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83

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

Mahar, M.A.; Abro, M.R. and Larik, A.S. [2009], Artificial Neural Network Control
of Single Active Bridge DC/DC Converter Mehran University Research
Journal Volume 28, No.4, pp.591-598.
Mahar, M.A.; Abro, M.R. and Larik, A.S. [2009], Simulation Analysis of Cascaded
Controller for Buck dc dc Converter Mehran University Research Journal,
Volume 28, No.3, pp.349-356.
Mahar, M.A.; Abro, M.R.; Uqaili, M.A.; Larik, A.S.; Unar, M.A; and Shaikh, A.R.,
[2009], Artificial Neural Network based controller for DC/DC converter to
improve performance of DC wind power, 1st international conference on
Energy, Environment and sustainable development for growing economics
(EESD2009), May 4-6, 2009 Jamshoro, Pakistan.
Abro, M.R.; Mahar, M.A.; and Larik, A.S. [2009], Design a non-linear controller to
assess the performance of dc dc buck converter under steady state and
dynamic operation Mehran University Research Journal. Volume 28, No.4,
pp.549-554, 2009.
Larik, A.S.; Abro, M.R. and Mahar, M.A., [2008], SM Control of High Frequency
DAB Converter Topology Mehran University Research Journal, Volume 28,
No.4, pp.477-484, 2009.
Larik, A.S.; Abro, M.R. and Mahar, M.A., [2008], A novel approach for the control
of dual active bridge dc- dc converter CCIS Springer Berlin Heidelberg,
Germany Vol 20, pages: 343-349.
Shaikh, A.R., Larik, A.S.; Mahar, M.A., Yahya, A.; and Husain, N.,[2009]
Improving Transmission System Performance Using Power Electronics
Based FACTS Controllers IEEE, international Multi-Topic Conference
Karachi. 7-8 April,2009.

84

Appendix-A
Comparison of Power Transistors and Power Thyristors
Table: A.1 Comparison of Power Transistors[Rashid, 2001]
Switch
Type

BJT

Control
Base/gate
Control Characteristic
s
Variable
Current
Continuous

Switching
frequency

Medium

Advantages
Limitations
Max.
Voltage Max.
drop
Voltage current
rating
rating
Low
1.5kV
1kA Simple switch
Current controlled device
Low on state drop
and requires higher base
current to turn on and
sustain on state current
High switching loss
Unipolar voltage device

MOSFET

Voltage

Continuous

Very High

High

1kV

150A

COOLMOS

Voltage

Continuous

Very High

Low

1kV

100A

IGBT

Voltage

Continuous

Very High

High

3.5kV

2kA

SIT

Voltage

Continuous

Very High

High

1.2kV

300A

Higher switching
speed
Low switching
loss
Low gate derive
requirement and
low on state
power drop

High on state drop as high

as 10 V
Lower off state voltage
capability
Low power device
Low voltage and current
rating

Low on state
voltage
Little gate power
High
voltage
rating

Low off state voltage

capability
Unipolar voltage device
Higher on state voltage drop
Lower current rating

85

Table: A.2 Comparison of Power Thyristor [Rashid, 2001]

Switch
Type

SCRs

Gate Control
Variable

Control
Characteristics

Current for turn Turn on with

on
a pulse signal
No turn off Turn off with
control
natural
commutation
LASCR Light signal for Turn on with
turn on
pulse signal
No turn off Turn off with
control
natural
commutation
TRIAC Current for turn Turn on by
on
applying
No turn off pulse signal
control
for
current
flow in both
direction
Turn off with
natural
commutation
Fast turn Current for turn Turn on with
off
on
a pulse signal
thyristors No turn off Turn off with
control
natural
commutation

Switching
frequency

Voltage
drop

Max.
Voltage
rating

Max.
current
rating

Advantages

Limitations

Low
50Hz

Low

1.5kV

1kA

Simple turn on
Latching device
Turn on gain is very
high
Low cost
Same as SCRs,
except the gate is
isolated and can be
remotely operated

Low switching speed

Cannot be turned off
with gate control

4kV

1.5kA

Low switching speed

Cannot be turned off
with gate control

Low
50Hz

Low

Low
50Hz

Low

Same as SCRs, Same as SCRs, except

except current flow for
low
power
in both directions
applications
It has one gate for
turning on in both
directions

Medium
5kHz

Low

Same as SCRs, Similar to those of

except the turn off SCRs
is faster
Most suited for
forced commutated
converters
in

86

GTOs

Current for both Turn on with Medium

turn on and turn a
positive 5kHz
off control
pulse signal
Turn on with
a negative gate

Low

MTOs

Two gates; both

turn on and turn
off control
Current
pulse
for turn on
Voltage signal
for turn off

Medium
5kHz

Low

Medium
5kHz

Medium

ETOs

Turn on with
a
positive
pulse current
to the turn on
gate
Turn off with
a
positive
voltage to the
turn off
MOS
gate
that unlatches
the device
Two gates; both Turn on with
turn on and turn a
positive
off control
pulse current
to the turn on
gate and a
positive pulse

5kV

3kA

medium to high
power applications
Similar to the fast
turn off thyristors,
except it can be
turned off with a
negative gate signal

Turn off gain requires a

large on state current
There is a long tail
current during turn off
Although a latching
device,it requires a
minimum gate current
to sustain on state
current
10kV@ 4kA@ Similar to those Similar to GTOs, it has
20MVA 20MV
GTOs, except it can a long tail current
4.5kV
A
be
turned
on during turn-off.
@
through the normal
500A
gate and turn off
through
the
MOSFET gate
Due to MOS gate, it
requires a very low
turn off current and
the turn off time is
small
Due to the series Similar to GTOs, it has
MOS, the transfer a long tail current
of current to the during turn-off.
cathode region is The series MOSFET has
rapid and fast turn to carry the main anode
off
current and it increases

87
voltage to the
turn off MOS
gate
Turn off with
a
negative
pulse voltage
to the turn off
MOS gate
IGCTs

MCTs

Two gates; both Turn on with

turn on and turn a
positive
off control
pulse current
to the turn on
gate
Turned off by
applying
a
fast
rising
negative
current from
a
multilayered
gate
driver
circuit board
Two gates; both Turned on pturn on and turn channel MCT
off control
with
a
negative
voltage with
respect to the

The series MOSFET the on state voltage

has to carry the drop by about 0.3 to
main anode current 0.5
V
and
the
conduction losses.

Medium
5kHz

Low

5kV@
400A

5.5kA

Like a hard switched

GTO
Very fast turn off
due to a fast rising
and high turn off
gate current
Low turn off gate
power requirement
It can have a built in
antiparallel diode

Similar to other GTO

devices, the inductance
of the gate drive and
cathode loop must have
a very low value

Medium
5kHz

Medium

3kV

300 A

Integrates
the
advantages of the
GTOs
and
MOSFET gate into
a single device
The power/energy

Has the potential to be

the near-ultimate turn
off thyristor with low
on state and switching
losses, and a fast
switching speed for

88
anode
and
turned
off
with positive
voltage

SITHs

Two gates; both Turned on by High

turn on and turn applying
a 100kHz
off control
positive gate
drive voltage
and
turned
off with a
negative gate
voltage

1200V

300A

required for the turn

on and turn off is
very small, and the
delay time due to
the charge storage
time is also very
small; as a latching
thyristor device, it
has a low on state
voltage drop
A minority carrier
device
Low
on
state
resistance
or
voltage drop
It has fast switching
speeds and high
dv/dt and di/dt
capabilities

applications in high
power converters.

A
field
controlled
device and requires a
continuous gate voltage
It is extremely process
sensitive, and small
perturbations in the
manufacturing process
would produce major
changes in device
characteristics

89

Appendix-B
State-space averaging and small-signal analysis

When the solid state switch of power converter is turned on, it acts as time-invariant
system. Similarly, when switch is turned off the converter acts as another timeinvariant system. During operation of converter, when discontinuous time interval is
introduced in which inductor current reaches zero, the converter acts as yet another
time-invariant system. If the duty cycle of switch is controlled, the converter can be
described as switching between different time-invariant systems during the switching
period. Consequently, the converter can be modeled as a time-variant system [Rashid,
2004]. To approximate this time-variant system with a linear continuous-time timeinvariant system such method is called state space averaging. This method uses the
state space description of each time-invariant system as a starting point. These statespace descriptions are then averaged with respect to their duration in the switching
period. The averaged model is nonlinear and time-invariant. This model is finally
linearized at the operating point to obtain a small-signal model.
The state equation can be written in a matrix form as given by

x Ax Bu

(B.1)

The continuous approximation of the two switched linear systems can be described,
by the continuous-time state-space-averaged equation,

x [dA1 ( 1 d)A2 ]x [dB1 ( 1 d)B2 ]u

(B.2)

In above equation, the state-coefficient matrix A, and the source-coefficient matrix B

can be given as

90

A [dA1 ( 1 d)A2 ]

(B.3)

B [dB1 ( 1 d)B2 ]

(B.4)

0
x1


1
x
2 Co

(B.5)

x 1 2d 1

Lind L
ind

VS

1 0

RCo x
2
1

A continuous but nonlinear system is described by Eq. (B.5). It is nonlinear because d

can be a function of any combination of x1 , x2 and Vs .
Any continuous nonlinear system can be approximated as a linear system within the
vicinity of its dc operating point. The switching frequency terms are effectively
separated in the state space- averaging model [Demetriades, 2005]. As a result, in
order to linearize Eq. (B.5) the dc terms must be separated from the signal frequency
ac terms. Accordingly,
~
x xo x

(B.6)

~
Vs Vs 0 Vs

(B.7)

~
d Dd

(B.8)

~ ~
~
The x0, Vs0 and D are the dc components and x , Vs and d are signal frequency ac
components. Substitute Eqs. (B.6), (B.7) and (B.8) in equation (B. 2).

91

~
~
~
~
(x x ) [(D d )A1 [ 1 (D d )]A2 ](x0 x )
~
~
~
[(D d )B1 [ 1 (D d )]B2(Vs 0 Vs )

(B.9)

~ ~ ~~ ~ ~
Assume that the small signal ac products x Vs x d d Vs 0 , the equation can be
simplified. Subdividing the equation in to dc and ac component yield

0 [A1D A2( 1 D)]x

] [B1D B2( 1 D)]Vs 0

(B.10)

~
~
~
x [A1D A2( 1 D)] x ] [B1D B2( 1 D)] Vs
~
[(A1 A2 )x0 (B1 B2 )Vs 0 ] d

(B.11)

In order to define the small-signal model for the SAB topology the matrices A0 , B0 ,
and E ,must be defined as:

A0 A1 D A2( 1 D)

( B.12)

B0 B1D B2( 1 D)

(B.13)

E (A1 A2 )x ] (B1 B2 )]V s 0

0

(B.14)

The dc equation can be written as

0 A0 x0 B0Vs 0
The linear state-equation is derived from Eq. (B.16) and is given by

(B.15)

92

~
~
~
~
x A0 x B0 Vs E d

(B.16)

The duty ratio of the controllable switch is strongly dependent on the duty ratio of the
diode [Demetriades and Nee, 2008]. Thus, the duty ratio can be expressed as
d 1 dDA

(B.17)

The duty ratio is calculated by the insertion the duty ratio of the diode dDA as
described in [Demtriades, 2005] and is given by
d 1

Lind x 1 f s
m
(Vs x 2 )

(B.18)

By insertion of the Eqs. (B.6), (B.7), and (B.8) into Eq. (B.18), the linearized
expression of the duty ratio is given by

f
L
x
f
~
~ Lind x 1
~
`~
L
f
m0 s 0 x ind s 0 x ind 1m0 s 0 V
d
s
2 (V x ) 1
s0
(Vs 0 x 20 ) 2
(Vs 0 x 20 ) 2
20

Lind x 1
~
m0 f
(Vs 0 x 20 ) s

(B.19)

From Eq. (B.19) the state, source and control-coefficient matrices are given by
Lind x 1
f
m0 0
(Vs 0 x 20 ) 2

L
ind f s 0
P T
(Vs 0 x )
20

Lind x
f
1m0 s 0
T
Q
(V x ) 2
20
s0

(B.20)

(B.21)

93

Lind x1
m0
R T
(Vs 0 x 20 )

(B.22)

Combining Eqs. (B.12), (B.13), (B.14) and (B.16) the linear state-space-averaged
model for the SAB can be written as

1 ~ 2 D 1
2Vs 0
~ 0
x
L

Lind 1 L
x1

ind ~
ind ~

d
(B.23)
V s

0
1
0

~
~

RC o x
x C o
2
2
The ac and the dc-equations of the system can be derived and by substituting Eqs.

(B.6), (B.7) and (B.8) into Eq. (B.16) yields

~
1 ~ 2 D 1 ~ 2Vs 0 ~
x1
x2
Vs
d
Lind
Lind
Lind

(B.24)

and

~
1 ~
1 ~
x2
x1
x
Co
RC o 2

(B.25)

Similarly, and knowing that the derivative of a dc quantity is zero, i.e. x10 x 20 0 ,

the dc equations are given by

0

1
Lind

x 20

2D 1
Vs 0
Lind

1
1
x 10
x
Co
RCo 20

(B.26)

(B.27)

94

Solving Eq. (B.26) the dc term of the state-variable x20 is given by

x 20 (2 D 1) Vs 0

(B.28)

Similarly, the dc term of x10can be expressed in terms of x20 . Solving Eq. (B.27)
yields
x
x 10 20
R

(B.29)

From Eqs. (B.28) and (B.29), x10 is expressed in terms of the input voltage as given by
Eq.(B.30).
x 10

(2 D 1)
Vs 0
R

(B.30)

95

Appendix-C
Steady-state analysis

The results from the steady-state analysis of the converter are used in order to derive
the small-signal model of the topology [Demetriades, 2005]. Key expressions relating
the average inductor current and the duty ratio for both the controllable switches and
the diodes are derived. Since the average current is expressed in terms of the duty
ratios, which are inversely proportional to the switching period.
When the SAB topology operates in the continuous-conduction mode two operating
modes are of interest due to symmetry conditions as shown in Figure C1.

Figure C-1: Input voltage and inducor current of SAB converter

The two modes of operation can be defined as
Mode 1: The two voltage sources have different polarity
Mode 2: The two voltage sources have the same polarity

During Mode 1 the inductor current can be expressed as

96

Mode 1 : 0 t t1
i

V Vo
(t ) s
(t1 ) i
( 0)
Lind
Lind
Lind

(C.1)

Mode 2 : t1 t t 2
i

Lind

V Vo
(t ) s
(t 2 t1 ) i
( 0)
Lind
Lind

(C.2)

Due to symmetry conditions, at the end of the half cycle, Figure C.1 ,
i

Lind

( 0 ) i

Lind

(t 2 )

(C.3)

Hence, the complete current waveform can be obtained by solving Eqs.(C.1), (C.2)
and (C.3).
i

Lind

( 0)

Vs
[(1 M ) t 2 (1 M ) t1 ]
2Lind

(C.4)

Where,

V
M o is the conversion ratio
Vs

(C.5)

During Mode 1, the diode DA is in the on state and during Mode 2 the inductor current
will commutate to SA. Therefore, Eq. (C.1) and (C.2) can be expressed as

V Vo
(t ) s
(t D A ) i
(0)
Lind
Lind
Lind

(C.6)

V Vo
(t ) s
(t S A ) i
(t D A )
Lind
Lind
Lind

(C.7)

Where tDA and tSA are the conduction times for the diode and the controllable switch
respectively.
As a result, the Eq. (C.4) can be expressed in terms of the duty ratios of the two
devices.

97

Thus,
V T
(0) s s [(1 M ) d S A (1 M ) d D A ]
ind
2 Lind

iL

(C.8)

The value of iLind (0) can also be found from Eq. (C.6). Since iLind = 0 for t=tDA Eq.
(C.6) yields
i

Lind

V Vo
( 0) s
(t D A )
Lind

(C.9)

By equating the right hand sides of the Eq. (C.8) and (C.9) the duty ratio of the diode
can be expressed in terms of the duty ratio of the transistor as stated in Eq. (C.10).

d DA

(1 M )
dS
(1 M ) A

(C.10)

Equation (C.10) clarifies the volt-seconds balance of the inductor and is a limiting
factor for the duty ratio. Thus, the inductors volt-seconds balance is fulfilled in a half
period.