Construction of Quadrilaterals

In construction of quadrilaterals we will learn how to construct a quadrilateral. We know

that a quadrilateral has ten parts in all: four sides, four angles and two diagonals. To
construct a quadrilateral, we shall need data about five specified parts of it.
We consider the following five cases and explain the construction in each case by an
example.
We divide the required quadrilateral into two triangles which can be easily constructed.
These two triangles together will form a quadrilateral.

I. Construction of quadrilaterals when four sides and one diagonal are given:
1. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 4.8 cm, BC = 4.3 cm, CD = 3.6 cm, AD
= 4.2 cm and diagonal AC = 6 cm.
Solution:

Solution:
First we draw a rough sketch of quadrilateral ABCD and write down its dimensions, as
shown.
We may divide it into two triangles, namely ABC and ACD.(Rough Sketch)

Steps of Construction:

Step 1: Draw AB = 4.8 cm.

Step 2: With A as center and radius equal to 6 cm, draw an arc.

Step 3: With B as center and radius equal to 4.3 cm, draw another arc, cutting the
previous arc at C.
Step4: Join BC.
Step 5: With A as center and radius equal to 4.2 cm, draw an arc.
Step 6: With C as center and radius equal to 3.6 cm, draw another arc, cutting the
previous arc at D.
Step 7: Join AD and CD.
Then, ABCD is the required quadrilateral.

II. Construction of quadrilaterals when three sides and two diagonals are given:
2. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 4 cm BC = 3.8 cm, AD = 3 cm, diagonal
AC = 5 cm and diagonal BD = 4.6 cm.

Solution:
First we draw a rough sketch of quadrilateral ABCD and write down its dimensions, as
shown.
We may divide it into two triangles, namely ABC and ABD.(Rough Sketch)

Steps of Construction:

Step 1: Draw AB = 4 cm.

Step 2: With A as center and radius equal to 5 cm, draw an arc.
Step 3: With B as center and radius equal to 3.8 cm, draw another arc, cutting the
previous arc at C.
Step 4: Join BC.
Step 5: With A as center and radius equal to 3 cm, draw an arc.
Step 6: With B as center and radius equal to 4.6 cm draw another arc, cutting the
previous arc at D.
Step 7: Join AD and CD.
Then, ABCD is the required quadrilateral.

III. Construction of quadrilaterals when three sides and two included angles are
given:
3. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 3.6 cm, ABC = 80, BC = 4 cm,
BAD = 120 and AD = 5 cm.

Solution:
First we draw a rough sketch of quadrilateral ABCD and write down its dimensions, as
shown (Rough Sketch)

Steps of Construction:

Step 1: Draw AB = 3.6 cm.

Step 2: Make ABX = 80.
Step 3: With B as center and radius equal to 4 cm, draw an arc, cutting BX at C.
Step 4: Make BAY = 120.
Step 5: With A as center and 5 cm as radius, draw an arc, cutting AY at D. Step 6: Join
CD.
Then, ABCD is the required quadrilateral.

IV. Construction of quadrilaterals when two adjacent sides and three angles are
given:
4. Construct a quadrilateral PQRS in which PQ = 4.5 cm PQR = 120, QR = 3.8 cm,
QRS = 100 and QPS = 60.

Solution:
First we draw a rough sketch of quadrilateral PQRS and write down its dimensions, as
shown.
(Rough Sketch)

Steps of Construction:

Step 1: Draw PQ = 4.5 cm.

Step 2: Make PQX = 120.
Step 3: With Q as center and radius 3.8 cm, draw an arc, cutting QX at R. Join QR.
Step 4: Make QRY = 100.
Step 5: QPZ = 60 so that PZ and RY intersect each other at the point S.
Then, PQRS is the required quadrilateral.

V. Construction of quadrilaterals when four sides and one angle are given:
5. Construct a quadrilateral ABCD in which AB = 3.8 cm, BC = 3.4cm, CD = 4.5 cm, AD
= 5cm and B = 80.

Solution:
First we draw a rough sketch of quadrilateral ABCD and write down its dimensions, as
shown.
(Rough Sketch)

Steps of Construction:

Step 1: Draw AB = 3.8 cm.

Step 2: Make ABX = 80.
Step 3: From B, set off BC = 3.4 cm.
Step 4: With A as center and radius equal to 5 cm draw an arc.
Step 5: With C as center and radius equal to 4.5 cm, draw another arc, cutting the
previous arc at D.
Step 5: Join AD and CD.
Then ABCD is the required quadrilateral.

Types of quadrilaterals
1) Square
2) Parallelogram
3) Rectangle
4) Trapezoid
5) Rhombus

A quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides. A quadrilateral is named by its

vertices.

1) Square
It is quadrilateral having all sides equal.
All the angles are 90
The diagonals are equal and bisect each other
The angle - sum property is 360

How ate they different?

Square (squar = opposite of cool.)
4 Congruent sides
4 Congruent angles

2) Rectangle
It is a 4-side polygon having oppesite sides equal.
Diagonals are equal and bisect each other
Angle-sum property is 360
All the angles are 90

3) Trapezium
In this polygon, only on pair of opposite sides are equal
Diagonals are unequal

How are they different?

Trapezoid - Only one pair of parallel sides
(the trapezoid is usually the funkiest looking quadrilateral.)

4) Parallelogram
It is a 4-side polygon having opposites sides of equal length
Diagonals are equal and bisect each other
Angle-sum property is 360

How are they different?

Parallelogram - 2 pairs of parallel sides
Opposite sides congruent
Opposite angles congruent

5) Rhombus
It is a 4-side polygon with all side equal
Diagonals are equal and bisect each other perpendicularly
All sides are 90
Angle-sum property is 360

How are they different?

Rhombus - A parallelogram with 4 congruent (equal) sides

The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES)

Project
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CONSTRUCTION
Measurement and Geometry : Module 13
June 2011
PDF Version of module

Assumed Knowledge

Motivation

Content

Using compasses to draw a circle

Parts of circles

Isosceles and equilateral triangles

Basic constructions with straight edge and compass

Special quadrilaterals

Constructing the rational numbers on a number line

Regular polygons

Links Forward

Points associated with the triangle

Construction of square roots, products and quotients

History
The limits to construction using ruler and compass

References

Years : 7-8

Answers to Exercises

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ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
Students will have had extensive informal experience with geometry in earlier years
of study.
In particular they should have met:

The use of compasses, rulers, and set squares to draw geometrical figures
involving straight lines and circles.

Types of angles right angles, acute angles, obtuse angles and reflex angles.

Triangles, including an informal introduction to right-angled, isosceles and

equilateral triangles.

Quadrilaterals, including an informal introduction to parallelograms, trapezia,

rhombuses, squares and rectangles.

Informal experience with translations, reflections and rotations and with the
idea
of symmetry.

A number of the ideas introduced in the module, Introduction to Plane Geometry,

will be used in this module without redefinition. These ideas include points and lines,
intervals, rays and angles, the size of an angle, vertically opposite angles,
corresponding angles, alternate angles, co-interior angles, parallel lines, concurrent
lines, collinear points and the angle sum of a triangle.
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MOTIVATION
Architects, civil engineers, landscape architects and town planners among many
other professionals have to be able to produce accurate plans well before the builder
moves onto a site to begin construction. With the advent of CADCAM packages it is
easy to forget that only thirty years ago technical drawing skills were an essential
part of the education of all engineers and architects. In the same way as the

electronic calculator does not remove the need to be able to calculate, CADCAM does
not remove the need to be able to draw accurate figures.
The reasons for teaching geometric construction in junior high school are manifold.
First, it reinforces the abstract ideas of length and angle size. In junior secondary
school, degrees are universally used as the measure of angle size, leaving to Year 11
radians that are needed in the study of calculus. The unit of length most used in
geometric constructions is the centimetre (cm) despite the fact that the official
standards are the metre (m) and the millimetre (mm). This is because the
centimetre is the most comfortable for diagrams drawn on A4 sheets of paper. We
shall use centimetres throughout this module.
A free-hand sketch can be used if, for example, all that is needed to solve a problem
is angle-chasing. However, in order to develop geometric understanding and to
demonstrate (not prove) theorems, accurate drawings are required. For example, to
demonstrate that two of the angles are equal in an isosceles triangle, an accurate
sketch is needed.
In a more advanced topic, such as the study of congruence, accurate sketches are
particularly useful. At the same time, the student can discover the triangle
inequality
by trying to construct, for example, a triangle with sides 2, 3 and 8.
The Greeks certainly had the belief that all arithmetic should be grounded in
geometry, and at one stage, thought that all numbers could be constructed with
ruler and compasses. This is true for all rationals as well as for certain surds. We will
discuss how to construct all the rationals (fractions) starting with a fixed unit length.

We will also show how to construct some regular polygons and briefly discuss why
the three classical construction problems of the ancient Greeks are all impossible to
carry out.
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CONTENT
In the following, we follow a dual approach to justify the constructions. We shall
generally use symmetry arguments and refer to congruence arguments.

Geometrical constructions should be drawn with a sharp, hard (2H) pencil. A pencil
eraser, a ruler marked in centimetres (often used as a straight edge), a pair of
compasses, two set squares (90, 60, 30 and 90, 45, 45) and a protractor with
a radius of at least 5cm make up the basic set of geometrical instruments. Students
should be encouraged to draw accurate and large diagrams a diagram which fits in
a 3cm 2cm box is rarely of any use at all.
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USING COMPASSES TO DRAW A CIRCLE

Suppose we are given an interval AB and a point O. In geometry we always include
the end points in an interval.

Open your compasses to the length of the interval AB. Then place the point of your
compasses firmly into the point O. Holding the compasses only by the very top, draw
a circle.
This is called drawing a circle with centre O and radius AB. Notice that every point on
the circle is the same distance from the centre O, because the distance between the
point O and the pencil lead never changes.
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PARTS OF CIRCLES
Here we will identify some important parts of a circle. We start by drawing a circle
with centreO.

Radius

Draw an interval from any point A on the circle to the

centre O.
This interval AO is called a radius of the circle. Every radius of the circle has the
same length, because the setting of the compasses remained the same while the
circle was being drawn.
The word radius is used both for the interval AO and for the length of the
interval AO. Radius is a Latin word meaning a spoke of a wheel. Its plural is radii.

Diameter

Draw a line through the centre O, cutting the circle

at A and B.
The interval AB is called a diameter of the circle. Every diameter has length twice
that of any radius, because a diameter consists of two radii put together. The word
diameter is used both for the interval AB and for the length of the interval AB. It
comes from Greek and means to measure through.

Chord

Choose any two distinct points P and Q on the circle,

and join the interval PQ. This interval is called a chord
(from a Greek word meaning a cord or string).

Arc

Choose two distinct points P and Q on the circle.

These two points divide the circle into two curved parts calledarcs, each including
the end-points P and Q. There are two arcs PQ. The larger arc is called the major
arc PQ and the smaller arc is called the minor arc PQ. (Major and minor are the
Latin words for larger and smaller; arc is from a Latin word for a bow or arch).

click for screencast

EXERCISE 1
Consider a fixed interval AB of length 8cm. Use constructions to show that there are
exactly two triangles ABC and ABD with AC = AD = 5cm and BC = BD = 6cm.
Is triangle ABC a right-angled triangle?
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ISOSCELES AND EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES

Triangles with two or three sides equal have some

interesting
properties. Using simple constructions we can investigate
or demonstrate these properties.
An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two (or more) sides equal.

The equal sides AB and AC of the isosceles triangle ABCto the right are called
the legs. They have been marked with double dashes to indicate that they
are equal in length.

The vertex A where the legs meet is called the apex and the third side BC is
called the base.

The angles

B and

C at the base are called base angles.

The word isosceles is a Greek word meaning equal legs. The prefix iso means
equal, andsceles is related to the word for leg.

Constructing an isosceles triangle and demonstrating the base angles are

equal
Draw a large circle (or an arc) with centre A. Draw two radii AB and AC (A, B, C not
collinear). Triangle ABC is isosceles. Check with a protractor that

B=

C.

Note that the isosceles triangle ABC has an axis of

symmetryAD with D the mid-point of BC.
This means that reflecting

ACD in the line AD produces

ABD. Alternatively, if we

fold along the line AD, the points B and Ccoincide.

The converse is true

If a triangle has two equal angles, then the two sides opposite those angles are
equal and the triangle is isosceles.

EXERCISE 2
Here is an investigation to illustrate the result.

Draw a long interval BC. Use a protractor to construct angles of 35 at B and C on

the same side of the interval (any acute angle will do). Let the arms of these angles
meet atA. Use compasses to confirm that the sides AB and AC opposite the equal
angles have equal length. (There is a subtle difference between using compasses or
dividers and measuring with the scale on a ruler.)
The formal proofs of the two results use simple congruence arguments and are
covered in the module, Congruence.

Constructing an equilateral triangle using two circles

An equilateral triangle is a triangle in which all three sides have equal length.

The diagram to the right shows an equilateral

triangleABC.Notice that it is an isosceles triangle in three different ways, because the
base could be taken as AB, BC, or CA.
The word equilateral comes from Latin equi means equal andlatus means side.

The construction is straightforward. Draw an

interval ABof length, say, 5cm. Using compasses draw arcs of two circles
centre A and B, both of radius 5cm. The point Cis the point where the arcs meet.

Since an equilateral triangle is isosceles with base AB,

But

A+

B+

A=

B. Similarly

C = 180, so all angles are 60.

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BASIC CONSTRUCTIONS WITH STRAIGHT EDGE AND COMPASS

A=

C.

Careful constructions with compasses and straight edge have always been an
essential part of geometry. These constructions are based on a fundamental fact
about circles:
All radii of a circle are equal.
Whenever you draw a circle using compasses, as the pencil lead moves, it always
remains exactly the same distance from the fixed point.

Construction Bisecting a given angle

The diagram below shows the steps to follow to bisect a given angle

AOB.

The two arcs in step 2 can have a different radius from the arc in step 1.
Folding the paper along the constructed line provides an informal proof or
demonstration that the construction works. The arms OA and OB then fall exactly on
top of each other, so

AOB has been cut into two equal pieces. The formal proof

uses SSS congruence.

The line you have constructed also bisects the reflex angle

AOB. (Can you prove

this?)

Construction A right angle at the endpoint of an interval

A right angle is half a straight angle. Thus bisecting a straight angle using the
previous construction will give a right angle. We begin by producing (extending) the
interval BA.

The two arcs in step 2 will need to have a larger radius than the arc in step 1.

Construction An angle of 60 at the endpoint of an interval

The angles of an equilateral triangle are all 60. Thus constructing an equilateral
triangle will give an angle of 60.

This time the arcs in steps 1 and 2 must have the same radius.

Construction Further angles by bisection

Many other angles can now be constructed by applying the angle bisection
construction to angles already constructed. For example:

Bisecting 90 will give 45.

o
o

Bisecting again will give 22 and 67 .

Bisecting 60 will give 30.

o

Bisecting again will give 15 and 75.

Construction The perpendicular bisector of an interval

Use these steps to bisect a given interval AB.

The arcs in steps 1 and 2 must have the same radius.

Informally speaking, the diagram is symmetric about the line you have constructed,
as you can see by folding the paper along it. This means that the line bisects AB and
is perpendicular to AB. The formal proof is essentially the proof that the diagonals of
a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
Note: You can use the above construction above to produce the midpoint of an
interval, even if you do not actually need the perpendicular bisector.

Construction Copying an angle

Use these steps to copy a given angle.

Let

BAC be the given angle, and suppose that it is to be copied at vertex P and with

one ray along PQ.

With centre A draw an arc cutting AB at X and AC at Y.

With centre P and the same radius AX, draw an arc cutting PQ at Z.
With centre Z and radius XY draw an arc cutting the previous arc at R.
Draw the ray PR. Then

RPZ =

A.

Construction Dropping a perpendicular from a point to a line

Use these steps to construct a line passing through a given point F and
perpendicular to a given line AB.

The two arcs in step 2 can have a different radius from the arc in step 1.
Informally speaking, the diagram is symmetric about the line you have constructed,
so the line is perpendicular to AB. (The quadrilateral is a kite!)
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SPECIAL QUADRILATERALS
A quadrilateral is a plane figure with four sides.

The quadrilateral on the left is called a

convex quadrilateral because each
of
its four interior angles are less than
180 .

The quadrilateral on the right is called a

non-convex quadrilateral because
one
of its interior angles is a reflex angle.

By dissecting a quadrilateral into two triangles, as shown above, and assuming that
the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180, we see that the sum of the angles in a
quadrilateral is 360.
There are a number of special quadrilaterals, which we shall discuss and construct
below parallelograms, rhombuses, trapezia, squares, rectangles, kites and cyclic
quadrilaterals.

The parallelogram
There are a number of possible definitions for a parallelogram. We shall use the
standard definition:

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.

The basic properties of a parallelogram, which can be proved using easy congruence
arguments, are:

The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.

The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.

Both of the above dot points have a natural converse.

If a quadrilateral has opposite angles equal then it is a parallelogram.

If a quadrilateral has opposite sides equal then it is a parallelogram.

These converses are true and give tests for a quadrilateral to be a parallelogram.
See the module, Parallelograms and Rectangles.
The second dot point gives us the most straightforward method of construction
of a parallelogram:

Choose three non-collinear points A, B and D. With radius AD make an arc centre B.
With radius AB mark an arc centre D. Let C be the point where the arcs meet. Then
ABCD is a parallelogram.
Note that there is a second figure, sometimes called a re-entrant quadrilateral that
can be constructed using the same construction!

A parallelogram can also be constructed by using

the standard definition A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are
parallel. This is done by constructing two pairs of parallel lines by copying a given
angle twice.

A line through a point parallel to a

given line
This is one of the most common constructions. There are various ways of performing
this.

One can copy an angle:

One can construct two perpendiculars:

That is, drop a perpendicular from P to

and then construct a perpendicular at P.

A third method is to choose two points A, B and construct

the parallelogram ABQP using the construction in the previous section.
This is probably the simplest construction.

The rhombus

Once again various definitions are possible. The most natural and the traditional is:

A rhombus is a quadrilateral in which all four sides are equal.

Some basic theorems about the rhombus are:

The opposite sides of a rhombus are parallel.

A parallelogram with a pair of adjacent sides equal is a rhombus.

A quadrilateral in which the diagonals bisect each other at right angles is a

rhombus.

See module, Rhombuses, Kites and Trapezia.

To construct a rhombus choose three non-collinear points A, B and D,
with AB = AD.Construct C, as for the parallelogram, then ABCD is a rhombus.
The third dot point above gives an alternative construction.

The trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides parallel.

To construct a trapezium through P and

constructm through P parallel to

and then choose two points on

and two points

on m.

The rectangle
Once again a number of definitions are possible.
The most natural definition of a rectangle is:

A rectangle is a quadrilateral in which all four angles are right angles.

Clearly, a rectangle is a parallelogram (co-interior angles supplementary imply

parallel sides) so its opposite sides are equal. In practice a rectangle is usually
specified by the lengths of its opposite sides, as shown below.

To construct a rectangle, choose a line PQ and mark P and Q distance b apart.

Construct the perpendicular m to PQ at P, and mark S on m, a units from P.
Construct the parallelogram PQRS as before. PQRS is, of course, a rectangle.

The square

A square is a rectangle with equal sides.

To construct a square with side length a, proceed as for the rectangle.

Constructing translations, rotations and reflections

Congruence is usually defined in terms of translations, rotations and reflections that
are the basic isometries or distance preserving transformations of the plane. In this
subsection we show how to find the image of the (arbitrary) point P by construction,
given the description of the transformation.
A translation T is determined by a pair of points A and B where T maps (or
moves) A to B. To find the point Q that T maps P to, simply construct the
parallelogram ABQP.

(In some contexts it is said that the translation is determined by the vector

.)

A rotation is determined by a point O called the centre of the rotation and directed
angle . The rotation maps P to B if

POB = and OP = OB.

This construction can be performed using ruler and compasses since an angle
can be copied.
A reflection is determined by a line

called the axis of reflection.

To find the image Q of a point P when reflected in the line

perpendicular PXto the line

, construct the

, then produce PX to Q so that PX = XQ.

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CONSTRUCTING THE RATIONAL NUMBERS ON A NUMBER LINE

We start with a fixed line
Conventionally we draw
not really matter.

and mark two points on it labelled 0 and 1.

horizontal and we mark 0 to the left of 1, but this does

Using compasses one can mark all the points 2, 3, 4, corresponding to the positive
integers and the points, 1, 2, 3, corresponding to the negative integers.
We say we have constructed the integers.

Suppose we can construct the unit fractions

, then by using the same

construction as above, we can construct all integer multiples of a particular unit

fraction. For example, if we can construct

then we have

As an example, there is an easy way

to construct
,

and

,
.

Starting with 0 and 1 on

Choose a point A1 on m, (A1 0).

, draw any line m through 0 (m

).

With a compass construct equally spaced points 0, A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5on m.

Join A5 to 1 call this line n.

Finally, construct four lines parallel to nthrough A1, A2, A3, A4 meeting

at four

points.

These points on
line

are equally spaced, so we have constructed

and

on the

We have now, in principle, completed the construction of the rational numbers on

the number line

click for screencast

EXERCISE 3
Use similar triangles to prove that the points 0,

and 1 are equally spaced

on .
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REGULAR POLYGONS
By definition a regular polygon is an n-gon ( a polygon with n sides) with all sides
equal in length and all angles equal. A regular triangle is an equilateral triangle and
a regular quadrilateral is a square, so they both can be constructed using ruler and
compasses.

A regular heptagon

In a regular n-gon each side subtends the angle

For example, with the 7-gon (heptagon) the angle is

at the centre of the n-gon.

= 51

The vertices of a regular n-gon lie on a circle. This means that any n-gon can be
approximately constructed using a ruler, compasses and protractor. However, it is
not possible to construct all n-gons using a ruler and compasses, as we shall discuss
in the Links Forward section of this module. (This result would have surprised
Euclid.)
As well as the equilateral triangle and the square it is possible to construct a number
of other regular polygons including the pentagon, the hexagon, and the octagon.
Details are discussed below.

The regular hexagon

There are several interesting ways to construct a regular hexagon. The angle at the
centre of a regular hexagon is

= 60, thus the hexagon consists of six

equilateral triangles. Hence the distance between the six vertices is the same as the
radius of the circumcircle.

Choose a distance d. Draw a circle of radius d.

Choose any point on the circle and mark points
distance d apart using compasses. Then join up
the hexagon.

A second construction would be to draw

six equilateral triangles, as shown in the diagram.

A third construction is to take an equilateral triangle

ABC, and bisect the angles at each vertex. These bisectors will be concurrent at the
circumcentre of the triangle. Draw the circumcircle. The other three points of the
hexagon are where the bisectors meet the circle.

The regular octagon

Given a square it is easy to construct an octagon.

Simply draw in the diagonals of the square and then bisect the angles at the centre.
This gives eight equally spaced points on the circumcircle of the square.
This idea can be generalised so that if you have a regular n-gon then it is easy to
construct a regular 2n-gon by bisecting the angles at the centre of the polygon to
obtain the other npoints on the circle.

Using the above idea, we can construct regular n-gons for n = 4, 8, 16, 32, and
for n = 3, 6, 12, 24,

The regular pentagon

Although extremely interesting, this subsection should be treated as extension
material.
Euclid gives a construction for the regular pentagon. The lengths involved include
the golden ratio

Let = 36 . The angle at the centre of the

regular pentagon is

= 72 = 2.

Consider the isosceles triangle ABC with base 1, side length aand angles , 2 and
2.

Let D be the point on CA so that BD = 1.

BCD is an isosceles triangle with angles
, 2 and 2. Next

ABD is isosceles so that

AD = 1 and DC = a 1.

ABC is similar to

BCD (AAA)

Thus

(corresponding sides of similar triangles)

=
a a= 1
2

a a 1= 0
2

a
But,

a > 0 so, a

=
=

=
.

We can construct

using, for example, a 1, 2,

can construct 1 +

and thence

right-angled triangle. Hence we

. Finally, we construct a 1, a, a triangle so we

have constructed 72 and hence the regular pentagon.

click for screencast

EXERCISE 4
a Describe how to construct regular polygons with 10, 20, 40 sides.
b Describe how to construct a 15-gon and hence 30, 60, 120 -gons.

click for screencast

EXERCISE 5

The construction of the regular pentagon given

above is somewhat indirect. In this exercise we present a much more direct method
but to prove it works does require some trigonometry.
Draw a circle of radius 2 centre the origin.
Let A = (1, 0) and C = (0, 2). Mark E on the x-axis so that AE = AC and E is to the
right of the origin A on the x-axis.
Then CE is the length of the side of a regular pentagon whose vertices lie on the
circle.

Show CE = 10 2
2

From the previous construction, show that cos 72 =

Using the cosine rule, or otherwise, show that y = 10 2

2

.
.

That is CE is the required length.

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LINKS FORWARD
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POINTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TRIANGLE

Consider the triangle

In the following

ABC with side lengths a, b and c.

ABC may be either an acute angled, an obtuse angled or a right-

angled triangle. It may be either isosceles or scalene (non-isosceles).

There are a large number of points associated with triangle ABC that can be
constructed with straight edge and compasses. The most commonly met are:
O
I

the circumcentre
the incenter

the centroid

the orthocentre and

the nine-point centre

The circumcircle is the circle which passes through

A, B and C. Its centre O is called the circumcentre
of the triangle. It is constructed as the intersection
of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of the triangle.

The incircle is the circle tangent to the three sides of

the triangle. Its centre I is called the incentre of the
triangle ABC. To construct I, bisect the angles A and B.
I is where these bisectors meet.

A median of a triangle is the line joining a

vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side of the triangle. The centroid is the
point G where the medians meet. The construction is clear.

An altitude of a triangle is the line from a vertex

perpendicular to the opposite side. The orthocentre is the point H where the
altitudes of the triangle meet.
For each of the four constructions given above there is a theorem to be proved. For
example, why do the three medians meet? These will all be treated in the
module,Congruence and Circle Geometry.
Finally the nine-point circle is the circle that passes through D, E and F in the above
diagram.
N is the centre of the circle.
In the eighteenth century Euler proved that H, N, O and G are collinear a very
surprising result.

He also proved that OI = R 2rR where R is the radius of the circumcircle and r is
2

the radius of the incircle. These gems of geometry comprehensively destroy the
myth that Euclidean geometry is completely dead.
return to top

CONSTRUCTION OF SQUARE ROOTS, PRODUCTS AND QUOTIENTS

Construction of Square Roots
It is possible to construct all square roots of positive integers using right-angled
triangles. For example,

This would be very inefficient for constructing, say,

, but does lead to an

interesting classroom exercise presented at the end of this section.

It is possible to translate algebraic identities into geometric constructions. For
example

+n=

means that there is a right-angled triangle with side lengths

given that we have constructed the rationals, we can now construct

and
in one step.

The next construction depends on the well-known fact

from
circle geometry that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.

Begin with a circle of diameter n + 1 and draw the perpendicular BD dividing the
diameter in the ratio one to n.
Since

ABC is a right angle, we have three similar triangles. In particular,

similar to

so

ADB is

BDC (AAA)

(corresponding sides of similar triangles).

BD = AD.DC = 1.n = n and BD =

2

Hence, we have in a circle of diameter n + 1 a simple

construction for the square root of the positive integer n.

Indeed if a is a constructible (with ruler and compasses) real

number then so is

Finally, we consider a very important generalisation of the above result.

Theorem
Suppose two chords of a circle meet inside the circle, cutting off lengths a, b,
c and d as shown. Then ab = cd.
Proof

Join QS and TR.

SQR = STR (angles in the same segment)
Hence

STP is similar to

RQP (AAA)

(corresponding sides of similar triangles)

QP.PS = TP.PR and the theorem is proved.

Notes
1
This theorem includes the result for constructing the square root as given
above.

2
If d = 1 then c = ab so if a and b are constructible (with ruler and
compasses) so is their product.

Also a =

so if c and b are constructible, then so is their quotient.

We finish with an exercise which shows how, in principle, to construct sequentially

on a number line 1,

EXERCISE 6

With ruler and compasses construct the above diagram.

With a compass mark (

Mark (

, 0)

, 1). With a compass mark (

Repeat the construction to obtain ((

, 0).
, 0), (

, 0)),

return to top

HISTORY
return to top

THE LIMITS TO CONSTRUCTION USING RULER AND COMPASS

As indicated within the content and links forward sections Greek mathematicians
were interested in general construction questions such as construction using straight
edge and compasses.
As we showed above, they knew that all rational lengths could be constructed as
couldradical expressions involving square roots such as
Incidentally, we have proved

are all constructible.

There are three famous constructions that the Greeks could not perform.

Duplication of the cube

This asked for a construction of a cube twice the volume of a given cube. That is, for
a construction of

Trisection of an angle
This asked for a construction of an angle one third of the size of a given angle.

This would have, for example, constructed the regular 9-gon (or nonagon).

Quadrature of the circle

This asked for a construction of a square equal in area to a given circle. That is, for a
construction of or perhaps

Despite the fact that the only regular polygons that were known to be constructible
(using straight edge and compasses) were those with 2 a, 3.2a, 5.2a and 15.2a, the
Greeks were seeking methods for constructing the 7-gon, the 9-gon, the 11-gon etc.
Indeed, it was so important that Archimedes considered such problems and found a
construction for a heptagon (7-gon) using a tool other than the straight edge and
compasses.
It is not surprising that the Greeks found these constructions so difficult since they
are impossible! It is very likely that no Greek mathematician thought of this
possibility.

In the 19th century two mathematicians, Abel and Galois, developed the ideas to
prove these results and many others. For example, Abel proved that there was no
formula for solving a fifth degree polynomial, a quintic, in contrast to the well-known
formulas for the quadratic (approximately 2000 BC), the cubic (approximately 1500
AD) and the quartic (approximately 1500 AD).
The key idea in Galois theory, as it is called, is to study the polynomials satisfied by
numbers not the numbers themselves. For example,

satisfies x 2 and
2

(which is the key to duplicating a cube) satisfies x 2.

3

does not satisfy any polynomial with integer coefficients it is called

transcendental.
Trisecting an angle also corresponds to solving a cubic.
The main theorem on constructability is that only numbers such as

can

be constructed with ruler and compasses. This only really depends on the fact that
the equations for lines and circles are of degree 1 and 2 (in terms of the
coordinates x and y).
The theorem implies that the three classical construction cannot be carried out.

Regular Polygons
At the age of about fifteen, Gauss (1777-1855) discovered how to construct a
regular 17-gon using straight edge and compasses. The story is told that this
success convinced Gauss to become a professional mathematician. The reason why
this was possible is that
17= 2 + 1 = 2 2 + 1
4

a so-called Fermat prime. If we let

Fn = 2 n + 1
2

then the only known Fermat primes are F0 = 3, F1 = 5, F2 = 17, F3 = 257 and F4 = 65
537. As of March 2010, only F0 to F11 have been completely factored.
The theorem from Galois theory is that a regular n-gon, n odd, is constructible if and
only ifn is a product of distinct Fermat primes.

This means that the Greek search for straight edge and compasses constructions of
the 7-gon, 11-gon and 13-gon was doomed to failure.
return to top

REFERENCES
A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, Victor J. Katz, AddisonWesley, (2008)
History of Mathematics, D. E. Smith, Dover publications New York, (1958)
return to top

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
EXERCISE 1
Triangle ABC is not right-angled as 6 + 5 64
2

EXERCISE 3

Triangles OA1B1, OA2B2, OA3B3, OA4B4, OA5B5 are all similar (AA).
Since OB2 = 2 OB1, OB1 = B1B2.
Continuing this argument shows that the markers are equally spaced.

EXERCISE 4
a
Draw a regular pentagon circumscribed in a circle centre O.
Draw lines from centre O through the midpoint of each side of the pentagon
and mark where each line meets the circle again.
These points together with the vertices of the pentagon are the vertices of the
dodecagon
(10 sided polygon).
The other polygons are formed in a similar way.

b
Draw a regular pentagon circumscribed in a circle centre O. Draw the
equilateral triangle inscribed in this circle sharing one vertex with the
pentagon.

The difference in the angles (

AOX

BOX) is 60 36 = 24

The 15 gon can be constructed and the others listed can be constructed
using the techniques outlined in part a.

EXERCISE 5
a

AC =

and therefore AE =

1. Use Pythagoras theorem to find CE.

From the diagram, = 36 and 2 = 72. It was found that a =

cos 2 =

= 4 + 4 2 2 2 cos 72

=88
=82

+2

= 10 2

The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project 2009-2011 was funded by the Australian
Government Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.
The views expressed here are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Australian
Government Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.
The University of Melbourne on behalf of the International Centre of Excellence for Education in Mathematics (ICEEM), the education division of the Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute (AMSI), 2010 (except where otherwise
indicated). This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported
License.

What is true about the sum of angles inside a polygon

(ie interior angles)

Answer The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a convex polygon
with nsides is (n-2)180
Examples:

Triangle or ( '3-gon')
o

Quadrilateral which has four sides ( ' 4-gon')

o

sum of interior angles: (3-2) 180 = 180

sum of interior angles: (4-2)180 = 360

Hexagon which has six sides ( '6-gon')

o

sum of interior angles: (6-2)180 = 720

Trapezoid

A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel lines

This Page:: angles | Midsegment | area | Isosceles Trapezoid
Free Math Printable Worksheets :

Activity

A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel lines.

Bases

The two parallel lines are called the bases

The Legs
The two non parallel lines are the legs. .

Adjacent Angles of Trapezoid

The angles on the same side of a leg are called adjacent angles such as NML
and MLO are supplementary. For the same reason, MNO and NOL are
supplementary.

Use the adjacent angles theorem to ddetermine m

ZWX

Measure of angle

Use adjacent angles theorem to calculate m

MLO.

Answer

Find the value of x in the trapezoid below, then determine the measure
of angles

WXY and

XYZ

Answer

What is wrong with trapezoid LMNO pictured below? (Explain why LMNO cannot be
a trapezoid based on the information provided)

Answer
Area of Trapezoid

Answer

Midsegment of Trapezoid

The midsegment of a
trepzoid is

parallel to both
bases

has length equal

to the average of
the length of the
bases

Use the midsegment

theorem to determine
the length of
midsegment ON.
Midsegment's Length

Quick REVIEW of Midpoint.

The midpoint of the red segment pictured on the left is the point (A, 2b). The
most important thing to remember is that a midpoint bisects a line (cuts a line
into two equal halves). Show Midpoint

The midsegment of a trapezoid is the

segment that joins the midpoints of the
nonparallel sides of a trapezoid.
In the trapezoid below, the midpoints of
the non-parallel sides are points S and V.
The midsegment is the red line segment
from S to V.

The midsegment below can be found by

calculating the lengths of the bases

o

35-16 = 9 (lenght of upper base)

45-0 =45 (length of lower base)

calculating the sum of the bases

o

9+45 = 54

Dividing the sum by 2

o

(54) = 27

The length of the midsegment is 26.5

Practice Problems
What is the length of midsegment SV in the trapezoid below?

answer

Is the reg segment below a midsegment?

It is not a true midsegment because its length does not equal half the sum of
the lengths of the bases.

Parallelograms

Properties, Shapes, Diagonals and Area

A parallelogram is quadrilateral comprised of two pairs of parallel lines. There
are several rules involving

the angles of a parallelogram

the sides of a parallelogram

the diagonals of a parallelogram

This Page: Angles | Sides | Diagonals |Interactive Parallelogram

Interactive Parallelogram
(see full size )
The full size interactive parallelogram has additional features such as the lengths of the
diagonals.

Two Pairs of Parallel Lines

To create a paralleogram, just
think of 2 different pairs
of parallel lines intersecting.
ABCD is a parallelogram.

Click on the button below to

turn the pureparallel lines into
a parallelogram.
Make Parallelogram

Angles of A Parallelogram
Opposite Angles are Congruent

DBA
C

Triangles can be used to prove this rule about the opposite angle.

Consecutive angles are supplementary.

The following pairs of angles

are supplementary

C and C
C and B
A and B
A and D

To explore these rules governing the angles of a parallelogram use Math

Warehouse'sinteractive parallelogram.

What is the measure of angles A, B and C in parallelogram ABCD?

Answer

What is the measure of x, y, z in parallelogram below?

Answer

In a parallelogram one of the angles measures 25, what are the measures of
the other angles?
Answer

Sides of a Parallelogram

The opposite sides of a

parallelogram are congruent.
Triangles can be used to prove
this rule about the opposite
sides.
. To explore these rules
governing the sides of a
parallelogram use Math
Warehouse'sinteractive
parallelogram

What is the length of

side BD and sideCD in
parallelogram ABCD?
Answer

Need help with this page's topic?

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What is x in the
parallelogram on the left?
Answer

What is the value of x and y in the parallelogram below?

Answer

Diagonals of a Parallelogram

The diagonals of a
parallelogrambisect each
other
AO = OD
CO = OB

To explore these rules governing the diagonals of a parallelogram use Math

Warehouse'sinteractive parallelogram
What is x and Y?
Answer

What is x?
Answer

Rhombus: Properties and Shape

Sides, Angles and Diagonals

A rhombus is a type of parallelogram, and what distinguishes its shape
is that all four of its sides are congruent. There are several formulas for
the rhombus that have to do with its

Sides
o

(click for more detail)

diagonals bisect vertex angles

Diagonals
o

all 4 sides are congruent

Angles
o

(click for more detail)

Area

(click for more detail)

diagonals are pependicular

(click for more detail)

A square is a rhombus and a rectangle. In other words, if each angle of

a rhombus is 90, then it's a square.

Probalby the most famous rhombus out there is the baseball diamond. The
distance between each base is the same, making the shape a rhombus!

Rhombus Sides
All sides of a Rhombus are congruent.
AB

BC

CD

AD

If side WX = 22, what is WZ?

Side WZ

If side MN of rhombus LMNO is

X + 5 and side LM is 2x 9, what must be the
value of x?
Answer

What must be the value of x if side BA = 5x-11

and side AD = 6x-18?
Answer

Properties of Rhombus: Sides | Diagonals | Angles

Related: Area of Rhombus

Diagonals of a Rhombus
Diagonals
areperpendicular.

AOD = 90

AOB = 90

BOC = 90

COD = 90

Is the four-sided shape below, MNOP, a rhombus? If not, classify the

shape.
Answer

Properties of Rhombus: Sides | Diagonals | Angles

Related: Area of Rhombus

Anngles of a Rhombus
The diagonals bisect the vertex angles of a rhombus.
A proof of this property of the diagonals

What is the measure of the following angles in rhombus ABCD?

ACD
ABD
Answer
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page's topic?

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A generalization about the angles of a rhombus

You can think of a rhombus as four triangles that are created by the diagonals
such as

. What is true about the outside angles in each triangle?

An examples of outside angles are

Answer

What is the value of x if angle BCA = 3x -2 and angle ACD = 12 + x?

Answer

What is the value of x, given the angle measurements below?

Answer

Properties of Rhombus: Sides | Diagonals | Angles

Related: Area of Rhombus

Area of Rhombus

The formula for area of A Rhombus

Area = (diagonal1 diagonal2)

What is the area of HIJK?

Answer

Putting It All Together

STAR is a rhombus. The measure of diagonals SA is 24 and the measure

of TR is 10, what is the perimeter of this rhombus?

Rectangle: Shape and Properties

A special kind of parallelogram

This Page:Diagonal
Related: Properties of parallelograms | Is a square a rectangle? | square

A rectangle is a parallelogram with 4 right angles. Now, since a

rectangle is aparallelogram, its opposite sides must be congruent and it
must satisfy all otherproperties of parallelograms .

The Properties of a Rectangle

4 Right Angles
In a rectangle, all angles are
90

Diagonals of Rectangle
The diagonals of a
rectangle
arecongruent.

It's easy to prove that the diagonals of a rectangle with the Pythagorean
theorem. Click here to see the proof.

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Practice Problems

This Page:Diagonal
Related: Properties of parallelograms | Is a square a rectangle? | square

Problem 1)
In rectangle STAR below, SA =5, what is the length of RT?

Answer

Problem 2)

If side MN = 12 and side ML = 5, what is the length of the other two sides?
Answer
Problem 3)

How Long is MO and MZ in the rectangle

pictured on the left?

Answer

Challenge Problem) What is the value of x in rectangle STAR below?

Answer

Square:

A rhombus and a rectangle

A square is rhombus as well as a rectangle. Therefore, a
square is a shape with four congruent sides
(the rhombus components) and four 90 angles
(the rectangle component).
links

A square has the properties of a rhombus and a rectangle. Its sides intersect at
90 and all four sides are congruent.

Example of square:

Congruent or Congruence

Definition:
congruent means that objects have the same shape. It does not mean that they
are 'equal', exactly.
People often confuse this word with 'equal,' but their is a small difference in the
way that these two words should be used.
Equal should be used to relate the lengths or measurements of two sides, angles
or parts of shapes.
Examples of 'congruent'

side AB is congruent to BC

A is congruent to

Examples of 'equal'

The length of side AB is equal to the le

side BC

the measure of

A equals the measur

Kite

A kite is a quadrilateral with adjacent equal sides

A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent,congruent sides. It looks
like the kites you see flying up in the sky.
The diagonals of a kite intersect at 90.
The formula for the area of a kite is

Area = (diagonal1)(diagonal2)

Isosceles Trapezoid

An trapezoid with congruent Legs

Base Angles | Diagonals

The defining trait of this special type of trapezoid is that the two non-parallel
sides (XW and YZ below)
are congruent.

Base Angles
The base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are congruent.

If you know that angle BAD is 44 , what is the measure of

Answer

ADC?

ABC = 130, what other angle measures 130 degrees?

Answer

What is the value of j in the isoscles trapezoid below?

Answer

Base Angles | Diagonals

Diagonals of Isosceles Trapezoid

The diagonals of an isoscels trapezoid are congruent. What is the value of x

below? (use your knowledge aboutdiagonals!)

Answer

http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/

A plane has 2 Dimensions (and is often called 2D):

Point, Line, Plane and

Solid

A point has no dimensions,

only location

A line is one-dimensional

A plane is two dimensional

A solid is three-dimensional

Plane vs Plain
In geometry a "plane" is a flat surface with no thickness.
But a "plain" is a treeless mostly flat expanse of land ... it is also flat, but
not in the pure sense we use in geometry.
Both words have other meanings too: Plane can mean an airplane, a level, or
a tool for cutting things flat; Plain can mean without special things, or well
understood.

Imagine
Imagine you lived in a two-dimensional world. You could travel around, visit
friends, but nothing in your world would have height.
You could measure distances and angles.

You could travel fast or slow. You could go forward, backwards or sideways.
You could move in straight lines, circles, or anything so long as you never go
up or down.
What would life be like living on a plane?

Common Symbols Used in Geometry

Symbols save time and space when writing. Here are the most common
geometrical symbols:
Sym
bol

Meaning

Example

In Words

Triangle

ABC has 3
equal sides

Triangle ABC has three equal

sides

Angle

ABC is 45

The angle formed by ABC is

45 degrees.

Perpendicular

AB CD

The line AB is perpendicular

to line CD

Parallel

EF GH

The line EF is parallel to line

GH

Degrees

360 makes a
full circle

Right Angle (90)

Line Segment "AB"

is 90
AB

A right angle is 90 degrees

The line between A and B

Line "AB"

The infinite line that includes

A and B

Ray "AB"

The line that starts at A, goes

through B and continues on

Congruent (same
shape and size)

ABC

DE
F

Similar (same shape,

different size)

DEF

MNO

Therefore

a=b

b=a

Triangle ABC is congruent to

triangle DEF
Triangle DEF is similar to
triangle MNO
a equals b, therefore b equals
a

Example:
When someone writes: In

ABC,

BAC is

They are really saying: "In triangle ABC, the angle BAC is a right angle"

Naming Angles
For angles the central letter is where the angle is.

Example:
when you see " ABC is 45", then the point "B" is where
the angle is.

Mathematical Symbols
Symbols save time and space when writing. Here are the most
common mathematical symbols:
Symbol

Meaning

Example

add

3+7 = 10

subtract

5-2 = 3

multiply

43 = 12

divide

20/5 = 4

()

grouping symbols

2(a-3)

[]

grouping symbols

2[ a-3(b+c) ]

{}

set symbols

{1,2,3}

pi

infinity

is endless

equals

1+1 = 2

approximately equal to

A=

r2

3.14

not equal to

<

less than, less than or equal to

2<3

>

greater than, greater than or equal to

5>1

square root ("radical")

4 = 2

Degrees

20

Therefore

a=b

b=a

Symbols in Algebra

Common Symbols Used in Algebra

Symbols save time and space when writing. Here are the most common
algebraic symbols:
Symb
ol

Meaning

Example

add

3+7 = 10

subtract

5-2 = 3

multiply

43 = 12

multiply (so "" does not look like

"x")

43 = 12

divide

20/5 = 4

square root ("radical")

4 = 2

cube root
nth root

()

grouping symbols (round

brackets)

2(a-3)

[]

grouping symbols (square

brackets)

2[ a-3(b+c) ]

{}

set symbols (curly brackets)

{1,2,3}

equals

1+1 = 2

approximately equal to

3.14

not equal to

<

less than, less than or equal to

2<3

>

greater than, greater than or

equal to

5>1

implies (if ... then)

"if and only if" or if or "is

equivalent to"
Therefore

a and b are odd

even

x=y+1

a=b

a+b is

y=x1

b=a

Measuring angles with a protractor - lesson &

video
This 4th grade geometry lesson explains angle measure, how to measure angles
with a protractor, and has varied exercises for the students.

Remember how one side of the angle traces out a circular arc? We use
that circle to measure how big the angle is. We look at how much the angle has
opened as compared to the full circle.
Angles are measured in degrees. The symbol for degrees is a little circle .

The FULL CIRCLE is 360 (360 degrees).

A half circle or a straight angle is 180.

A quarter circle or a right angle is 90.

Show the angles below using two pencils. Try to see the circle that is traced out
in the air.

This is a 1-degree angle!

an obtuse angle; 127

a right angle; 90

How to measure an angle with a protractor:

Place the midpoint of the protractor on the VERTEX of the angle.

Line up one side of the angle with the zero line of the protractor (where you
see the number 0).

Read the degrees where the other side crosses the number scale.

Take care to read from the right set of numbers. A protractor has two sets of
numbers: one set goes from 0 to 180, the other set from 180 to 0. Which one you

read depends on how you place the protractor: place it so that one side of the
angle lines up with one of the zeros, and read that set of numbers.
In the examples above we lined up the one side of the angle with the zero of the
lower set of numbers, so we need to read the lower set of numbers.

1. Measure the angles.

a. __________

b. __________

c. __________

d. __________

2. Measure the angles. Label each angle as acute or obtuse.

a. __________

b. __________

______________________________

______________________________

c. __________

d. __________

______________________________

______________________________

e. __________

f. __________

______________________________

______________________________

3. Tasha measured an acute angle, and got 146. The teacher pointed out
that she had read the wrong set of numbers on the protractor.
What is the correct angle measure for the angle she measured?

4. Measure the following angles using your own protractor. If you need to, make the
sides of the angles
longer with a ruler.

6. Draw four dots, and connect them so that you get a quadrilateral.
Measure all the angles of your quadrilateral. Then add the angle measures.
Did you get 360 degrees, or close?

http://www.rockingham.k12.va.us/resources/elementary/5math.htm
http://www.mathwarehouse.com/geometry/quadrilaterals/
http://www.mathplayground.com/measuringangles.html