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relief of fever, pain, and nervous tension and protection from invading
organisms (bacteria, germs) in our bodies. You expect doctors to be able
to supply you with such chemicals. Central to the development of
vaccines for protection from dreaded diseases, such as smallpox and
polio, was the field of chemistry.
Chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides have led to increased food
production. Without the use of such chemicals, the food needs of the
world's ever-increasing population could not be met.
The paper on which this book is printed was produced from naturally
occurring materials (wood pulp) through a chemical process, and the ink
used in printing the words on each page is a mixture of many chemicals.
Thus, the dissemination of knowledge from one generation to the
succeeding one involves chemistry.
Almost all of our recreational pursuits involve objects produced through
chemical technology. Skis, boats, basketballs, bowling balls, fishing rods,
musical instruments, television sets, and personal computers all contain
materials that result from chemical technology. The movies we watch are
possible because of recording on some type of synthetic material. The
images on film are produced through interaction of selected chemicals.
manner in which the constituent parts of a substance are put togetherthat is,
the order in which the constituent parts are arranged relative to each other.
Knowledge of composition and structure can often be put to practical
use. The chemical composition of certain body fluids, for example, is
often used by a physician to pinpoint the cause of illness in a patient. In
particular, the absence or excessive amount of certain substances can
provide vital information to the physician.
Structural information about a substance often provides insights into its
chemical behavior. In some cases these insights allow this behavior to be
built into other substances. Detergents, substances with cleaning
properties similar to soap, have structures patterned after that of soap.
Synthetic rubbers, the predominant materials in automobile tires, have
structures similar to that of natural rubber.
Developments in the field of genetic engineering now make it possible to
use bacteria to produce human insulin for use by diabetic persons.
Before these developments, diabetics had to use animal insulin obtained
from slaughterhouse animals. Knowledge of the structure of insulin was
a prerequisite for this genetic engineering breakthrough.
Change
Classification
Chemical
Sharpening a pencil
Physical
Physical
Digesting food
Chemical
Burning gasoline
Chemical
Souring of milk
Chemical
Breaking a glass
Physical
Cracking a nut
Physical
The terms physical and chemical are commonly used to qualify the
meaning of scientific terms. For example, techniques used to accomplish
physical change are called physical techniques. Similarly, chemical
techniques are used to bring about chemical change. A physical
separation is one in which none of the components experience
composition changes. Composition changes are part of a chemical
separation process. The messages of the modifiers physical and chemical
are constant: physical denotes no change in composition and chemical
denotes change in composition.
how chemical knowledge has been and still is obtained using the
scientific method.
Identifying a problem is the initial step in the search for chemical
knowledge concerning some chemical system that needs to be studied.
Knowing what other chemists have already learned about the selected
problem is critical to determining what new information is needed.
Experimentation is central to the scientific method. One designs
experiments for obtaining more information about the problem. An
experiment is a well-defined, controlled procedure for obtaining information
about a system under study. The exact conditions under which an
experiment is carried out must always be noted so that the experiment
can be repeated and the information verified, if necessary.
New facts and observations are obtained about the chosen chemical
system by actually carrying out well designed experiments. A scientific
fact is a valid observation about some natural phenomenon. To be valid, facts
must be reproducible pieces of information. If a given experiment is
repeated, under exactly the same conditions, the same facts should be
obtained. All facts, to be acceptable, must be verifiable by anyone who
has the time, means, and knowledge needed to repeat the experiments
that led to their discovery. It is, therefore, important that scientific data
be published so that other scientists may evaluate and check both the
data and the experimental design.
Next, an effort is made to analyze and organize the known facts into
general statements that explain or solve the problem. Scientists use the
facts to offer plausible tentative explanations of the problem. Such
explanations are called hypotheses. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation
or model for observed natural occurrences.
Once a hypothesis has been proposed, experimentation must begin
again. Many more experiments, under varied conditions, are run to test
the reliability of the proposed explanation. The reliability of a hypothesis
depends on the accuracy of its predictions. A valid hypothesis is able to
predict the results of new untried experiments.
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