the degree of the denominator, as in part (c), the limit does not exist.
This result seems reasonable when you realize that for large values of x, the
highest-powered term of a polynomial is the most influential term. That is, a
polynomial tends to behave as its highest-powered term behaves as x approaches
positive or negative infinity.
x0
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Chapter 11
Page 814
and
Dx bm xm . . . b0.
0,
lim
f
an
x
,
bm
n < m
nm
.
x
x
Find the average cost per card when (a) x 1000, (b) x 10,000, and
(c) x 100,000. (d) What is the limit of C as x approaches infinity?
Solution
a. When x 1000, the average cost per card is
C
0.501000 5000
1000
x 1000
$5.50.
b. When x 10,000, the average cost per card is
C
0.5010,000 5000
10,000
x 10,000
$1.00.
c. When x 100,000, the average cost per card is
C
0.50100,000 5000
100,000
C=
x 100,000
C 0.50x + 5000
=
x
x
$0.55.
0
0.50x 5000
$0.50.
x
100,000
0
y = 0.5
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Section 11.4
815
Limits of Sequences
Limits of sequences have many of the same properties as limits of functions. For
instance, consider the sequence whose nth term is an 12n.
1 1 1 1 1
, , , , ,. . .
2 4 8 16 32
As n increases without bound, the terms of this sequence get closer and
closer to 0, and the sequence is said to converge to 0. Using limit notation, you
can write
lim
1
0.
2n
TECHNOLOGY TIP
There are a number of ways to
use a graphing utility to generate
the terms of a sequence. For
instance, you can display the first
10 terms of the sequence
an
1
2n
A sequence that does not converge is said to diverge. For instance, the
sequence 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . diverges because it does not approach a unique
number.
2n 1
n4
b. bn
2n 1
n2 4
c. cn
2n2 1
4n2
Solution
lim
a. n
2n 1
2
n4
3 5 7 9 11 13
, , , , , ,. . . 2
5 6 7 8 9 10
lim
b. n
2n 1
0
n2 4
3 5 7 9 11 13
, , , , , ,. . . 0
5 8 13 20 29 40
2n2 1 1
n
4n2
2
c. lim
3 9 19 33 51 73
1
, , , ,
,
,. . .
4 16 36 64 100 144
2
STUDY TIP
You can use the definition of
limits at infinity for rational
functions on page 814 to verify
the limits of the sequences in
Example 4.
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Chapter 11
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In the next section, you will encounter limits of sequences such as that shown
in Example 5. A strategy for evaluating such limits is to begin by writing the nth
term in standard rational function form. Then you can determine the limit by
comparing the degrees of the numerator and denominator, as shown on page 814.
8 nn 12n 1
.
n3
6
Algebraic Solution
Numerical Solution
an
8 nn 12n 1
n3
6
8nn 12n 1
6n3
Multiply fractions.
8n3 12n2 4n
3n3
From this form, you can see that the degree of the numerator is
equal to the degree of the denominator. So, the limit of the sequence
is the ratio of the coefficients of the highest-powered terms.
8n3 12n2 4n 8
3n3
3
Figure 11.35
lim
n
Exploration
In the table in Example 5 above, the value of an approaches its limit of 83
rather slowly. (The first term to be accurate to three decimal places is
a4801 2.667.) Each of the following sequences converges to 0. Which
converges the quickest? Which converges the slowest? Why? Write a short
paragraph discussing your conclusions.
a. an
1
n
b. bn
1
n2
d. dn
1
n!
e. hn
2n
n!
c. cn
1
2n
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Section 11.4
11.4 Exercises
817
Vocabulary Check
Fill in the blanks.
1. A at can be used to solve the area problem in calculus.
2. A sequence that has a limit is said to .
3. A sequence that does not have a limit is said to .
In Exercises 1 8, match the function with its graph, using
horizontal asymptotes as aids. [The graphs are labeled (a),
(b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h).]
(a)
(b)
In Exercises 928, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does
not exist, explain why. Use a graphing utility to verify your
result graphically.
9. lim
9
3
(c)
(d)
11. lim
13.
3
x2
10. lim
5
2x
3x
3x
12. lim
2 7x
2 3x
lim
15. lim
9
8
(g)
21.
23.
12
10
3. f x 4
1
x2
4. f x x
1
x
y2
4y 4
3
5 6x 3x2
2x2 x 4
22. lim
lim
x 2 3
2 x2
24. lim
2x 2 6
x 12
lim
x 1
26. lim
7 x 3
28. lim
2x 1 x 3
x2
2. f x 2
x 1
3 8y 4y 2
3 y 2y 2
4x 2
1. f x 2
x 1
x2 3
5x2 4
lim
lim
27. lim
16.
20. lim
25.
6
4x2 3
2 x2
4t 2 3t 1
3t 2 2t 5
(h)
5 3x
x4
19. lim
14. lim
18. lim
9
6
5x 2
6x 1
t2
t3
(f)
17. lim
3
(e)
3t
1
2
5t
t2
t 2 9t 10
2 4t 3t 2
2x 2
3x 2
In Exercises 2934, use a graphing utility to graph the function and verify that the horizontal asymptote corresponds to
the limit at infinity.
29. y
3x
1x
30. y
2x
1 x2
32. y
5. f x
x2
x2 1
6. f x
2x 1
x2
31. y
7. f x
1 2x
x2
8. f x
1 4x2
x2 4
33. y 1
3
x2
x2
x2
4
2x 1
x2 1
34. y 2
1
x
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Chapter 11
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10 0
10 1
10 2
10 3
10 4
10 5
10 6
f x
35. f x x x 2 2
37. f x 32x 4x 2 x
36. f x 3x 9x 2 1
(b) Find the average costs of recycling 100 tons of material and 1000 tons of material.
(c) Determine the limit of the average cost function as x
approaches infinity. Explain the meaning of the limit in
the context of the problem.
n1
n2 1
40. an
41. an
n
2n 1
42. an
n
n2 1
4n 1
n3
4n2 1
44. an
2n
3n 1!
46. an
3n 1!
1n1
48. an
n2
n2
3n 2
n 1!
45. an
n!
43. an
47. an
1n
n
10 0
10 1
10 2
10 3
10 4
10 5
10 6
an
1
1 nn 1
n
n
n
2
4
4 nn 1
50. an n
n
n
2
16 nn 12n 1
51. an 3
n
6
nn 1
1 nn 1
52. an
4
n2
n
2
49. an
Enrollment, E
(in millions)
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
60.3
61.7
62.6
63.1
63.9
64.8
65.7
66.5
67.0
67.7
68.7
69.9
71.2
71.4
Year
0.702t 2 61.49
, 0 t 13
0.009t 2 1
(a) Write a model for the average cost per unit produced.
(b) Find the average costs per unit when x 100 and
x 1000.
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Page 819
Section 11.4
56. Highway Safety The table shows the numbers of injuries
N (in thousands) from motor vehicle accidents in the
United States for the years 1991 through 2004. (Source:
U.S. National Highway Safety Administration)
Year
Injuries, N
(in thousands)
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
3097
3070
3149
3266
3465
3483
3348
3192
3236
3189
3033
2926
2889
2788
61. Think About It Find the functions f and g such that both
f x and gx increase without bound as x approaches c, but
lim fx gx .
xc
64. an 3 32
65. an
31 1.5n
1 1.5
31 0.5n
1 0.5
66. an
Skills Review
In Exercises 67 and 68, sketch the graphs of y and each
transformation on the same rectangular coordinate system.
67. y x 4
(a) f x x 34
(b) f x x 4 1
(c) f x 2 x 4
1
(d) f x 2x 44
68. y x3
(a) f x x 23
(b) f x 3 x3
(c) f x 2
(d) f x 3x 13
1 3
4x
Synthesis
True or False? In Exercises 57 60, determine whether the
statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
74. f x x 5 x3 6x
75. f x x3 3x2 2x 6
76. f x x3 4x2 25x 100
819
77.
2i 3
78.
i1
15
k1
i0
10
79.
5i
8
80.
k0
3
1
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Chapter 11
Page 820
Limits of Summations
Earlier in the text, you used the concept of a limit to obtain a formula for the sum
S of an infinite geometric series
S a1 a1r a1r 2 . . .
a1r i1
i1
a1
,
1r
r < 1.
S n
lim
ar
i1 1
i1
a 1 r n
a1
n
lim 1
.
1r
1r
The following summation formulas and properties are used to evaluate finite and
infinite summations.
Summation Formulas and Properties
n
1.
c cn, c is a constant.
2.
nn 1(2n 1
6
4.
i1
n
3.
i1
n
5.
bi
i1
i1
n
6.
i1
nn 1
2
a b
i1
i1
n 2n 12
4
n
ka k a , k is a constant.
i
i1
i1
Adam Woolfitt/Corbis
i 1 2 3 4 . . . 200
Prerequisite Skills
Recall that the sum of a finite
geometric sequence is given by
i1
a r
1
Solution
i1
i1
200
i1
nn 1
2
200200 1
2
40,200
2
20,100.
Now try Exercise 1.
i1
a1
11 rr .
n
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Section 11.5
821
TECHNOLOGY TIP
i2
3
4
5
n2
2 2 2. . .
2
n
n
n
n
n2
i1
n
Solution
Begin by applying summation formulas and properties to simplify S. In the
second line of the solution, note that 1n 2 can be factored out of the sum because
n is considered to be constant. You could not factor i out of the summation
because i is the (variable) index of summation.
i2
2
i1 n
1 n
i 2
n2 i1
1
n2
i 2
n
i1
i1
1 nn 1
2n
n2
2
1 n 2 5n
n2
2
Add fractions.
n5
2n
Simplify.
Now you can evaluate the sum by substituting the appropriate values of n, as
shown in the following table.
n
i2 n5
2
2n
i1 n
10
100
1000
10,000
0.75
0.525
0.5025
0.50025
n5 1
.
2n
2
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11:14 AM
Chapter 11
Page 822
Be sure you notice the strategy used in Example 2. Rather than separately
evaluating the sums
i2
,
2
i1 n
i2
,
2
i1 n
10
100
1000
i1
i2
,
n2
10,000
i1
i2
n2
it was more efficient first to convert to rational form using the summation formulas and properties listed on page 820.
S
i2 n5
2
2n
i1 n
n
With this rational form, each sum can be evaluated by simply substituting appropriate values of n.
1 n n
n
i1
Solution
STUDY TIP
1 n n
n
i1
2ni i 2
n2
i1
Square 1 in
and write as a single
fraction.
1n
1 n 2
n 2ni i 2
n3 i1
1
n3
n2
i1
2ni
i1
i
n
nn 1
1 3
nn 12n 1
n 2n
n3
2
6
14n3 9n2 n
6n3
lim
lim Sn n
Use summation
formulas.
Simplify.
i1
14n3
n
6n3
9n2
14 7
6
3
Now try Exercise 13.
Prerequisite Skills
To review limits at infinity, see
Section 11.4.
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Page 823
Section 11.5
823
You now have the tools needed to solve the second basic problem of calculus: the
area problem. The problem is to find the area of the region R bounded by the
graph of a nonnegative, continuous function f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines
x a and x b, as shown in Figure 11.36.
If the region R is a square, a triangle, a trapezoid, or a semicircle, you can
find its area by using a geometric formula. For more general regions, however,
you must use a different approachone that involves the limit of a summation.
The basic strategy is to use a collection of rectangles of equal width that approximates the region R, as illustrated in Example 4.
Figure 11.36
Use the five rectangles in Figure 11.37 to approximate the area of the region
bounded by the graph of f x 6 x 2, the x-axis, and the lines x 0 and
x 2.
f (x ) = 6 x 2
Solution
Because the length of the interval along the x-axis is 2 and there are five
rectangles, the width of each rectangle is 25. The height of each rectangle can be
obtained by evaluating f at the right endpoint of each interval. The five intervals
are as follows.
0, 5,
5, 5,
5, 5,
2 4
5, 5,
4 6
5, 5
6 8
8 10
5
4
3
2
Notice that the right endpoint of each interval is 25i for i 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The
sum of the areas of the five rectangles is
x
1
Height Width
Figure 11.37
2i
f
5
i1
5
2
2i
6
5
5
i1
2
5
2
5
6 254 i
5
i1
i1
2
44
212
30
8.48.
5
5
25
25
100
1000
5000
8.48
9.17
9.29
9.33
9.33
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Chapter 11
Page 824
A n
lim
i1
b ai
n
Height
ba
.
n
Width
Solution
f (x ) = x 2
ba 10 1
n
n
n
Height: f a
b ai
1 0i
i
i2
f 0
f
2
n
n
n
n
x
1
f a
n
i1
b n a
n n
n
i2
i1
b ai
n
i2
i1
1 n 2
i
n3i1
1 nn 12n 1
n3
6
2n3 3n2 n
6n3
n
6n3
3
A lim
Figure 11.38
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Page 825
Section 11.5
825
f (x ) = 3 x x 2
Solution
Begin by finding the dimensions of the rectangles.
ba 21 1
n
n
n
Width:
Height: f a
b ai
i
f 1
n
n
3 1
i
i
1
n
n
Figure 11.39
i2
3i
2i
3 1 2
n
n
n
2
i
i2
2
n n
f a
n
i1
b ai
n
2 n n n
n
i2
i1
b n a
1 n
1 n
1 n
2 2 i 3 i2
n i1
n i1
n i1
1
1 nn 1
1 nn 12n 1
2n 2
3
n
n
2
n
6
n2 n 2n3 3n2 n
2n2
6n3
1
1
1
1
1
2 2n 3 2n 6n2
13
1
2
6
6n
136 6n1
2
13
6
Now try Exercise 39.
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Chapter 11
Page 826
11.5 Exercises
Vocabulary Check
Fill in the blanks.
n
1.
i _______
2.
i1
_______
i1
3. The exact _______ of a plane region R is given by the limit of the sum of n rectangles as n approaches .
In Exercises 1 8, evaluate the sum using the summation
formulas and properties.
60
1.
2.
4.
i3
k1
25
7.
3
2
i1
30
i1
20
5.
j2
i2
i1
50
6.
2k 1
k1
10
8.
j1
3j 2
j1
10 0
101
10 2
10 3
i
2
n
i1
n
2i 3
12.
n2
i1
i1 n
n
3
1 i 2
11.
3
i1 n
n
i2
2 1
13.
3
n n
i1 n
n
i 2 1
1
15.
n
n
i1
14.
i1
n
16.
i1
20
50
22. f x 9 x 2
y
i
32
n
4
2i
2
n
n
1
n
2i
n
18. f x 2 x2
10
10.
Approximate area
1
21. f x 3x 4
i3
10 4
Sn
9.
In Exercises 2124, complete the table showing the approximate area of the region in the graph using n rectangles of
equal width.
1
20. f x 2x 13
45
i1
20
3.
1
19. f x 4x3
x
4
12
1
23. f x 9x3
1
24. f x 3 4x3
y
5
6
5
1
1
x
1
3 2 1
x
1 2 3
x
1
2 1
x
1
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Page 827
Section 11.5
y
20
50
100
827
Road
450
Stream
360
270
180
Road
90
Area
x
50 100 150 200 250 300
Function
Interval
25. f x 2x 5
30. f x x2 1
0, 4
0, 4
1, 5
2, 6
0, 2
4, 6
1
31. f x 2x 4
1, 3
1
32. f x 2x 1
2, 2
26. f x 3x 1
27. f x 16 2x
28. f x 20 2x
29. f x 9 x2
Figure for 46
Synthesis
True or False? In Exercises 47 and 48, determine whether
the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
33. f x 4x 1
0, 1
0, 2
0, 1
2, 5
1, 1
0, 1
1, 2
1, 4
0, 1
0, 2
1, 4
1, 1
34. f x 3x 2
35. f x 2x 3
36. f x 3x 4
37. f x 2 x 2
38. f x x 2 2
39. gx 8 x3
40. g x 64 x3
41. gx 2x x3
42. gx 4x x3
43. f x
1 2
4 x
4x
44. f x x 2 x3
48. The exact area of a region is given by the limit of the sum
of n rectangles as n approaches 0.
50. Think About It Determine which value best approximates the area of the region shown in the graph. (Make
your selection on the basis of the sketch of the region and
not by performing any calculations.)
(a) 2
(b) 1
(c) 4
(d) 6
(e) 9
y
3
2
1
50
100
150
200
250
300
450
362
305
268
245
156
x
1
Skills Review
In Exercises 51 and 52, solve the equation.
51. 2 tan x tan 2x
< >
<
53. u vu
55. v 2
>
54. 3u v
56. u 2 v 2
and
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Chapter 11
Page 828
limit, p. 781
direct substitution, p. 785
dividing out technique, p. 791
indeterminate form, p. 792
rationalizing technique, p. 793
Key Concepts
11.1 Conditions under which limits do not exist
The limit of f x as x c does not exist if any of the
following conditions is true.
1. f x approaches a different number from the right
side of c than it approaches from the left side of c.
2. f x increases or decreases without bound as x c.
3. f x oscillates between two fixed values as x c.
11.1 Use basic limits and properties of limits
Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer,
and let f and g be functions with the limits lim f x L
xc
and lim gx K.
0, n < m
lim f x an
x
, nm
bm
xc
1. lim b b
xc
2. lim x c
xc
3. lim
xc
xn
cn
n x
n c, n even, c > 0 5. lim bf x bL
4. lim
xc
xc
f x lim
11.5
5.
i1
n
6.
a b
bi
i1
i1
ka k a ,
i
i1
k is a constant.
i1
f a
n
i1
b ai
n
Height
ba
.
n
Width
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Review Exercises
Review Exercises
x2 1
x1 x 1
2.99
2.999
f x
2. lim
x2
3.1
1.9
1.99
1.999
2.001
2.01
2.1
xc
(b) lim 3f x gx
(d) lim
f x
gx
0.001
3
(a) lim
f x
(b) lim
f x
18
0.01
xc
xc
xc
0.1
xc
0.1
0.01
0.001
12. lim 5x 4
14. lim 5 2x x 2
t2 1
15. lim
t3
t
16. lim
3
17. lim
4x
18. lim 5 x
x2
?
0.001
0.01
0.1
x2
f x
21. lim
x1
In Exercises 58, use the graph to find the limit (if it exists).
If the limit does not exist, explain why.
6. lim
x1
3
2
1
3
2
1
x
x
1 2 3
1
2
3
lim arcsin x
x12
t2
t2 t2 4
x5
27. lim 2
x5 x 5x 50
x2 4
29. lim 3
x2 x 8
25. lim
23.
2 3 4 5
2e x
x3
x2
x2
3x 5
5x 3
x1
x0
22. lim ln x
x4
1
x2 x 2
5. lim 3 x
xc
1
11. lim 2 x 3
x4
f x
x
xc
ln1 x
4. lim
x0
x
x
xc
f x
xc
xc
?
0.001
(a) lim f x
xc
0.01
x
1 2 3
xc
f x
x
2 1
1 ex
x
0.1
1 2 3 4
9. lim f x 4, lim gx 5
5
4
3
x
1
2
x2
3x 2 4x 4
f x
x0
3.01
3. lim
3.001
4
3
2
1
x3
2.9
x1
1. lim 6x 1
x
8. lim 2x2 1
7. lim
t2 9
t3 t 3
x1
28. lim 2
x1 x 5x 6
x3 64
30. lim 2
x4 x 16
26. lim
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Chapter 11
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1
1
x2
31. lim
x1
x1
4 u 2
33. lim
u 0
u
x 1 2
35. lim
x5
x5
1
1
x1
32. lim
x 0
x
v 9 3
34. lim
v0
v
3 x 2
36. lim
x1
1x
x3
x3
x2 9
38. lim
x4
tan 2x
x
1 x
44. lim
x1
x1
x 3
46. lim
x3
2
47. lim 2
x2 x 4
x5
49. lim
x5 x 5
8 x
54. f x x2 5x 2
1
2
3
4
5
x
3
(x, y)
68. gx 3
69. hx 5 12x
70. f x 3x
71. gx
72. f x x3 4x
2x2
74. gt t 3
6
76. gt
5t
78. f x
x 4
1
12 x
4x
2x 3
2x
81. lim 2
x x 25
x2
83. lim
x 2x 3
x
85. lim
3
x x 22
80. lim
7x
14x 2
3x
1 x3
3y 4
84. lim 2
y y 1
2x2
86. lim 2
x
x 12
82. lim
56.
(b) 4, 2
53. f x 3x x 2
(a) 1, 1
79. lim
f x 1 h f x
.
h
66. f x x
55.
(b) 1, 14
67. f x 5
77. gx
h0
(a) 2, 4
73. f t t 5
4
75. gs
s5
x8
64. f x 14 x4
8x
1
48. lim 2
x3 x 9
x2
50. lim
x2 x 2
5 x, x 2
51. lim f x where f x 2
x2
x 3, x > 2
x 6, x 0
52. lim f x where f x 2
x0
x 4, x < 0
63. f x x 2 4x
(b) 8, 2
x0
x3
65. f x
60. f x x2 5
1
62. f x
3x
4
x6
(a) 7, 4
42. lim
x0
59. f x x 2
6
61. f x
x4
(b) 5, 5
x0
41. lim
58. f x 6 x2
(a) 0, 0
4x
16 x2
x0
57. f x x 2 2x
(x, y)
3
2
1
87. an
x
1 2 3
2n 3
5n 4
88. an
2n
n2 1
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Review Exercises
1n
1n1
90. an
3
n
n
1
91. an 2 3 2nn 1
2n
2
2 nn 1
n
n
92. an
n
n
2
Function
89. an
100. f x 2x 6
101. f x x 2 4
102. f x 8x x 2
103. f x x3 1
10 0
101
10 2
10 3
Interval
0, 10
3, 6
1, 2
0, 1
0, 2
3, 1
1, 3
2, 0
99. f x 10 x
104. f x 1 x3
105. f x 3x3 x2
106. f x 5 x 22
10 4
Sn
n
n
93.
4i 2
i1
i
n
4 n n
n
94.
3i
3i
100
200
300
400
500
125
125
120
112
90
90
600
700
800
900
1000
95
88
75
35
i1
96. f x 4
x2
Road
125
4
3
2
3
2
x
1 2
75
50
25
3 4
Stream
100
Road
x
200 400 600 800 1000
20
50
(c) Use the model in part (a) to estimate the area of the lot.
Approximate area
Synthesis
97. f x
98. f x 4x x
1 2
4x
3
2
108. The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of the
limits of the two functions.
x
1
x
1 2
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11 Chapter Test
Take this test as you would take a test in class. After you are finished, check your
work against the answers given in the back of the book.
In Exercises 13, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate the
limit (if it exists). Then find the limit (if it exists) algebraically by using appropriate
techniques.
1.
lim
x2
x2 1
2x
2. lim
x1
x2 5x 3
1x
3. lim
x 2
x5
x5
In Exercises 4 and 5, use a graphing utility to graph the function and approximate
the limit. Write an approximation that is accurate to four decimal places. Then
create a table to verify your limit numerically.
4. lim
x0
sin 3x
x
5. lim
x0
e2x 1
x
6. Find a formula for the slope of the graph of f at the point x, f x. Then use it to find
the slope at the specified point.
(a) f x 3x2 5x 2, 2, 0
8. f x 2x2 4x 1
9. f x
1
x3
In Exercises 10 12, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why.
Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
10. lim
6
5x 1
11. lim
1
x2 5
3x2
12.
lim
x2
3x 2
In Exercises 13 and 14, write the first five terms of the sequence and find the limit of
the sequence (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why. Assume n begins
with 1.
13. an
n2 3n 4
2n2 n 2
14. an
1 1n
n
15. Approximate the area of the region bounded by the graph of f x 8 2x2 shown at
the right using the indicated number of rectangles of equal width.
In Exercises 16 and 17, use the limit process to find the area of the region between the
graph of the function and the x-axis over the specified interval.
16. f x x 2; interval: 2, 2
18. The table shows the height of a space shuttle during its first 5 seconds of motion.
(a) Use the regression feature of a graphing utility to find a quadratic model
y ax2 bx c for the data.
(b) The value of the derivative of the model is the rate of change of height with respect
to time, or the velocity, at that instant. Find the velocity of the shuttle after 5 seconds.
y
10
6
4
2
x
1
Figure for 15
Time
(seconds), x
Height
(feet), y
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
23
60
115
188
Table for 18
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Take this test to review the material in Chapters 10 and 11. After you are finished,
check your work against the answers given in the back of the book.
4
(0, 4, 3)
(0, 0, 3)
1. The point is located six units behind the yz-plane, one unit to the right of the xz-plane,
and three units above the xy-plane.
(0, 0, 0)
2. The point is located on the y-axis, four units to the left of the xz-plane.
4. Find the lengths of the sides of the right triangle at the right. Show that these lengths
satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem.
5. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment joining 3, 4, 1 and
5, 0, 2.
4
x
Figure for 4
6. Find an equation of the sphere for which the endpoints of a diameter are 0, 0, 0 and
4, 4, 8.
7. Sketch the graph of the equation x 22 y 12 z2 4, and then sketch the
xy-trace and the yz-trace.
8. For the vectors u 2, 6, 0 and v 4, 5, 3, find u v and u v.
In Exercises 911, determine whether u and v are orthogonal, parallel, or neither.
9. u 4, 4, 0
v 0, 8, 6
10. u 4, 2, 10
v 2, 6, 2
11. u 1, 6, 3
v 3, 18, 9
12. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with the vertices A(1, 3, 2), B(3, 4, 2), C(3, 2,
2), D(1, 1, 2), E(1, 3, 5), F(3, 4, 5), G(3, 2, 5), and H(1, 1, 5).
13. Find sets of (a) parametric equations and (b) symmetric equations for the line passing
through the points 2, 3, 0 and 5, 8, 25.
14. Find the parametric form of the equation of the line passing through the point
1, 2, 0 and perpendicular to 2x 4y z 8.
z
6
(1, 1, 3)
(0, 0, 0)
15. Find an equation of the plane passing through the points 0, 0, 0, 2, 3, 0, and
5, 8, 25.
(3, 1, 3)
16. Label the intercepts and sketch the graph of the plane given by 3x 6y 12z 24.
17. Find the distance between the point 0, 0, 25 and the plane 2x 5y z 10.
18. A plastic wastebasket has the shape and dimensions shown in the figure. In fabricating a mold for making the wastebasket, it is necessary to know the angle between two
adjacent sides. Find the angle.
In Exercises 1927, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why.
Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
19. lim 5x x 2
x4
22. lim
x 0
x 4 2
1
1
x2 2
25. lim
x0
x
20.
lim
x2
23. lim
x4
26. lim
x0
x2
x2 x 2
x 4
x4
x 1 1
21. lim
x7
x7
x2 49
27. lim
x2
x2
x2 4
(3, 3, 3)
4
(2, 0, 0)
4
x
Figure for 18
(1, 3, 3)
(2, 2, 0)
(0, 2, 0)
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In Exercises 2831, find a formula for the slope of f at the point x, f x. Then use it
to find the slope at the specified point.
28. f x 4 x 2,
1
30. f x
,
x3
0, 4
1
1,
4
29. f x x 3,
2, 1
31. f x x2 x,
1, 0
In Exercises 32 37, find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist, explain why.
Use a graphing utility to verify your result graphically.
3 7x
x4
2x
35. lim 2
x x 3x 2
x3
x2 9
3x2 1
34. lim 2
x x 4
32. lim
33. lim
3x
x x2 1
3 4x x3
x
2x2 3
36. lim
37. lim
In Exercises 38 40, evaluate the sum using the summation formulas and properties.
20
50
38.
1 i
2
39.
3k
40
2k
12 i
3
40.
k1
i1
i1
In Exercises 41 44, approximate the area of the region using the indicated number
of rectangles of equal width.
y
41.
42.
y = 5 21 x 2
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
y = 2x
3
2
1
x
1
43.
y=
1
44.
1
(x
4
y=
1)2
1
x2 + 1
x
1
x
1
In Exercises 45 50, use the limit process to find the area of the region between the
graph of the function and the x-axis over the specified interval.
45. f x x 2
Interval: 0, 1
47. f x 2x 5
Interval: 1, 3
49. f x 4 x2
Interval: 0, 2
46. f x 8 2x
Interval: 4, 4
48. f x x2 1
Interval: 0, 4
50. f x 1 x3
Interval: 0, 1
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Proofs in Mathematics
835
Proofs in Mathematics
Many of the proofs of the definitions and properties presented in this chapter are
beyond the scope of this text. Included below are simple proofs for the limit of a
power function and the limit of a polynomial function.
Limit of a Power Function (p. 785)
xn
lim
xc
cn,
Proving Limits
Proof
lim xn lim x x x . . .
xc
xc
n factors
xc
xc
lim
xc
n factors
ccc. . .
n factors
cn
Exponential form
xc
Proof
Let p be a polynomial function such that
px an x n an1 x n1 . . . a2 x 2 a1x a0.
Because a polynomial function is the sum of monomial functions, you can write
the following.
lim px lim an x n an1 x n1 . . . a2 x 2 a1x a0
xc
xc
xc
xc
xc
xc
pc
p evaluated at c