Australia's Regional and Global Links PDF

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 246
Chapter
Introduction
Australias regional and

global links
In this chapter we examine Australias place in the world: its location in relation to its near neighbours and
their territorial boundaries; and the way Australia interacts with other nations, with a particular focus on
communications, culture, tourism, sport, trade and defence. The links of aid and migration are examined in
greater depth.
Key questions
1 Who are Australias neighbours?
2 How does Australia interact with other nations?
3 What role does the Australian Government and
non-government organisations play in the
provision of aid and/or the operation of
Australias migration program?
4 What are the treaties and/or agreements relevant
to Australias aid programs or its migration
policies?
5 What are the cultural, economic and geopolitical
advantages to Australia of its aid or immigration
programs?
6 What is the relationship between Australias aid
or immigration programs and the issues of social
justice and equity?
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 247
eGlossary
ICT Toolkit
GeoToolkit
Australias Asian links

In 1972, the then Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam,
achieved a major diplomatic breakthrough when Australia
became the first developed nation to recognise the Communistled Peoples Republic of China.
Whitlam, who had visited China in 1971 as Leader of the
Opposition, was determined to establish stronger links with the
nations of Southeast Asia. After winning the 1972 federal
election, Whitlam immediately set about establishing diplomatic
relations with China. In November 1973, Whitlam visited China
where he had a one-hour meeting with Chairman Mao Zedong.
At the time this was considered by many to be a
controversial act. The last American troops had just been
withdrawn from Vietnam and the North Vietnamese had secretly
started preparations for the push south that would give them
victory in a conflict that had dragged on for twenty-five years.
China had been the main backer of the Communist government
of North Vietnam.
Successive Australian governments have built on the
relationship initiated by Whitlam. Today, China is one of
Australias most important trading partners.
Gough Whitla
m visiting Chin
a in 1972.
Asylum seeker A person wanting to enter or stay

in a foreign country because of a fear of
persecution at home.
Colonisation The founding of colonies to gain new
territories for occupation and the exploitation of
resources and people.
Cultural domination The overwhelming influence
of one culture over another.
Cultural integration The increasing cultural
exchange made possible by modern
communications technologies.
Culture The shared aspects of peoples lives,
including traditions, customs, language, belief
systems, sport, music, food and architecture.
Emigration The process of leaving one country
(usually ones native country) to settle in another.
Also known as out-migration.
Expatriate A citizen living abroad.
Forced migration Migration that results from
circumstances beyond the control of the migrant
(for example, natural disasters, war, persecution or
civil unrest).
Globalisation The process by which countries are
becoming increasingly interconnected economically,
politically and culturally.
Immigration The movement of individuals or
groups across international boundaries.
Infrastructure The basic facilities that are
necessary for a community to operate. These
include transportation and communication
networks, power and sewage systems, schools and
hospitals
International migration The medium-term to
long-term movement of people from one country
to another. Also referred to as immigration.
International trade The movement of goods and
services from one country to another.
Mandatory detention Detaining unlawful noncitizens who enter the country without a valid visa.
Popular culture Lighter forms of entertainment,
such as films, television programs, rock concerts,
magazines, sporting events and electronic games.
Refugee Someone who is outside their own
country and cannot return due to a well-founded
fear of persecution.
Sovereignty A countrys power to govern its own
affairs, make and enforce laws, and control the
movement of people and goods across it borders.
Trade liberalisation The removal of barriers to the
free movement of goods and services.
Trading bloc A group of countries that act in ways
that assist the movement of goods and services
between member states.
United Nations High Commission for Refugees
(UNHCR) The UN agency that leads and
coordinates international action to protect refugees
and resolve refugee problems worldwide. Its
primary purpose is to safeguard the rights and wellbeing of refugees.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 248
9.1
Communication
Developments in global communications
The growth of the Internet

Computer networks are being created every
day and, of these, the Internet is the largest.
Initially created by the Pentagon (the US military
headquarters) in the late 1970s, the Internet
was designed to protect the US Defense
Departments computers against a terrorist or
nuclear attack. In 1986 the Internet was handed
over to other US agencies, for educational and
research purposes. By 1990 it became largely
commercial. Today, the Internet connects
millions of people around the world through
more than 1 million hosts.
Initially the Internet operated as a datasharing mechanism for the exchange of email
between academic and corporate researchers
and government officials. It now contains a
variety of commercial and non-profit networks
that offer an astonishing array of services. The
number of Internet users worldwide is expected
to increase from 242 million in 2000 to more
than 1.4 billion by 2007.
Age
group
Australian adults (%)
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2003
Total
Male
Female
1629
3049
50+
20
40
60
Percentage
80
100
Historically, Australias remote location has presented a number of

challenges for our communications and transport links with the rest
of the world. However, the development of telephones, television,
satellite communications and the Internet have meant that
Australians can now communicate frequently with others on
opposite sides of the world for relatively little cost. These
developments have brought the world closer together and have
contributed to a shrinking of time and space on a global scale.
Some geographers use the term global village to describe the new
level of interconnectedness that exists between countries.
A number of important developments in global communications
have revolutionised Australias links with the rest of the world.
These developments include:
the increasing number of Australians with access to the Internet
According to the 2001 Census 37 per cent of Australian
households were connected to the Internet, and 56 per cent of
all Australian adults said they had used the Internet in that year
(see the box The growth of the Internet).
the growth of satellite and microwave technologiesThese
technologies include mobile phones, pagers, geographical
positioning systems (GPS) and satellite television broadcasts.
These communications systems have the advantage of being
wireless and, therefore, are more flexible than traditional cablebased technologies.
the use of fibre-optic cable technologyAustralians currently have
communications access to Asia, North America and Europe via an
extensive network of cables and satellites. Fibre-optic technology
enables the transmission of greater volumes of information at high
speed. This has made global communications faster, more efficient
and less costly.
the growth of hybrid technologiesTelevision and Internet
technologies are beginning to merge as a result of digitisation.
Many media experts claim that digital television (DTV) has the
potential to revolutionise the way people live their lives by
enabling them to use their televisions to undertake many of the
functions currently available on the Internet. Consumers will,
for example, be able to shop, send emails, do their banking and
gamble online in the comfort of their lounge rooms via their
digital television sets.
Figure 9.1a Growth in Internet use: Australian

adults aged 16 years and over, 19972003.
Global mobile phone use
Foundation
worksheet 9.1
Extension
worksheet 9.1
248 Australian Explorations: Stage 5 Geography
By late 2002 there were 1.3 billion mobile

phone users in the world and more than
360 billion text messages were being sent
each year. In Australia over 65 per cent of the total population (12.7
million people) owned a mobile phone. This is one of the highest
rates of mobile phone ownership in the world.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 249
The social divide: inequalities in access to

technology
Despite the continuing revolution in communications technology
globally, access to technology is not equally shared across all groups
in society. Although 98 per cent of Australian households have a
telephone, less than 40 per cent of these households have access to
the Internet. The most frequent users of the Net are young,
employed males living in urban areas, earning in excess of $75 000 a
year. Individuals with low incomes, without tertiary qualifications,
living in rural/remote areas or of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander heritage are the least likely to access the Internet. Those
with disabilities, with a non-English speaking background or aged
over 55 are also likely to be disadvantaged.
These facts reveal that there is a social divide between the
information rich and the information poor in Australia (see Figure
9.1a). These divisions are even greater when we look at access to
information technology on a global scale. The differences in the
capacity of Internet connections across the globe are shown in
Figure 9.1b.
UTT worksheet 9.1
in
developments
1 Explain how
have
gy
lo
no
tech
communications
of time
g
kin
rin
sh
a
contributed to
and space.
cal
key technologi
2 List the four
lutionised
vo
re
ve
ha
at
th
developments
ks with
lin
ns
io
municat
Australias com
e the
ar
t
ha
W
.
ld
or
w
the rest of the
nologies?
these new tech
advantages of
s for the
original reason
3 Explain the
. How has
et
rn
te
In
the
development of
d over time?
its use change
stralian
parts of the Au
4 State which
cess to the
ac
st
te
grea
population have
ith age,
es this differ w
Internet. How do location and ethnic
ion,
income, educat
?
nd
ou
gr
ck
ba
Bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data that can be

transmitted in a fixed amount of time. The wider the line, the
greater the bandwidth. Europe represents 75 per cent of
international Internet bandwidth. Africa represents 1 per cent.
1
Research task Interview some older

people to find out what you can about
changes in communications technology over
time. In small groups, create a time line to
illustrate your results.
Challenge: Interpreting graphs Study

Figure 9.1a and complete the following
tasks:
a What proportion of the population (aged
16 years and over) used the Internet in
2003? Calculate the percentage growth
since 1997.
b Which age group in the Australian
population has the largest proportion
of Internet users?
c Which age group has experienced the
largest rate of increase in Internet use?
Calculate the rate of growth in Internet
users for this age group between 1997
and 2003.
Figure 9.1b The capacity (bandwidth) of Internet connections worldwide, 2001.
The impacts of information inequality

The development of advanced communications and transport
technologies has promoted the growth of global networks. These
have brought great benefits, especially to the cities of the developed
world. Unfortunately, many isolated and/or poor regions of the globe
have not experienced the same degree of technological change and
have effectively been shut out of the growing global networks in
trade, transport, finance and communications.
In recent years, the United Nations has become increasingly
concerned about the link between access to technology and the
level of development of a country, region or locality. On continents
such as Africa, for example, there are only 14 million telephone
lines to cater for more than 740 million people. In addition, less
than 0.15 per cent of the population has access to the Internet.
Without access to this technology, developing countries are limited
in their ability to generate the income needed to improve living
standards.
d In small groups, brainstorm the reasons

for these trends in Internet use.
3
Challenge: Class debate

a Conduct a class debate. Topic: There is a
social divide between the information rich
and the information poor in Australia.
b In small groups, brainstorm strategies
that could be used to reduce information
inequality.
Interpreting maps: Using an atlas

Study Figure 9.1b. Describe the distribution
of Internet bandwidth on a global scale.
What does this suggest about the equality
of access to information on a global scale?
Australias regional and global links 249
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 250
9.2
Culture
The impact of TNCs

Over the past decade, many TNCs have
attempted to cut costs and develop economies
of scale by treating all their customers as if they
have the same taste. For example, Big Macs
with their predictable appearance, taste and
ingredientscan now be purchased from any
one of 16 000 outlets in more than seventy
countries. Likewise, millions of people around
the world, regardless of their country of origin,
have watched, understood and enjoyed major
global movie releases, such as Titanic, Toy Story
and Shrek.
Preserving unique cultures

In the early 1990s the Vietnamese Government
launched a campaign aimed at removing
unwanted cultural influences, including
pornographic or violent films as well as products
promoting pro-Western democratic ideas. During
this campaign 23 200 Vietnamese consumers
and suppliers of harmful cultural products
were arrested.
UTT worksheet 9.2
have
six forces that
1 Outline the
obalisation.
gl
of
s
es
oc
pr
promoted the
e terms
t is meant by th
2 Explain wha
ion.
at
gr
te
in
ultural
culture and c
stralian
Au
in
some groups
e growth
3 Explain why
th
t
ou
ab
d
ne
er
society are conc
and
edia companies
of US-based m
TNCs.
ch the
us ways in whi
4 List the vario
linked with the
is
ry
st
du
in
Australian film
ld.
rest of the wor
d it
stralian films fin
Au
hy
5 Explain w
e
ev
hi
ac
to
lt
cu
ffi
increasingly di
ternational
ccess on an in
commercial su
scale.
e export of
s are there to th
6 What barrier
?
ts
ral produc
Australian cultu
ltural
rm American cu
7 Define the te
are being
s
re
su
ea
hat m
domination. W
protect
to
governments
introduced by
?
ns
tio
di
d tra
local cultures an
Extension
worksheet 9.2
Since the early 1980s a number of forces operating well beyond the
control of national governments have promoted greater economic
and cultural links between nations. These forces include:
the activities of transnational corporations (TNCs), which are large
companies that operate across a number of countries but have
their headquarters in developed nations (see the box The impact
of TNCs)
global satellite and cable-based communications systems, including
the Internet (see Unit 9.1)
international migration of workers seeking short-term employment
while maintaining family and citizenship links with their home
country (see Unit 9.8)
the emergence of global media networks promoting lifestyle
products and Western (mainly American) popular culture
an expansion in the international trade in goods and services (see
Unit 9.5)
the emergence of a global financial system.
These forces have promoted the process of globalisation whereby
countries have become increasingly interconnected economically,
politically and culturally. One outcome of this process has been the
increased mixing, or cross-pollination, of cultures. The sharing and
adapting of cultures in this way is known as cultural integration.
The term culture generally refers to the shared aspects of peoples
lives, including traditions, customs, language, belief systems, sport,
music, food and architecture.
When we try to define Australian culture we immediately see the
broad range of international influences that shape who we are as a
nation. We watch films from all over the world, play international
sports and enjoy music ranging from American hip hop and pop to
jazz, traditional Australian country and folk. Despite this diversity of
culture many groups in society are concerned that globalisation is
destroying Australias national identity and putting our unique
culture at risk. Of particular concern to these groups is the growth
and dominance of US-based media companies and TNCs. The case
study of the Australian film industry, on page 251, explores these
issues in greater detail.
The dominance of American cultural products (for example, KFC,
Starbucks, Nike and Coca-Cola) is not an issue confined to
Australia. It is also apparent in other parts of the world, particularly
in Western Europe and Asia, where many national governments see
the growing American influence as a threat to their national
sovereignty (government power) and an attack on the unique
cultural identities of localities and regions. Some of these
governments have sought to protect themselves against the influence
of American values and attitudes. American cultural domination
(sometimes referred to as cultural imperialism) has become a central
feature of the new global order. As a writer in the UKs Financial
Times recently observed, Soon hardly anywhere on earth will be
entirely safe from at least the potential of tuning in to cheerful
American voices revealing the latest news or introducing the
oldest films.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 251
The Australian film and television industry

The Australian film industry is an excellent example of the strong
cultural links that exist between Australia and the rest of the
world. Australia has a number of internationally acclaimed
actors (including Russell Crowe, Nicole Kidman, Mel Gibson,
Hugh Jackman, Geoffrey Rush and Naomi Watts) and directors
(for example, Peter Weir and George Miller) who move regularly
between Australia and other countries to practise their craft.
In addition, many large-budget Hollywood directors now use
Australia as a location for film-making. Examples include the
filming of George Lucass Star Wars Episodes II and III at
Sydneys Fox Studios, together with the Matrix series and
Mission: Impossible 2. Australia has also gained a reputation for
producing films that have received international acclaim.
Examples include Rabbit-Proof Fence, Moulin Rouge and
Lantana.
Despite these achievements Australian-produced films are
finding it increasingly difficult to achieve commercial success on
an international scale. Part of the reason for this is the
increasing dominance of large US-based media companies,
including Walt Disney, Fox, Sony and Warner Brothers. These
firms have enormous marketing and production budgets, which
they use to promote their films worldwide. This, combined with
strong market demand in Australia, results in the domination of
American films at the Australian box office. In the five years to
2003, American films accounted for more than 80 per cent of all
Australian box office takings.
The dominance of foreign content is also evident in our
television programming. More than three-quarters of new
television shows released in Australia between October 2002
and April 2003 were from overseas; most were American.

In addition, there are also a number of significant barriers to
the export of Australian cultural products, such as film and
television programs overseas. Most American theatregoers will
only pay to see US films. In fact, more than 95 per cent of the
box office takings in the US are for American films. This makes
it difficult for film-makers in other parts of the world to sell their
products overseas.
One response to this threat has been the establishment of quotas

and local content restrictions, which are designed to nurture local
film industries and to preserve local cultures. Some countries,
including Vietnam, have taken a more aggressive approach by
banning the importation of harmful cultural products, such as films,
magazines and videos with unwholesome content (see the box
Preserving unique cultures).
Class brainstorm As a class,

brainstorm the various elements of
Australian culture. Present your
results in the form of a mindmap.
2 Using the media: Internet

research Using a television
guide for your local area, highlight
the programs that originated
overseas. What proportion of
television programming is Australian
content? Undertake Internet
research to find out what the
Australian Government is doing to
promote the Australian film and
television industry. Present your
findings in the form of an oral report
or multimedia presentation (see

Units 2.8 and 2.9).
h
wood films (suc
-budget Holly
ge
II
lar
le
y
ib
an
ss
M
po
Im
Figure 9.2a
d III, Mission
Episopes II an
ey.
as Star Wars
filmed in Sydn
e
er
w
s)
rie
se
and the Matrix
Group work In small groups,

brainstorm the benefits and costs of
cultural integration for Australia.
Join with another group and
compare your lists. Come to an
agreement regarding the five most
important costs and benefits.
Writing task A number of

countries have become increasingly
hostile about the growing influence
of American culture. Write a report
outlining reasons why some
governments may take this stance.
Challenge: Research Undertake

research to find out about the
impact of free trade agreements on
Australias cultural industries,
including film and television.
Conduct a class debate. Topic:
Regulations are necessary to
protect local cultures and traditions.
Wall display Using photographs,

drawings and newspaper and
magazine clippings, create a wall
display around the theme of
globalisation. What evidence is
there of cultural integration in your
home, school or local community?
Add this evidence to your wall
display.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 252
9.3
Sport
The Sydney Olympics

The 2000 Sydney Olympics was an excellent
demonstration of Australias sporting links with
the rest of the world. In September 2000,
athletes from 200 countries converged upon
Sydney to compete in over 300 events. The
games also served as a magnet for domestic
and international tourism, attracting more than
110 000 international visitors over the seventeen
days of competition. In total more than 5.5
million people attended Sydney Olympic Park
across the Olympic and Paralympic Games.
The Sydney Olympics exposed Australians to a
diversity of global cultures as well as giving
many people from overseas the opportunity to
experience Australian culture.
By the end of the games, Australia had won
a record fifty-eight medals (including sixteen
gold) and 149 medals (including sixty-three gold)
at the Paralympic Games. Our athletes won gold
in archery, athletics, beach volleyball, cycling,
equestrian, hockey, sailing, shooting, swimming,
taekwondo and water polo.
Sport is an important part of the Australian culture and lifestyle.

According to the legendary cricketer Sir Donald Bradman, Sport is
embedded in the fabric of Australian life. In the twelve months to
April 2001 the Australian Bureau of Statistics reports that 23.5 per
cent of the Australian population were players or participants in at
least one organised sport or physical activity.
Australia has a long history of involvement in sport at an
international scale. Our passion for sport connects us with the rest
of the world in a number of important ways. Some of these links are
outlined below.
Colonial links and international migration

It is important to recognise that the types of sports played in
Australia have changed as our links with other countries have
changed. Historically, for example, both colonisation and
international migration have influenced the types of sports played in
Australia. Many popular Australian sports (such as cricket, rugby
league, rugby union and tennis) originated in England and spread to
the colonies, including Australia, as a result of migration. Many of
the countries involved in the Cricket and Rugby World Cups are
former colonies of Great Britain. Events such as the Olympics have
also introduced us to a range of new sports and made sport more
accessible to people from a variety of cultural backgrounds.
Hosting key international events and

promoting international cooperation
000
dney 2
f the Sy
o
y
n
o
Cerem
pening
9.3a O
e
r
u
.
Fig
Games
Olympic
Extension
worksheet 9.2
Australia has world-class sporting facilities and an excellent

reputation for successfully hosting international sporting events.
The largest and highest-profile event was the 2000 Sydney Olympic
Games. Sydney played host to more than 10 000 athletes, 5000
officials and 15 000 media representatives (see the box The Sydney
Olympics).
Other important sporting competitions hosted by Australia
include the 2006 Commonwealth Games, Rugby World Cup (2003),
Davis Cup (tennis), Australian Open (golf and tennis), the
Australian Grand Prix, the World Short Course Swimming Titles
and Rip Curl Pro Surfing Titles at Bells Beach.
Australia not only hosts international sporting events but also
actively promotes cooperation and knowledge/resource sharing
between countries. The International Section of the Australian
Sports Commission (ASC) operates a number of community sport
development programs in Africa, the Caribbean, Papua New Guinea
and the Pacific Islands. These programs provide foreign athletes and
sporting organisations with access to Australian sporting services,
facilities and expertise. An example of this is the establishment of
the Oceania and African Olympic Training Centre based at the
Australian Institute of Sport. In return, Australian sport benefits
through additional exposure to international competition and
professional development.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 253
International participation
Despite our relatively small population, Australia consistently
produces world champion teams and elite athletes in a number of
sports, including cricket, rugby league, rugby union, swimming and
cycling. Our athletes and teams travel widely to compete in
international sporting competitions, such as the Davis Cup, the
US PGA Golf tour and the Association of Surfing Professionals
(ASP) tour.
TNCs and international branding

The growth of transnational corporations (TNCs) and international
branding and marketing of sport has had a significant impact on the
types of sports played in Australia. American sports, such as baseball
and basketball, have become increasingly popular in Australia as a
result of the enormous marketing efforts of the global media
corporations and TNCs in the textiles, clothing and sportswear
industries. The branded stars of the US NBA (National Basketball
Association) are everywhere Australian teenagers look. Their faces
are found in television and magazine advertisements for sportswear
companies (such as Nike and Reebok), on billboards, breakfast
cereal packaging and in Hollywood movies. Australian teenagers are
not only playing these sports but collecting branded clothing and
accessories in the colours and logos of their favourite American
baseball, basketball and football teams.
Group work In small

groups, discuss the
importance of sport to
Australias culture.
Research Undertake
research to find out which
international sporting events
5
Australia has hosted, as well
as those we have
participated in overseas, in
the past twelve months.
Present this information in a
table. Also undertake
research to find out about the
origins of each of these
competitions.
3 Internet research
Access the IOCs
Olympic Games website to
find out the locations of the
Olympic Summer Games
since 1896. Use this
information and an atlas to
plot the cities onto a world
map. Construct a column
graph showing the number of
countries that participated at
each of the games.
44
Internet research Australia

is one of only three nations
to have participated in all
twenty-five modern Olympic
Games. Undertake Internet
research to identify the other
two countries.
Wall display As a class,
construct a wall display
illustrating the range of global
links that are promoted by
international sporting
competitions, such as the
Olympic Games. What are
the benefits of such events
for both host and
participating countries?
Challenge: Research
Select an Australian sport
that is of interest to you.
Undertake research to find
out more about the origins of
this sport. When and where
was this sport first played?
When and how was the sport
introduced to Australia?
How have the rules been
adapted to better suit an
Australian context?
Extreme sports
An increasingly popular trend on the Australian
sporting scene has been our involvement in
extreme sports. The term extreme sports is used
to refer to a broad range of non-traditional
adrenaline-based activities that are not typically
reported in the sports pages of newspapers.
Examples of these sports include wakeboarding,
kite surfing, aerial freestyle BMX, snowboarding,
downhill skateboard racing, whitewater rafting,
mountain biking, motocross, waterskiing and
mountain boarding.
Extreme sports have become increasingly
popular in recent years due to the media
coverage of events such as the X Games in the
United States and, more recently, the Planet X
summer and winter games in Australia. The
growing popularity of these sports is reflected in
the International Olympic Committees decision
to include snowboarding in the 2002 Winter
Olympics.
Figure 9.3b
Ex
professional cir treme sports have created
a
cu
young as 14 ye it which allows athletes as
ars to see the
their sports an
world, pursue
d make some
money.
UTT worksheet 9.3
d
colonisation an
1 Explain how
ve influenced
ha
n
tio
ra
ig
m
l
internationa
Australia.
orts played in
the types of sp
your
t
or
es to supp
Provide exampl
response.
Sports
the Australian
2 Outline how
eased
cr
in
es
ot
om
Commission pr
aring
sh
ce
ur
d reso
cooperation an
.
es
tri
between coun
ey Olympic
the 2000 Sydn
3 Explain how
lias
ra
st
strated Au
Games demon
the world.
of
st
re
e
th
ith
sporting links w
nsnational
the growth of tra
4 Explain how
l sports
na
io
d internat
corporations an
range of
e
th
d
ce
en
influ
marketing has
.
in Australia
sports played
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 254
Tourism
Domestic tourism is travel

within ones own country.
The Australian Tourist
Commission defines
Tourism is travel away from your normal place
of work and residence, including travel
undertaken for business and pleasure. The
World Tourism Organisation (WTO) defines it as
The activities of persons travelling to and
staying in places outside their usual environment
for not more than one consecutive year for
leisure, business or other purposes.
Inbound tourists by country of

origin, 200102
Country/region
Arrivals
Proportion
of total (%)
New Zealand
787 700
16.5
Japan
659 200
13.8
United Kingdom
627 100
13.2
United States
424 400
8.9
Singapore
295 800
6.2
Korea
181 100
3.8
Other Europe
408 400
8.6
Other Asia
676 600
14.1
Rest of world
708 000
14.8
4 768 300
100.0
Total
Source: ABS
1
Visitor arrivals
00
99
99
98
98
19
97
97
19
96
96
19
95
95
19
94
94
19
93
93
92
92
Proportion
of total (%)
19
Departures
0
19
Country/region
Data for 200101 is not available.
91
Outbound tourists by country

of destination, 200102
19
Table 9.4b
Resident departures
19
Table 9.4a
The tourism industry is of great economic importance to Australia.

The revenue generated, both directly and indirectly, from tourist
activities is an important source of economic growth. Domestic and
international tourists consume more than $65 billion in goods and
services each year. This accounts for 4.5 per cent of Australias gross
domestic product (GDP); that is, the total value of goods and services
produced in the economy in a year. A further 4 per cent of our GDP
consists of indirect revenue from tourismthe flow of benefits,
including increased output and employment that results from tourists
consuming goods and services. International tourism is Australias
fourth largest export sector, accounting for 11 per cent of Australias
total export earnings. Tourism is also an important source of
employment in Australia. Approximately 1 million people are
employed, either directly or indirectly, in tourism-related industries.
This represents more than 10 per cent of the workforce.
Number of people ('000 000)
9.4
Year
New Zealand
592 200
17.6
United Kingdom
308 000
9.1
United States
276 000
8.2
Indonesia
270 900
8.1
Other Europe
305 900
9.1
Other Asia
772 300
22.9
Other Oceania
138 200
4.1
Rest of world
704 400
20.9
3 367 900
100.0
Total
Source: ABS
Figure 9.4a Australias international tourism flows, 199192 to 200102.

Source: ABS.
Inbound tourism
Australia receives approximately 5 million visitors a year and this
figure is predicted to be as high as 8 million by 2012. The reasons
for visiting Australia are varied. More than half of all visitors in
200102 came here on holidays, 20 per cent were visiting friends
and relatives, 15 per cent were on business trips and 6 per cent
visited for educational purposes. There has also been an increase in
the number of backpackers visiting Australia. This market has
become an important source of revenue for the Australian tourism
industry (see the box Backpackers).
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 255
Traditionally, New Zealand, Europe and North America have

been the main sources of inbound tourists. Statistics suggest that
the source of tourists has widened to include a growing number of
visitors from Southeast Asia. The top source countries for visitor
arrivals in 200102 were, in descending order, New Zealand,
Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States and Singapore
(see Table 9.4a).
Backpackers
One of the fastest-growing components of Australias tourism
industry is the backpacker market. Each year, Australia is visited
by more than 460 000 backpackers who spend a significant
amount of money in the local economyon average, more than
twice as much as other tourists. In 2002, for example,
backpackers spent a total of $2.5 billion.
Backpacking is a unique form of travel that focuses on
freedom and exploration. Most backpackers do not make
specific plans before they reach Australia. They generally prefer
to start with very general travel ideas and make more detailed
arrangements when they arrive in the country. Word of mouth
and the Internet are two important sources of information for
backpackers.
Figure 9.4b shows that more than 70 per cent of
backpackers visiting Australia are under the age of 30. These
backpackers tend to spend more time in Australia than those
1519
(7%)
aged over 30. The average

length of stay for a backpacker
is sixty-eight nights. This is
more than twice as long as the
average length of stay for all
visitors (twenty-seven nights).
Figure 9.4b Backpackers
visiting Australia, by age group (as
a proportion of all backpackers),
200102. Source: Australian
Tourist Commission.
40 and over
(13%)
2024
(39%)
3039
(15%)
2529
(26%)
UTT worksheet 9.4
Outbound tourism
More Australians travel overseas today than ever before. Rising
standards of living and reductions in the real cost of travel have
made this possible. The most popular destination in 200102 was
New Zealand. More than seventeen per cent of all Australians
travelling overseas went to New Zealand. The next most popular
destinations were the United Kingdom (9.1%) and the United
States (8.2%).
Of all Asian destinations, Indonesia was the most popular,
accounting for more than 8 per cent of Australian visitors to the
region. Most of these visits were to the resort island of Bali (see
Table 9.4b).
Foundation
worksheet 9.1
11 Internet research
Update the statistical
information provided in this unit by
accessing the following websites:
Australia Bureau of Statistics

Australian Tourist Commission
Bureau of Tourism Research
Australian Tourism Export Council
Department of Foreign Affairs and
Trade (see the Australia in Brief
section).
rm tourism.
1 Define the te
tourism to
importance of
2 Outline the
economy.
the Australian
hy tourists
main reasons w
3 Identify the
visit Australia.
d tourists
do most inboun
4 From where
changed
rn
tte
pa
is
s th
come? How ha
over time?
term
meaning of the
5 Explain the
do
re
he
ism. W
outbound tour
travel
ey
th
n
he
w
it
Australians vis
abroad?
cker
nt is the backpa
6 How importa
ism
ur
to
n
lia
ra
st
market to the Au
support
ide statistics to
industry? Prov
your answer.
Constructing graphs Select the

most effective way to graph the
information in Tables 9.4a and 9.4b.
Construct the graphs. Using the
information in your graphs, write a
4
report describing the country of origin
of inbound tourists as well as the
destinations of outbound travellers.
Group work Working in groups,
develop an advertising campaign to
promote Australian tourism in our key
source markets.
Your campaign could include a jingle,

a video, a dramatisation or poster.
Present your advertising campaign to
the class.
Applying knowledge Complete the
following table using the information
in the box Backpackers.
Backpacker
characteristics Statistics
Age
Countries of origin
Length of stay
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 256
9.5
Australias trade links

International trade creates links between countries through the
export and import of goods and services. Australia has a complex
pattern of trade links that has changed over time as our export base
has broadened and diversified.
Australias major items of trade

Australias trade involves the exporting and importing of both goods
and services. Traditionally, primary products, including agricultural
goods (such as wheat, wool and beef) and minerals (such as iron ore,
gold and aluminium), have accounted for a significant proportion of
Australias exports. Exports of these commodities remain an
important component of Australias trade (see Figure 9.5b).
Australias exports of manufactured goods have been slower to
develop. As a nation we have tended to rely on primary industry
exports to finance the purchase of manufactured goods from overseas.
This trend in Australias trade is now starting to change. Manufactured
products, especially sophisticated elaborately transformed
manufactures, or ETMs (such as scientific instruments, electronic
Figure 9.5a Australia is one of the worlds great trading

nations.
ICT
Department of Foreign
Affairs and Trade
Access the website for the Department of

Foreign Affairs and Trade. Select one trade
agreement available from this site and answer
the following questions about it:
a When was the agreement signed? Which
countries have signed it? When did it come
into force?
b What commitments have the signatory nations
made as part of this agreement?
EXPORTS
Coal
Crude petroleum
Iron ore
Non-monetary gold
Aluminium
Australia's major
exports & imports
IMPORTS
Motor vehicles
Crude petroleum
Telecommunications
equipment
Computers
Medical supplies
Figure 9.5b Australias major exports and imports, 2001.
Table 9.5a
The changing composition of Australias exports ($ million)
Sector
199697
199798
199899
199900
200001
200102
Agriculture
21 045
22 130
21 862
23 617
29 061
29 571
Mining
22 566
25 730
24 786
29 178
39 513
39 162
Manufacturing
25 812
27 980
27 169
32 079
37 514
37 190
Other merchandise
11 511
12 698
11 966
12 791
14 219
15 276
Services
Total exports
24 226
25 206
26 242
28 369
33 204
30 958
105 160
113 744
112 025
126 034
153 511
152 157
Source: DFAT
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 257
equipment and motor vehicles), now account for a growing share of

Australias exports. Australias service exports, including tourism and
education, have also experienced rapid growth over the past decade.
These exports now account for more than 20 per cent of the total
annual value of goods and services produced in Australia (that is,
GDP), up from 17 per cent in 199192 (see Table 9.5a). Australias top
five exports and imports are shown in Figure 9.5b.
Australias main trading partners

The direction of Australias trade with the rest of the world is subject
to change. Over the past century Australias trade focus has shifted
away from a reliance on European markets. The decision by the
United Kingdom to increase its trading links with other European
nations in the 1960s forced Australian exporters to seek new trade
relationships. These relationships were found in the rapidly
expanding economies of Northeast and Southeast Asia. By 2000
Australias trade focus was firmly on the members of the AsiaPacific
Economic Cooperation group (APEC). Nine of Australias ten major
trading partners are members of APEC, accounting for more than
70 per cent of Australias exports and imports. Australias major
export destinations and import sources are summarised in Figure 9.5c.
Trading agreements and treaties

The process of globalisation has presented a number of challenges
for countries in the AsiaPacific region. On the one hand, it has
provided opportunities for the development of internationally
competitive economies. On the other hand, globalisation, together
with trade liberalisation (that is, the removal of barriers to free
trade), has increased competition and reduced the protective buffer
between domestic and international affairs. The results of these
trends can be seen in times of economic turmoil where changes
originating in one country, such as a currency devaluation, spread
to others. The Asian economic crisis is one such example.
In an integrated, global environment, cooperation between
countries is essential. Australia makes use of several mechanisms of
international dialogue, including the maintenance and development
of strong bilateral relationships with other countries. Regional and
multilateral forums and institutions also play an important role. They
include APEC and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Through
these bilateral and multilateral relationships, free trade agreements
are negotiated and trading blocs are established.
EXPORT
DESTINATIONS
Japan
19.4%
USA
9.7%
South Korea 7.8%
China
6.2%
NZ
5.9%
Australia's major
trading Partners
IMPORT
SOURCES
USA
Japan
China
Germany
UK
18.2%
13.0%
8.8%
5.7%
5.3%
Trade liberalisation
Trade liberalisation involves reductions in direct
and indirect industry protection.
Direct forms of protection include tariffs,
quotas and embargoes. These forms of
protection have been gradually reduced as a
result of trade liberalisation policies. The average
level of tariffs applied to manufactured goods
entering Australia is about 5 per cent.
Indirect forms of protection include
unjustified quarantine restrictions, complicated
customs valuation methods, conflict between
international and national standards, import
licensing and export subsidies. The Australian
Government is working to eliminate these
non-tariff forms of protection in an attempt to
boost the productivity and international
competitiveness of the Australian economy.
Protection The imposition

of duties or quotas on
imports in order to protect
domestic industry against
foreign competition.
Tariff A tax on goods imported. Its purpose is to
raise the price of the goods concerned.
Quota A limit on the amount of a good or
service that can be imported or exported.
Embargo A ban on the import or export of a
specific product or service.
Quarantine restrictions Laws determining
which goods can and cannot be imported into a
country as well as the conditions for importation.
Customs valuation methods Used to determine
the value of goods imported into a country. They
determine the value of any customs duty that the
importer is required to pay.
National standards Rules specifying minimum
health and safety standards that must be met for
a product to be sold in a particular country.
Often these standards differ between countries.
Subsidy A payment made directly or indirectly to
a company or individual to make them more
competitive.
Productivity The output per worker per unit of
time.
The World Trade

Organization (WTO) is an
intergovernmental body
that aims to establish
and monitor the rules of trade between
countries. The WTO was set up to replace the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1995.
Figure 9.5c Australias major trading partners, 2001.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 258
The AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation group (APEC)

80
70
60
Proportion of trade (%)
APEC was established in 1989 as a response to the European

Unions introduction of aggressive trade barriers. There are
twenty-one member countries of APEC, representing a region
of over 2 billion people and accounting for more than half the
worlds trade. Members of this forum include Japan, the United
States and the rapidly developing countries of Asia (including
China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea). The Latin
American nations of Chile, Peru and Mexico are also members
of this trade forum. Australias economic future is closely tied to
the continued progress of trade liberalisation through APEC. In
19992000, APEC member countries accounted for 72 per cent
of Australias merchandise trade and 60 per cent of trade in
services (see Figure 9.5d).
50
Proportion of
Australia's total
merchandise trade.
40
Proportion of
Australis's total
trade in services.
30
20
10
UTT worksheet 9.5
1 Constructing and interpreting

graphs: Using software Use
appropriate software (such as Excel)
to construct a multiple line graph
showing the data in Table 9.5a (p.
256). Use your graph to write a
paragraph outlining the changing
composition of Australias exports.
2
Using the media Assemble a media

file containing newspaper articles
about trade issues. Using your file,
4
list all the external factors that affect
1*
00
-0
00
-2
99
19
20
-9
98
19
19
97
-9
6
19
96
-9
-9
95
19
-9
94
19
9
93
19
*Data for trade in services in

200001 is not available.
Year
Figure 9.5d Australias trade with APEC member countries. This

graph shows the importance of APEC to Australias trade.
Bilateral trade agreements

Australia is pursuing free trade agreements with many of its key
trading partners, including Singapore, Thailand and the United
States. Bilateral agreements are important to Australia because they
promote free trade and help to address important issues, such as
overseas investment, trade in services, policy differences between
countries and electronic commerce. Often issues such as these are
very complex and affect a number of stakeholders (interest groups).
Bilateral agreements help to deal with these complexities by
establishing common ground between countries. These agreements
are also important to Australia because they help to secure our
relationships with major trading partners. One of Australias most
important bilateral treaties is the Closer Economic Relations Treaty
Agreement (CER) between Australia and New Zealand, which was
signed in 1983.
trade decisions. These factors include

lobby groups, human rights concerns
and territorial conflicts. Present your
findings in the form of a multimedia
presentation.
3
9
92
19
9
91
90
19
n of
the compositio
1 Explain how
exports have
d
an
rts
po
im
Australias
time.
changed over
ng partners
Australias tradi
2 Outline how
over time.
have changed
EC stand
the acronym AP
3 What does
lia is our
ra
st
Au
rtant to
for? How impo
APEC?
relationship with
alisation
challenges glob
4 Discuss the
iaPacific
As
e
tries in th
creates for coun
region.
lia attempt to
hy does Austra
de
5 How and w
international tra
establish close
relations?
een tariff
difference betw
6 Explain the
n.
tio
ec
ot
and non-tariff pr
tion can be
trade liberalisa
7 Explain how
achieved.
ernments
Australian Gov
8 Outline the
dustry
in
g
lowerin
justification for
.
lia
ra
st
Au
in
ls
protection leve
19
Challenge: Class debate Conduct

a class debate. Topic: It is in
Australias national interests to
promote bilateral and multilateral
treaties with other nations.
Research Find out about one of the
following trading blocs or free trade
Extension
worksheet 9.4
agreements: EU (European Union),

APEC, NAFTA (North American Free
Trade Agreement), WTO or CER. Then
complete the following tasks:
a List the advantages and
disadvantages of membership for
signatory countries.
b List the advantages and
disadvantages of the bloc or
agreement for the rest of the
world.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 259
9.6
Australias regional and

global military links
Australia has extensive regional and global military ties.

These take a number of forms, including treaty agreements,
joint military training and the training of overseas military
personnel. These links may be bilateral, regional or
multilateral in nature. Many of these links can be traced
back to the various military conflicts in which Australia has
been involved since 1899.
Historical alliances
Australias long-standing military ties with the United
Kingdom date from our colonial past. The first conflict in
which the newly created Australian nation was involved was
the Boer War of 18991902. Australia felt duty bound to
come to mother countrys aid in its conflict with Dutch
settlers in South Africa. This attitude also explains why
Australia went to the aid of the United Kingdom in both
world wars.
Since World War II, Australia has developed closer military ties
with the United States. This involvement dates from the time when
Australia was forced to turn to the United States to help repel the
Japanese advance through Southeast Asia and the Pacific during the
early 1940s. As part of its involvement in the Pacific Campaign the
United States established a number of large military bases in the
AsiaPacific region.
Following our involvement in the Pacific Campaign the
Australian military established close links with the US military.
These links were further reinforced in the postwar period through
the signing of formal treaty agreements, including the ANZUS
treaty, and through Australias involvement in the Korean and
Vietnam Wars. Australia also participated in both the 199091 and
200304 Gulf Wars against Iraq.
Figure 9.6a Australian SAS troops in the front line.
Treaty An international
agreement concluded
between states in a written
form and governed by
international law. The term convention is used to
describe an agreement that has a large number
of countries as signatories.
The ANZUS treaty

ANZUS is an acronym of Australia, New Zealand and the United
States of America and is a multilateral security treaty between these
three countries. A treaty, convention or protocol is an agreement
between states (countries) that is binding in international law.
Countries need treaties so that they can organise both national and
international responses to common issues and threats. The ANZUS
treaty came into force in April 1952 and its aim was to establish a
system for regional security in the AsiaPacific region. This involves
a commitment to resolve conflict, where possible, by peaceful means
while maintaining and developing an individual and collective
capacity to resist armed attack. The ANZUS treaty was formally
invoked (put into effect) by the Australian Government for the first
time on 14 September 2001 when the Cabinet agreed to support any
US military retaliation in response to the September 11 terrorist
attacks (see the box Australias involvement in the war against
terrorism, p. 260).
Extension
worksheet 9.3
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 260
Australias involvement in the war against terrorism

Australia has been an active member of the international
coalition of countries contributing to the US-led war against
terrorism. The international coalition was established in
response to September 11, when up to 3000 people were
killed in the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the
Pentagon and 250 passengers were killed on the four hijacked
commercial airliners. The immediate goal of the coalition
against terrorism was to seek out and destroy Al-Qaeda forces
in Afghanistan and to ensure that country could no longer be
used as a base for terrorists. In the long term, Prime Minister
Howard explained that the goal was to Demonstrate that
organised, international, state-sanctioned terrorism [would] not
be tolerated by the world community. This goal has resulted in
the deployment of Australian forces to a number of regions
across the globe, including Iraq and the Persian Gulf.
Some examples of the practical contribution Australia has

made to the international coalition against terrorism include:
the deployment of Australian Special Air Service (SAS) forces
in Afghanistan and Iraq
air patrol duties
air-to-air refuelling of coalition aircraft.
Figure 9.6c A cartoo

nists view of Australias
support for
the US-led invasion of
Iraq. Cartoon by Nichol
son from
The Australian. www.n
icholsoncartoons.com.a
u
Figure 9.6b Australian newspaper headlines, 11 and 12

September 2001. Up to 3000 people were killed in the
terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon.
Military exercises and peacekeeping

Australia conducts regular military exercises with the military forces
of the United States, Singapore, New Zealand and the United
Kingdom. Joint US and Australian military exercises are conducted
every few years.
Since World War II, the Australian Defence Force has been active
in many parts of the world through its involvement in combat
operations as well as UN and multinational peacekeeping and
humanitarian initiatives. These operations have involved the
deployment of troops to the Middle East, Iran, Namibia,
Afghanistan, Iraq, Cambodia, Rwanda, Somalia, Papua New Guinea,
East Timor and the Solomon Islands.
Australias role in East Timor is a useful example of our
involvement in peacekeeping operations. In September 1999
Australia was asked to lead a UN-sponsored multinational force in
East Timor. The UN-mandated International Force East Timor
(Interfet) was deployed to stop the violence that erupted after the
East Timorese people voted for independence from Indonesia.
The Interfet mission in East Timor involved over 5500 Australian
personnel and has been Australias largest commitment to a
peacekeeping operation to date. In addition to East Timor,
Australias other long-term peacekeeping commitments in the region
include operations in Bougainville (a province of Papua New
Guinea) and the Solomon Islands.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 261
Training
Australia has established military training relationships with a range
of nations, including Canada, Singapore, New Zealand, the United
Kingdom, the United States of America and Papua New Guinea.
This involves a variety of activities, from basic training through to
specialised programs. Much of this training takes place at the
Australian Defence Force Academy in Canberra. The Army Officer
Training Establishment at Duntroon in Canberra also conducts
exchanges with training establishments at Sandhurst in the United
Kingdom and Westpoint in the United States.
Bilateral and multilateral security

agreements
Together with Malaysia, Singapore, New Zealand and the United
Kingdom, Australia is a member of the Five Power Defence
Arrangements. This is an important element of Australias regional
defence presence. Australia is also a member of our regions only
security forum: the ASEAN Regional Forum. (ASEAN is an
acronym for Association of South-East Asian Nations.) This forum
brings together most AsianPacific countries to discuss issues
regarding regional security. In addition to the above agreements
Australia has longstanding bilateral defence and security links of
various kinds with countries in the region.
It is important to recognise that Australia maintains strong
defence links in the absence of any direct military threat from
overseas. Our most direct security concerns are of a non-military
nature and include pandemics (diseases that affect a wide area),
illegal immigration, refugee flows, environmental degradation,
narcotics, international crime and counterterrorism.
Australians do, however, live in a region that is continuing to
experience rapid economic, political and social change. Regional
and international defence ties are an important way of ensuring
national security in this changing environment.
Organising information Draw up

a table to describe the different
forms of military ties that exist
between Australia and other
nations. Organise your information
around the following headings:
historical links, treaty agreements,
joint military activities, peacekeeping and training of personnel.
2 Internet research Use the

Department of Foreign Affairs
and Trade website to compile a list
of UN operations in which Australian
forces have been involved. Classify
these missions as being military or
peacekeeping in nature and plot
their location on a map of the world.
3

conduct a brainstorming session
outlining the reasons why overseas
defence links are important to
Australia. Outline the main points of
your groups discussion to the rest
of the class.
UTT worksheet 9.6
the
links between
1 Outline the
nce forces
fe
de
d
ary an
Australian milit
overseas.
stralias
the focus of Au
2 Explain how
anged over
ch
s
nships ha
defence relatio
these changes
time. Why have
occurred?
and why is it
ANZUS treaty
3 What is the
rity?
cu
se
s
lia
stra
important to Au
volved in
in
lia
ra
nt is Aust
4 To what exte
hat is the
t terrorism? W
the war agains
t?
en
m
involve
reason for our
ist for
rtunities that ex
po
op
e
5 Outline the
th
y training and
overseas militar
ary forces and
ilit
m
r
ou
of
t
developmen
u think
lies. Why do yo
those of our al
?
ist
ex
s
change
these training ex
and
l
ra
e types of bilate
to
6 Describe th
ts
en
em
re
ag
rity
multilateral secu
tory. What is
na
sig
a
is
lia
which Austra
ts?
these agreemen
the purpose of
Research Use the Internet or

library resources to find out more
about ASEAN or the Five Power
Defence Arrangements. Which
nations are members of the
organisation and what are its aims
and objectives? Present your
findings in the form of a
multimedia presentation (see

Unit 2.8).
Research: Constructing
annotated maps Use library or
Internet research to find out the
location of foreign military
installations and the purpose of
these installations. Plot the locations
on a map of Australia. Annotate
your map with the information you
gathered.
Challenge: Research Undertake

library and Internet research to
assemble a collection of arguments
both for and against Australias
involvement in the war against

terrorism. Some useful sources of
information are the websites of
non-government organisations and
the Department of Foreign Affairs
and Trade. You could also search
the archives of major Australian
newspapers for ideas. Use this
information to prepare a class
debate. Topic: Australia should be
involved in the war against
terrorism.
7
Interpreting cartoons Study

Figure 9.6c and answer the
following questions:
a Who does the character in the
cartoon represent?
b What message is the cartoonist
putting forward in the cartoon?
c What is your view? Do you agree
or disagree with the cartoonist?
Explain your answer.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 262
9.7
MAJOR
STUDY
International aid
The need for foreign aid
Each year, Australian Government aid reaches
more than 58 million people living in poverty.
In the AsiaPacific region there are 800 million
people living on less than $2 a day. This region
experiences one of the highest concentrations of
poverty in the world.
Bilateral aid Development

assistance given from the
government of one
country directly to the
government of another.
Multilateral aid All forms of official development
assistance provided by governments of
developed countries through international
agencies, such as the United Nations.
Australian Agency for International
Development (AusAID) The Australian
Government agency responsible for the
distribution of funds and other forms of aid to
developing countries.
Good governance Ensuring all groups within
society have a say regarding key issues affecting
their futures.
Ecologically sustainable development
Development that meets the needs of the
present generation without affecting the ability of
future generations to meet their needs.
International aid is the assistance that governments of developed

countries provide to developing countries for the purpose of
encouraging economic growth and improvements in living standards
in the recipient countries. There are three main types of aid:
bilateral aiddevelopment assistance given by a government
directly to the government of another country
multilateral aidassistance provided by governments through
international agencies, such as the World Bank and International
Monetary Fund
non-government aidall forms of aid provided by non-government
organisations, including the Red Cross, Oxfam Community Aid
Abroad and World Vision. These funds are usually raised from
public donations.
Australias overseas aid program

The Australian Governments overseas aid program is administered
by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID).
The program provides funds and other forms of assistance to a
number of developing countries in the AsiaPacific region and
across the globe. Australias development assistance program focuses
on the promotion of economic growth and good governance within
the AsiaPacific region. Good governance is about ensuring that all
groups within society (including businesses, governments and
Governance: promoting democratic and

accountable government and effective
public administration
Security: strengthening regional

security by enhancing the
recipient's capacity to prevent
conflict, enhance stability
and manage relations with
other countries
Components
of Australia's
aid program
Sustainable resource management: promoting

sustainable approaches to the management of
the environment, including rural development
and the use of scarce natural resources
Globalisation: assisting developing

countries to access and maximise
the benefits from trade and new
information technologies
Human capital: supporting stability and the

legitimcay of government through improved
basic services, such as health, education
and water and sanitation services
Figure 9.7a The five key components of Australias aid program.

Source: AusAID.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 263
individuals) have a say regarding the key issues affecting their

futures. AusAIDs aim is to help countries reduce poverty by
encouraging the development of effective and accountable
institutions (for example, government departments) through
education and the promotion of ecologically sustainable development in
the AsiaPacific region. While Australias neighbours in the South
Pacific and Southeast Asia are the main recipients of this aid the
government also has targeted aid programs for areas of Africa and
the Middle East.
Australias aid budget was $1.815 billion in 200203. This was
0.25 per cent of Australias gross national income (GNI) and is quite
modest by international standards (see Figure 9.7c). In the same
period, Norway gave 0.83 per cent of its GNI and Sweden gave
Governance
(20%)
Other
(24%)
Education
(16%)
Infrastructure
(13%)
Health
(13%)
Rural development
(14%)
Figure 9.7d What is Australian aid spent on?

Source: AusAID.
0.6
Percentage of GNI
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
20
01
8
9
19
99
19
97
9
95
19
9
93
19
9
91
89
19
19
87
19
4
8
85
19
83
19
8
81
19
8
79
19
7
77
19
7
75
19
7
71
19
19
73
0.1
Year
Figure 9.7b Percentage of Australias national income spent on aid, 197172

to 200102. Source: AusAID.
1.2
3.1
1.0
2.6
4.1
0.3
3.1
UN target
0.6
8.3
0.8
0.6
9.0
3.4
9.4
1.6
0.9
0.5
0.2
3.0 10.7
Japan
Canada
Portugal
Austria
Australia
Germany
New Zealand
Country
Spain
UK
Ireland
Finland
France
Switzerland
Belgium
Sweden
Luxemburg
Netherlands
Norway
0.0
Denmark
0.2
0.4
2.9
21.1
US
1.8
Italy
1.7
0.4
Greece
Proportion of trade (%)
0.8
Amounts above columnc indicate total expenditure (US$ billion).
Figure 9.7c Aid donors. Development aid by donor country, in billions of US$ and as a percentage of the donors
national income (GNI), 200203. Source: AusAID.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 264
Mongolia
Iraq
Palestinian
Territories
Uganda
Afghanistan
Pakistan
Kenya
China
Nepal
Bhutan
India
Burma Vietnam
Bangladesh Laos
Thailand
Cambodia
Marshall Is.
Palau
Sri Lanka
Maldives
Tanzania
Zambia Mozambique
Malawi
Zimbabwe
Namibia
Botswana
Swaziland
South Africa Lesotho
Philippines
Indonesia
East Timor
Kiribati
Papua
New Guinea
Tuvalu
Solomon Is.
Tokelau
Vanuatu Samoa
Niue
Fiji Tonga
Cook Is.
2000km
Figure 9.7e Where is Australian aid spent? Source: AusAID.
0.76 per cent of its GNI. Australias aid budget is also well below the
UN target of 0.7 per cent of GNI. On average, each Australian
contributes $1.70 a week to pay for our foreign aid programs.
Figure 9.7b (p. 263) shows how this aid is distributed.
Bilateral agreements
Bilateral aid includes all forms of development assistance given directly
by the Australian Government to the government of a developing
country (see the box Australian aid to Papua New Guinea). This
form of aid is generally directed towards the provision of:
health, education and training programs
technology and technological support
support for community-based projects, such as building schools and
establishing basic health infrastructure
emergency food, medicines, shelter, building materials and clothing
during times of crisis.
Australian aid to Papua New Guinea: an example of bilateral aid

Papua New Guinea is the country that receives the largest single
slice of Australias aid program, accounting for approximately
one-fifth of Australias annual aid budget (see Figure 9.7e). In
200203 this amounted to $351.4 million. This level of assistance
reflects the significance of the relationship between the two
countries. Until 1975 Australia was responsible for the
administration of Papua New Guinea.
Australias aid program to Papua New Guinea aims to
promote sustainable development, self-reliance, political and
social stability, and to assist with the successful implementation
of PNGs economic reforms. Australias approach is to strengthen
PNGs ability to improve the delivery of basic services
(particularly to rural areas), implement development programs,
foster investment and create employment.
The improvement of infrastructure in Papua New Guinea has

been one of the key aims of Australias aid efforts. Aid funds have
been used to build better land, maritime and air transport
services as well as maintain national roads and airport facilities. It
is hoped that better transport infrastructure will improve access
to services and markets, particularly for PNGs rural population.
Table 9.7a
PNGs key development indicators
GNP per capitaA$1312

Access to water42 per cent of the population
Life expectancy56 years
Adult literacy64 per cent of the population
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 265
Interpreting mindmaps Study

Figure 9.7a (p. 262). Write a paragraph explaining the five key
components of Australias aid
program.
b Name the largest aid donor

based on total expenditure.
c How does Australias aid
contribution compare with the
contribution of other nations?
a How has Australias contribution

as a proportion of GNI changed
over time?
c Which regions of the world

receive Australias aid?
ICT
Writing task Study the box:

Australian aid to Papua New
Guinea and then write a report
describing the extent of Australias
foreign aid commitment to Papua
New Guinea. Outline the purpose of
this aid.
Internet research Access

the AusAID website for the
Australian Youth Ambassadors for
Development program. Use the
information on this site to make a
list of the practical steps that you or
your class could take to promote
development in the AsiaPacific
region.
a Identify the largest aid donor in

terms of the percentage of its GNI.
Interpreting graphs Study

Figures 9.7b, 9.7c, 9.7d and 9.7e
(pp. 263 and 264), then complete
the following tasks:
b What is the Australian aid budget

spent on?
Interpreting graphs Study Figure

9.7c (p. 263), then complete the
following tasks:
d Compile a list of the countries

that spent more than 0.7 per cent
of their income on aid.
4
Class debate Conduct a class

debate. Topic: The Australian
Government should increase aid to
neighbouring countries, such as
Papua New Guinea, Laos, Vietnam
and Indonesia.
AusAID
Access the AusAID Global Education websites and

complete the following tasks:
1 Find the latest information about Australias foreign aid program.
Design a wall display to communicate your findings.
2 List AusAIDs aims and objectives.
3 Use the country programs link from the AusAID website to find a
case study of a country that receives Australian aid. Use the
following points to structure an oral report on the aid program in
this country:
a Use an atlas or the Internet to find a map of the country
involved in this project.
b Why is AusAID involved in the project? Is the project consistent
with AusAIDs aims?
c Outline the projects goals.
d Identify the major stakeholders (interest groups).
e Outline the impact that Australian aid has had on the local
community.
f Evaluate whether the development is appropriate.
g Suggest other ways that the money could
have been spent.
After you have given your presentation, the
class should consider whether the projects
performance matches its objectives. Write a
letter or draft an email to AusAID expressing
Figure 9.7f
your views.
AusAIDs
logo
The role of non-government organisations

In many instances, aid is distributed by NGOs, such as Oxfam
Community Aid Abroad, World Vision, Save the Children,
Australian Catholic Relief and AUSTCARE. Many NGOs are nonprofit organisations that receive most of their income from voluntary
donations made by the general public (see the Getting Technical
box). These organisations argue that wealthy nations have a moral
obligation to assist the less fortunate living in poor nations.
UTT worksheet 9.7
l aid.
rm internationa
1 Define the te
ral and
between bilate
2 Distinguish
d.
multilateral ai
Australias
le of AusAID in
3 State the ro
aid program.
stralias aid
stated aim of Au
e
th
e
lin
ut
O
4
program.
Australias
n recipients of
5 List the mai
foreign aid.
ort provided
e forms of supp
6 Describe th
ojects.
pr
d
ai
lateral
by Australias bi
lia
ra
st
type of aid Au
7 Identify the
a. Outline
ne
ui
G
w
Ne
pua
provides to Pa
this aid.
the purpose of
What is an NGO?
The term NGO refers to the
various non-government
organisations that operate
at a range of geographical scales to promote
the values of social justice, ecological
sustainability, self-determination and equality.
The charters, aims and objectives of NGOs
cover issues ranging from environmental
protection (Greenpeace) to human rights
(Amnesty International) and the fight against
poverty (Oxfam Community Aid Abroad).
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 266
ICT
Investigating the role of

NGOs
Access the website of the Australian Council

for International Development (ACFID). Select
one of the organisations listed on the site.
Access its website and then complete the
following tasks:
1 Outline the origins and history of the
organisation.
2 List the organisations aims.
3 Draw a diagram showing the structure of the
organisation. Does the organisation have links
with other NGOs?
4 Identify the main issues addressed by this
NGO. Classify these issues as being either
environmental or social. What role does this
organisation play in the provision of Australian
aid overseas?
5 Write a brief summary outlining the various aid
programs undertaken by this organisation.
6 Select one of the NGOs programs to
investigate in greater detail. Use information
on the NGOs website to complete the
following tasks:
a What type of aid is being provided?
b Which country or countries are involved?
c What are the aims of the aid program?
d Are other government or non-government
organisations involved in this program?
If so, who are they and what is their role?
e Summarise the major successes and failures
of the program.
7 With the assistance of Figure 2.7b (p. 49),
assess the validity, reliability and objectivity of
this NGOs website. Consider the following:
validityIs the information sound or
defensible, well-grounded and correct?
reliabilityDoes the information comes from
a well-regarded or reputable source?
objectivityIs the information free from
obvious bias?
8 Present your research findings in the form of a
multimedia presentation or oral report.
Internet research Copy the

table on the right and then
complete it by undertaking library
and/or Internet research.
Challenge: Writing task As a
class conduct a brainstorm of the
advantages and disadvantages of
using multilateral organisations to
distribute aid. Write a report
evaluating the effectiveness of these
organisations.
NGOs often work in a partnership with local community-based

groups. The aim is to help communities help themselves; that is,
help them become more self-sufficient and ecologically sustainable.
They have grass roots contacts through local workers based in a
range of developing countries and, therefore, are able to provide
targeted and effective development assistance.
One NGO, AID/WATCH, has taken on the responsibility of
monitoring the Australian Governments aid expenditure and
informing the public of the destination and use of these funds.
This task involves careful analysis of the environmental and social
impacts of Australian aid on local populations and on developing
nations as a whole.
Multilateral aid
As noted earlier, multilateral aid includes all forms of official
development assistance provided by the governments of developed
countries through international agencies, such as the United
Nations, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.
Multilateral aid is used to fund:
emergency relief projects, such as those involving large numbers of
refugees
projects involving issues that cut across national borders, such as
global warming and disease control
large-scale infrastructure projects, including the construction of
roads, bridges and railways
large-scale health, education and training programs.
Intergovernmental organisations, such as the United Nations, are
important because they provide targeted services, such as health care
and education, to the areas of developing countries where support is
most needed. These organisations are also able to mobilise and
coordinate services during international crises.
The support provided by multilateral aid is quite diverse. It spans a
variety of sectors, including education, training, health, population,
agriculture, forestry and fishing (see Figure 9.7g).
While the majority of Australias aid budget is distributed through
bilateral programs, multilateral organisations also play an important
role in the delivery of Australian aid to developing countries.
The Australian Government has, in recent years, been critical of
the effectiveness and efficiency of multilateral organisations, such as
the United Nations. The government is keen to strengthen the links
between multilateral programs supported by Australia and its
existing bilateral aid relationships.
Multilateral/
intergovernmental
organisations
United Nations
Development Programme
Asian Development Bank
World Bank
Other examples from
your research
Member
countries
Aid
programs
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 267
Treaties and international agreements

Every country has some form of law-making body, whether it is a
parliament or a national assembly. In the international arena,
however, there is no such law-making body. Instead, treaties and
international agreements are used to create legal obligations between
countries. Under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties a
treaty is defined as an international agreement concluded between
states in a written form and governed by international law.
The federal government lists two main reasons for being involved
in international treaties. First, it is in Australias national interest.
Second, the process of global economic and cultural integration
(globalisation) has made participation in international treaties and
agreements an economic and political necessity for small countries
such as Australia. Among other advantages, being signatory to a
treatyespecially those that deal with civil and human rights
enhances Australias image as a responsible international citizen.
Australia also has an ethical and moral responsibility as an
international citizen to enter into bilateral and multilateral
agreements that support the development of countries in less well off
regions of the world. An important element of Australias aid policy
is that assistance should be provided for reasons of principle rather
than because of the national (self) interest alone.
Australia is currently party to more than 920 treaties, covering a
broad range of issues, including human rights, trade, defence and the
environment. Many of these treaties have important implications for
our aid links with the rest of the world. Australia is, for example, a
party to six key international agreements on human rights, which
form the basis of international human rights law (see Unit 11.1).
One of the most important of these human rights agreements is
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (see Table
9.7b). Australia is one of 149 states that are signatories to this
agreement. As a party to this agreement, Australia is obliged to set
laws and promote practices that protect the civil and political rights
of all people, regardless of their age, sex or country of origin. The
Australian Government seeks to achieve these aims by building on
the obvious link between development and human rights.
For a country to develop, individuals need to have access to the
Table 9.7b
Treaty fact file: the International Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights
Name and
date of treaty
The International Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights (1966)
Type of treaty
Multilateral: 149 states are signatory to this

agreement
Main aims of
the treaty
The treaty protects civil and political rights,

such as:
the right to life
Intergovernmental
agencies (also known as
multilateral organisations)
are international bodies set
up by two or more states to carry out activities
of common interest. Examples are the World
Trade Organization (WTO) and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF).
International health
programs
$15 million
(4%)
Commonwealth
organisations
and programs
$12.2 million
(3.5%)
International
environmental
programs
$16.1 million
(4.5%)
UN Development
organisations
$68.2 million
(20%)
Multilateral
development
banks
$234 million
(68%)
Figure 9.7g Global/multilateral aid programs supported

by Australia, 200203.
UTT worksheet 9.7
n-government
these
1 What is a no
d what role do
organisation an
ution
rib
st
di
e
th
in
ay
organisations pl
of aid?
nisation
role of the orga
2 Outline the
AID/WATCH.
ojects in
kinds of aid pr
3 Identify the
tions are
sa
ni
ga
or
al
which multilater
involved.
using multiadvantages of
4 Outline the
ribute aid.
st
di
to
tions
lateral organisa
the right to liberty and security of person

the right to equality before the law
the right to peaceful assembly and freedom of
association
the right to political participation
the right of minorities to protect their language
and culture
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 268
ICT
Investigating Australias
treaties
Access the Australian Treaties Database at

the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs
and Trade website. Find the text of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights and one other treaty relevant to
Australias aid links. (Note: You can conduct a
search for all treaties related to aid and
development.) Use the information on the
website to answer the following questions for
each of these two treaties:
1 When was the treaty signed?
2 Is the treaty bilateral or multilateral?
3 What are Australias obligations under this
treaty?
Design a website or create a multimedia
presentation to share your findings with the
rest of the class (see Unit 2.8).
Working in small groups, use your findings
from the above activity to brainstorm the
advantages and disadvantages of participating
in international treaties and agreements.
Combine your brainstorm with that of another
group in the class. Refine your list to the five
most important advantages and disadvantages.
Present your list to the rest of the class.
UTT worksheet 9.7
aty?
international tre
1 What is an
ies used
at
tre
l
na
io
at
rn
What are inte
for?
Australia of
advantages for
treaties.
2 Outline the
in international
being involved
why the
ur own words,
3 Explain, in yo
made
s
ha
alisation
process of glob
aties
tre
l
na
io
at
rn
te
in
participation in
d
an
al
ts a politic
and agreemen
countries
ssity for small
ce
ne
ic
om
econ
lia.
such as Austra
e
e issues that ar
th
s.
4 List some of
ie
at
tre
l
na
io
rnat
covered by inte
Australia has
s
ie
ilit
sib
on
sp
Outline the re
aties.
under these tre
rights
stralias human
Au
w
ies are
5 Explain ho
lic
foreign aid po
obligations and
linked.
resources required to satisfy their basic needs and improve their

standard of living. The Australian Government uses its aid program,
both directly and indirectly, to promote human rights on a regional
and global scale. Aid activities that aim to create employment, for
example, help to provide individuals with greater financial
independence as well as an improved quality of life. The Australian
Government also promotes reforms in developing countries in order
to encourage the protection of political and civil rights.
It can be seen from the above discussion that the five key
components of Australias aid policygovernance, globalisation,
human capital, security and sustainable resource managementare
strongly linked with Australias international human rights
obligations.
Class debate Conduct a

class debate. Topic: Australia
has an ethical and moral
responsibility to provide aid
to countries less well off than
ourselves.
Challenge: Research
Undertake library or
Internet research to find out
about the impact of
Australian aid on living
standards and human rights
in the AsiaPacific region
(Hint: Select a case study of

an aid program from the
AusAID website.) Sort your
points into those that
demonstrate the advantages
and disadvantages of the
program. Present your
findings in the form of a
written report, remembering
to include appropriate maps,
diagrams, statistics and
geographical terminology.
Advantages of providing foreign aid to

developing countries
The federal government identifies a number of short-term and longterm advantages of its foreign aid program. Foreign aid is directly
linked to Australias future prosperity. The reasons for this are
outlined below.
National security
By focusing on development-related issues, especially poverty, many
of the underlying causes of terrorism and civil and political unrest
can be addressed and perhaps eliminated. Reductions in poverty also
help to build stronger communities and institutions in the
AsiaPacific region. Conflicts in the region may have a negative
impact on Australias economy.
Economic advantages
By strengthening the various national economies within the region,
Australia creates new markets for our goods and services. Stronger
governments and regional economies may also open up new
investment opportunities, which could benefit Australia.
Many foreign aid projects provide jobs and opportunities for
Australians. Australian companies undertake the majority of the aidrelated projects funded by our federal government.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 269
Geopolitics is the study of

the power relations between
countries and the strategies
that nations use to maintain
or expand their influence or power base.
Social justice refers to protecting human rights
and ensuring that international law is adhered to.
Social justice is also about ensuring fairness and
rectifying social wrongs.
Figure 9.7h Emergency food aid delivered to Papua New Guinea.
Geopolitical advantages
Australias aid policies have important geopolitical impacts on our
relationships with our immediate neighbours as well as with other
nations across the globe. Our bilateral aid relationships help
Australia to build on existing political, economic, community,
religious and sporting ties with these nations. This can help to
promote future diplomatic, business and investment links within the
AsiaPacific region. The Australian Government is, for example,
seeking to establish a number of free trade agreements with countries
in the AsiaPacific region, including Thailand and Singapore.
Australias aid ties in this region could play an important role in
helping to secure these agreements.
Positive impacts on social justice and equity

Through its aid program, the Australian Government is working to
achieve greater equality and social justice for the AsiaPacific region.
It does this by helping to reduce poverty and by improving access to
education and health services.
The Australian Government has provided computerised health
information systems, which enable governments to better plan and
manage the delivery of health services to their populations.
The systems have been implemented in Fiji with the support of
Australian aid funds. Funds have also been used to train health
professionals and improve health clinics and hospitals.
Aid funds are also used to train primary and secondary school
teachers and maintain educational centres. One important outcome of
this aid in partner countries has been the increased number of children
attending school. Since 1999, Australian aid funds have provided
schooling for more than 2 million children who would otherwise not
have had access to this service. The improved education of girls is
particularly important as it helps to improve literacy levels as well as
lower infant mortality rates. Educated mothers are also more likely to
gain employment in skilled positions and pass on their knowledge of
better family health to their children.
In Indonesia, Australia
has helped improve the
proportion of births
attended by skilled
health personnel and, consequently, helped
reduce maternal mortality. This has been
achieved by training midwives in 153 villages
to provide maternal and child health care
services and training another 750 midwives in
basic safe delivery care. More than 1 million
women of reproductive age and 260 000
newborns have benefited from this assistance.
In Vietnam, Australia has provided clean water
and environmental sanitation to approximately
430 000 people in five provinces, reducing the
risks of waterborne diseases.
ICT
Impacts of aid on social

justice and equity:
Papua New Guinea
In small groups, use the Internet to research

the positive and negative impacts of
Australian aid projects in Papua New Guinea.
(Note: The AusAID website contains details
about individual aid initiatives in Papua New
Guinea.) In your groups, carry out a brainstorm
of your findings. Then use this information to
write a short report answering the following
questions:
1 What impacts do these project have on people
and the environment? Is this equitable and
fair?
2 What changes would you recommend to
reduce the negative impacts of this policy on
the people and environment of Papua New
Guinea?
Disadvantages of giving aid to developing

countries
A number of groups believe there are disadvantages associated with
Australias aid policies. Some of these disadvantages apply to the
countries receiving the aid and others relate to Australia itself.
Several of the key criticisms are outlined below.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 270
Environmental, social and cultural disadvantages

UTT worksheet 9.7
which
e three ways in
1 Describe th
stralias
Au
to
ributes
foreign aid cont
y.
rit
pe
os
pr
d
future growth an
way in which
example of the
2 Provide an
tiv
ve a nega e
aid flows can ha
loping
impact on deve
environmental
countries.
eans when it
t AID/WATCH m
tion of
3 Explain wha
isa
al
ci
er
comm
talks about the
ciety
so
in
me groups
aid. Why are so
foreign
s
lia
ra
st
Au
nd in
critical of this tre
aid policy?
contribute to
aid funds may
4 Outline how
een
be
pendence tw
a culture of de
nations.
ific
ac
P
ia
As
r
he
Australia and ot
ences the
corruption influ
veloping
5 Explain how
to
aid flows de
effectiveness of
countries.
d
advantages an
6 Outline the
aid, in its
g
in
id
ov
pr
of
disadvantages
countries.
ng
pi
lo
deve
present form, to
While aid given to developing countries can have beneficial

impacts it can also have negative effects on local communities. This
is especially the case when aid agencies make decisions about how
the aid will be used without taking into account the social, cultural
and environmental needs of individual communities. The
Bougainville Copper Mine and the OK Tedi Mine in Papua New
Guinea are examples of this. These mines were established, at least
in part, with the support of Australian aid funds. These
developments have had significant environmental impacts and have
adversely affected the health and well-being of local communities.
One significant ethical concern associated with Australias aid
program is what AID/WATCH calls the commercialisation of aid.
According to this NGO, aid becomes commercialised when a
significant proportion of the aid budget is distributed through a small
number of private businesses that implement aid projects in
developing countries. AID/WATCH claims that much of this
development assistance is designed to promote Australian political
and economic interests, often at the expense of the local
communities that these projects are designed to help. Aid programs
need to be carefully designed to ensure that local communities
maintain the right to be actively involved in any initiative that
directly impacts on the quality of their lives.
Economic disadvantages
Applying knowledge Explain how

Australias international aid relationships can
benefit Australia in each of the following
areas:
a improvements in national security
b greater potential for economic growth
c improved regional relations.
Using the media: Internet research

Assemble a media file of newspaper and
magazine articles discussing Australias aid
program. Put together a collage of your
findings. Compare the information in these
articles with the view presented on the
AusAID website. What similarities and/or
differences do you notice?
The Australian Government has been criticised by a number of

NGOs for its policy of using aid to promote the commercial interests
of Australian companies. For example, Australias aid to Papua New
Guinea is tied to a number of specific aid projects that involve
Australian businesses. Some NGOs are concerned that the aid
budget is being used to build markets for Australian goods and
services overseas and to assist Australian firms to internationalise
rather than meeting the real needs of communities. AID/WATCH
claims that, as a result of this policy, the Australian Governments
aid program is inefficient. It claims, for example, that goods and
services purchased as a part of specific programs cost 2025 per cent
more than they would if they were provided through local sources or
from a competitive international market.
Another concern is that rich urban dwellers can become the major
recipients of aid and corruption can also distort the distribution of
aid funds.
Geopolitical disadvantages
Aid funds can encourage a culture of dependence between
developed and developing nations. Ideally, the Australian
Government should ensure that its aid projects encourage increased
independence and self-reliance for the developing economies of the
AsiaPacific region. The dependence of Papua New Guinea on
Australia is of particular concern for many NGOs (see page 264).
In 200203, aid to PNG accounted for one-third of Australias total
bilateral aid and one-fifth of its total aid budget. Australia is the
PNG Governments major source of income, representing around
80 per cent of PNGs net annual budget. Some NGOs argue that
Australias financial support for Papua New Guinea has put Australia
in a politically dominant position and created an uneven power
relationship between the two countries.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 271
9.8
MAJOR
STUDY
Migration
Migration is a process involving the short-term and long-term
movement of people from one place to another. The process of
migration takes place at range of scales:
internationalbetween countries
interstatebetween states or territories within a country
intrastatebetween regions within a state or territory.
Migration may be either forced or voluntary. In this unit we
examine the reasons why people move from one place to another
and the impact these movements have on Australias culture,
economy and international relations.
Immigration involves the movement of people into a country. This
process has had a significant impact on the size and structure
of Australias population. During the fifty years from 1947 to 1997
Australias population increased by approximately 11.5 million and
at least 7 million of this increase can be attributed to the net gain of
immigrants and their children and grandchildren who were born
here. More than four in ten Australians are either first-generation or
second-generation immigrants. By contrast, for example, Indigenous
Australians account for less than 2 per cent of the population.
In Australias large metropolitan areas the impact of immigration
is particularly evident. In Sydney, Perth, Melbourne and Adelaide
more than 50 per cent of the population are either first-generation
or second-generation Australians.
Emigration involves the permanent departure of citizens from their
country. This is an example of voluntary migration. Voluntary
migration involves the movement of people in an attempt to
improve their economic and social well-being. Recent figures
indicate that more than 1 million Australians have settled overseas.
One reason for this is the relatively high incomes that expatriates
Emigration The process of

leaving one country (usually
ones native country) to
settle in another. Also
known as out-migration.
First-generation migrants The initial people
who migrate.
Second-generation migrants The children born
to first-generation migrants in their new country
of residence.
Migration The medium-term to long-term
movement of people from one place to another,
either within a country or from one country to
another.
Voluntary migration The movement within or
between countries by people wishing to improve
their economic and/or social well-being.
Immigration The movement of individuals or
groups across international boundaries.
Permanent departures
of Australian-born
citizens have jumped
by more than 146
per cent since the early 1990s, with the United
Kingdom, United States and New Zealand the
most popular destinations.
Nearly 1 million Australians are living and
working overseas, representing about 4.3 per
cent of the population. This is greater than the
proportion of Americans living abroad (2.5 per
cent) but is much less than the figure for New
Zealand (21.9 per cent).
Managers, administrators and professionals
make up two-thirds of long-term and
permanent departures. This is largely a
product of the process of globalisation,
especially the growth of transnational
corporations.
Figure 9.8a Each year about 100 000 immigrants arrive in Australia to start a
new life.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 272
earn. A recent federal government report found that 50 per cent of

Australias expatriates earn more than $100 000 a year and 30 per
cent earn more than $150 000 annually.
New Zealand (13.3%)

Other (40.3%)
Composition of Australias immigrant

population
United Kingdom (12.5%)
The number of permanent settler arrivals to Australia has changed

significantly over time, as has the composition of our immigrant
population (see Figure 9.8c). From the introduction of the
Immigration Restriction Act in 1901 until the mid-1970s, migration to
Australia was restricted to various degrees by the White Australia
Policy, which ensured that immigrants were from European, largely
Anglo-Celtic backgrounds. Britain and other European countries
were, as a result, the major sources of immigration to Australia
during this period.
Shortages of labour in the decades following World War II resulted
in a gradual dismantling of the White Australia Policy as settlers
were increasingly accepted from other areas of Europe and later, the
Middle East. By the mid-1970s, the White Australia Policy had been
totally abandoned. Since this time a growing proportion of
Australias immigrants have come from Asia, the Americas and
Africa (see Figure 9.8c).
Todays immigration policies are no longer racially based. Anyone
is free to apply for a visa regardless of his or her ethnic background,
race, religion or gender (see the box Key migration trends in
Australia).
In the 1990s, the countries of origin of most of Australias migrants
were New Zealand and the United Kingdom. It is important to note,
however, that a large proportion of immigrants during this period
(40.3 per cent) originated from a diverse range of other countries
(see Figure 9.8b). This has resulted in a great diversity of small,
emerging ethnic communities in Australia.
Hong Kong (6.1%)
China (5.8%)
Vietnam (5.7%)
Malaysia (2.1%)
Yugoslavia (2.2%)
Phillipines (4.4%)
South Africa (3.4%) India (4.1%)
Figure 9.8b Top ten birthplaces of new settlers,

19902000. Source: HREOC
Permanent departures from

Australia
Table 9.8a
Year
Number of departures
199596
28 670
199697
29 857
199798
31 985
199899
35 181
19992000
41 078
200001
46 521
200102
48 241
300
Asia
Middle East
New Zealand and Pacific
250
Americas
Number of settler arrivals ('000)
Africa
Other Europe
200
UK and Ireland
150
100
50
0
47
45
19
50
49
19
53
52
19
56
55
19
59
58
19
62
61
19
65
64
19
68
67
19
71
70
19
Figure 9.8c Settler arrivals by region, 194598. Source: ABS.

74
73
19
Year
77
76
19
80
79
19
83
82
19
46
85
19
89
88
19
92
91
19
95
94
19
98
97
19
01
00
20
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 273
200000
United
Kingdom
30000
Italy
135000 11500
Greece Turkey
35000
Canada
25000
Lebanon
106410
US
10651
Japan
54761
China
4700
Malaysia
12000
Singapore
6500
Papua New Guinea
12000
Indonesia
7950
South Africa
2000
Chile
68000
New Zealand
415311
European Union
29916
Europe not in EU
142010
North Africa
6504
Central and South America
49720
Middle East
13412
Africa
122434
Asia
79559
Pacific
Figure 9.8d The location of Australians living overseas, 2001.
Key migration trends in

Australia
1
Creating posters Use the

information in the box
opposite to develop a poster
outlining the key migration
trends in Australia. Undertake
library or Internet research to
find out more about each of
these trends. Present your
poster to the class.
Figure 9.8c and complete the
following tasks:
b Shade the top ten

birthplaces on an outline
map of the world and
describe the pattern that
your map reveals.
c Write a paragraph
explaining what the large
category of other
countries tells us about
the diversity of new
settlers to Australia.
4

Figure 9.8d. List the top five
countries of destination of
Australians living overseas.
Constructing graphs
Study Table 9.8a and
construct a line graph
showing the number of
permanent departures from
Australia from 199596 to
200102.
a Describe the trend in

migration since 197071.
b Outline how the source
countries of immigrants to
Australia have changed
over time.
3

Figure 9.8b and complete the
following tasks:
a Identify the country that
represented the largest
source of immigration to
Australia between 1990
and 2000.
A number of important trends can be noted in

the migration patterns to Australia over the past
fifty years. These trends include:
an increase in the diversity of source countries
(see Figure 9.8b)
changes in the number of permanent settlers
over time in response to changing government
policies and economic conditions (see page
272)
an increase in the proportion of permanent
settlers to Australia who are female
an increase in the average skill levels of
immigrants (see page 274)
reductions in the number of immigrants
overstaying their visas (officially known as
unlawful non-citizens). Despite this trend,
illegal, or undocumented, migration to
Australia has come under increased attention
in recent years (see page 2812)
an increase in the number of temporary
migration movements (mainly tourists and
business visitors)
an increasing trend for the Australian
population to emigrate (see Figure 9.8d).
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 274
Types of migration flows to Australia

UTT worksheet 9.8
llowing terms in
1 Define the fo
immigration
ds: migration,
or
w
n
your ow
and emigration.
of migration
e contribution
over
2 Describe th
gr
pulation owth
to Australias po
.
97
19
to
47
19
the period from
ration
process of mig
e
th
w
ho
n
3 Explai
of
n
compositio
has altered the
lation.
pu
po
s
lia
Austra
lia Policy
e White Austra
ce
4 What was th
is policy influen
and how did th
s?
70
19
til the
migration up un
ralias
y trends in Aust
ke
e
5 Describe th
st fifty
pa
e
th
er
ov
s
rn
migration patte
years.
Migrant groups can be classified into four main categories depending

on their individual circumstances. The main categories of migration
to Australia are discussed below.
Skilled stream
The skilled migration stream is designed to attract highly skilled
migrants who have the potential to contribute significantly to the
Australian economy. Recent settler intakes in this category have
demonstrated skill levels well above the average for the general
Australian population. Many professionals migrate to Australia
under the skilled independent and skilled Australian-sponsored
categories. These applicants need to pass a points test and satisfy the
basic requirements of skill, English language ability, qualifications,
nominated occupation and recent work experience. Skilled stream
migration is usually voluntary in nature and strongly influenced by
pull factors (factors that attract people to new countries). This
category of migration accounted for 57 per cent of all new settlers in
200102.
Family stream
Migrants in the family stream category are selected on the basis of
their family relationship with a sponsor in Australia. A family stream
migrant must be a close family member of an Australian resident or
citizen. These migrants need to be sponsored by a family member or
fianc living in Australia as a part of their settlement requirements.
There is no skills test or language ability requirement for this
category of migration, which accounted for 41 per cent of all new
settlers in 200102.
Humanitarian migration
Figure 9.8e The skilled migration stream helps Australia
meet the demand for specialised labour.
ICT
Updating the facts
Use the following websites to

update the statistics in this unit:
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity
Commission (HREOC): Face the Facts
Department of Immigration and Multicultural
and Indigenous Affairs
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
The humanitarian program is designed to provide sanctuary for

refugees or displaced persons. A refugee is someone who is outside
their own country and cannot return due to a well-founded fear of
persecution because of his or her race, religion, nationality, political
opinion or membership of a particular social group. Refugee flows are
an example of forced migration where individual and groups have
little choice but to emigrate, in order to ensure their own survival.
Push factors are those factors that encourage people to leave their
country. Examples are war, famine and civil conflict. They play an
important role in forced migration. In 200102, visas were granted
to 6732 people as a part of Australias humanitarian program.
Trans-Tasman migration
Australia has a bilateral migration agreement with New Zealand.
This means that New Zealanders can enter, live and work in
Australia under the terms of the trans-Tasman agreement without a
visa. There were 15 663 migrant settlers from New Zealand in
200102.
Where do migrants settle in Australia?

The settlement pattern of new migrants within Australia is very
uneven (see Figure 9.8f). Almost two in five, or 39.7 per cent, of
all new settlers in 200102 chose New South Wales as their
destination. The next most popular state was Victoria followed by
Queensland, Western Australia and South Australia. The capital
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:06 AM Page 275
cities in each state were the favoured locations of residence for

approximately half of all new setters to the country (with the
exception of Brisbane, which was chosen as the location of residence
by less than 25 per cent of new settlers in Queensland).
Each ethnic group has its own pattern of settlement within
individual metropolitan areas. A complex range of factors influence
the geography of ethnic communities within Australias large
metropolitan areas. These factors include the desire to be close to
family and the need to access specialised services and support
networks (see p. 276). Figure 9.8g shows the distribution of various
ethnic communities in Sydney.
Total Australia 88 900
UTT worksheet 9.8
Northern Territory
459 (0.5%)
e four main
ralia.
1 Describe th
igration to Aust
categories of m
s
or and
rms push fact
2 Define the te
pull factors.
states that
two Australian
3 Identify the
of new
rs
be
m
nu
t
es
attract the larg
settlers.
s distributed
are new settler
4 How evenly
territories?
d
an
es
at
s st
within Australia
ence the
factors that influ
5 Outline the
groups
tion of migrant
residential loca
litan
po
ro
et
m
s large
within Australia
areas.
Queensland
15 825 (17.8%)
New South
Wales
35 301 (39.7%)
South Australia
3 316 (3.7%)
Western Australia
10 954 (12.3%)
Victoria
21 374 (24.0%)
Australian Capital
Territory
1 075 (1.2%)
Tasmania
589 (0.7%)
Figure 9.8f Settler arrivals by state/territory of intended residence, 200102.

The proportion of all new settlers to Australia is given in parentheses.
Source: HREOC.
Palm Beach
Palm Beach
N
Penrith
Penrith
Blacktown
Blacktown
Lebanese (%)
Vietnamese (%)
3.915.6
4.626.4
1.53.9
1.44.6
01.5
01.4
Cronulla
Cronulla
Camden
0
10
Camden
Sutherland
20 km
10
Sutherland
20 km
Figure 9.8g The distribution of selected ethnic communities within Sydney.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 276
Organising knowledge Copy the

following table and then complete it
using the information on page 274.
With the aid of the completed table,
write a short paragraph explaining
the difference between the skilled,
family and humanitarian migration
streams in Australia.
Migration
stream
Interpreting maps Study Figure

9.8f (p. 275). Use this information to
write a short paragraph describing
the geographical distribution of new
settlers across Australias states and
territories.

construct a mindmap outlining the
Who is eligible
to migrate?
What are the migration

criteria/conditions?
Skilled stream
Family stream
Humanitarian
Trans-Tasman
factors that influence the location of

migrant communities in Australia.
Discuss the reasons why some
ethnic groups cluster in large metropolitan areas while others do not.
4
Interpreting maps Select one

ethnic community represented in
Figure 9.8g (p. 275). Describe the
distribution of this ethnic community
within Sydney. Use information
gathered from library and/or Internet
research to put together a profile of
this community. The Ethnic map of
Sydney on the Sydney Morning
Herald website is an excellent
starting point for research on this
topic. Present your findings to the
class in the form of a poster or
multimedia presentation.
The role of government

People smuggling The
organised, illegal movement
of groups or individuals
from one country to
another.
Deportation The forced removal of an individual
from a country. Individuals can be deported if
they have no legal right to be in the country or
have broken the law.
ICT
The role of state and local

governments
State and local governments also play an

important role in supporting overseas-born
residents in Australia and their families. The
following activity will assist you to identify the
resources that are provided by the NSW
Government and your local council.
State government
Look up the NSW Government website.
Type migrant into the search box at the top of
the page. Use the results of your search to write
a brief summary of the range of support services
that the NSW Government provides for migrants.
Local government
Return to the NSW Government home page.
Type local government into the search box.
Now select Local CouncilsSearch. On this
page, type in the name of the suburb you live in
and follow the links to the web page for your
local council. Use the information on this site to
write a summary of the services that your local
government provides for immigrants.
The federal government, through the Department of Immigration

and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA) plays an
important role in the development of immigration policy as well as
the provision of services for new settlers. Some of the key roles of
the federal government in the migration process are discussed below.
Developing policy
The government develops Australias immigration policy and sets
the criteria and standards that need to be met by foreign nationals
(overseas passport holders) who wish to come to Australia. The
Migration Act 1958 (Cwlth) provides the framework used to regulate
entry into the country. This act also defines the penalties that apply
to those who breach Australias immigration laws.
Enforcing Australias migration policy

Enforcing Australias migration policy involves:
implementing measures to discourage and prevent people smuggling
deporting foreign nationals who arrive without relevant documents
and who have been determined not to be refugees
ensuring visitors to Australia do not overstay their visas.
To ensure visitors do not overstay their visas, the DIMIA
maintains a Movement Alert List. This is a database of relevant
travel documents of, and information about, individuals who have
breached their visa conditions or who have exceeded their time in
Australia.
Provision of services for new arrivals

DIMIA arranges for the settlement of migrants and provides a range
of services for new arrivals, including settlement information in a
range of languages, English programs for adult migrants and
translation and interpreting services. The department also provides
online support through its website, including online application
forms and information about working and studying in Australia.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 277
The role of non-government organisations

Non-government organisations (NGOs) play an important role in
shaping Australias migration links with the rest of the world. These
organisations perform a number of functions, including defending
human rights and providing support for newly settled migrants.
A key role of various NGOs is defending the human rights of
asylum seekers and refugees. NGOs such as Amnesty International
lobby the federal government and monitor the governments actions
to ensure individuals at risk of human rights abuse, such as torture or
unfair detention, are not forcibly returned to their country of origin.
These groups encourage governments to provide adequate protection
for asylum seekers and to abide by international conventions for
the treatment of refugees and the protection of human rights (see
p. 278). The arbitrary and prolonged detention of asylum seekers
arriving in Australia without valid travel documents is of significant
concern to many NGOs working in Australia. The issue of
mandatory detention is discussed in greater detail later in this unit.
NGOs such as the Refugee Council of Australia provide
protection and legal advice to refugees and asylum seekers. These
groups often speak on behalf of refugee communities in order to
ensure their rights are protected and their point of view is heard.
A range of Australian-based NGOs mount campaigns in support of
refugee rights. Examples are Amnesty International (Australia),
AUSTCARE, Australian Catholic Migrant and Refugee Office,
Australian Lawyers for Human Rights, Australian Red Cross,
National Council of Churches in Australia and the Refugee Council
of Australia (see the ICT box NGOs and migration).
ICT
NGOs and migration
Select one of the NGOs mentioned in this unit and

use the organisations website to complete the following tasks:
1 Outline the aims of this organisation.
2 Compile a list of any current campaigns relevant to migration
issues in Australia.
3 Select one campaign and describe its aims and impact.
4 Evaluate the success of this campaign. What has been the
response of the government and other key stakeholders?
5 Do you agree with the aims and views of this NGO? Explain why
or why not.
Present your findings in the form of a web page or multimedia

presentation. (Unit 2.8 will assist you with this task.)
Brainstorming Create a mindmap

summarising the various roles of the
federal government in shaping
Australias migration links.
22
Internet research Access the

website for the Department of
Immigration and Multicultural and
Indigenous Affairs. List the range of
Who is an asylum seeker?

The Australian Government
defines an asylum seeker
as someone who enters or
remains in a country either legally, as a visitor or
tourist or student, or illegally, with no or with
fraudulent documentation, and then claims
refugee status under the terms of the 1951
United Nations Convention Relating to the
Status of Refugees.
In 2001 there were approximately 15 million
refugees and asylum seekers worldwide.
UTT worksheet 9.8
purpose of the
1 Explain the
t.
Ac
n
Migratio
deral
rategies the fe
st
e
2 Outline th
Australias
e
rc
fo
en
to
es
government us
y.
migration polic
ices provided
ty
e pes of serv
3 Describe th
ralian
st
Au
e
by th
to new setters
t.
Governmen
undertake to
actions NGOs
4 Outline the
refugees
of
s
ht
an rig
protect the hum
ekers.
and asylum se
es NGOs
support servic
nts and
5 Identify the
m
ly settled igra
provide for new
s in Australia.
asylum seeker
services that the federal government

provides for new settlers in Australia
as well as those seeking asylum.
3
Class discussion Conduct a class

discussion. Topic: NGOs play an
important role in the protection of
refugee rights. Write a short report
outlining the views of your class.
Research Construct your family

tree, noting the country of origin of
your parents, grandparents and
great-grandparents. For how many
generations has your family lived in
Australia? Ask your relatives what
they know about the migration of
your family to Australia. Record this
information on your family tree.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 278
The role of treaties and intergovernmental

organisations
A treaty is an international
agreement concluded
between states in a written
form and governed by
international law. The term convention is used
to describe an agreement that has a large
number of countries as signatories.
The Convention Relating to the Status of

Refugees states that a refugee is someone who
owing to a well-founded fear of being
persecuted for reasons of race, religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social
group, or political opinion, is outside the country
of his nationality, and is unable to or, owing to
such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the
protection of that country...
Australia is a signatory to a number of treaties related to migration

on a global scale. One of the most important of these is the
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (the Refugee
Convention). This treaty, signed by Australia on 22 January 1954,
defines the nature and rights of refugees on an international scale.
The obligations of signatory countries to protect the rights of
refugees and people seeking asylum are also outlined in this
agreement.
Table 9.8b
Treaty fact file: the Refugee Convention
Name and date of treaty
Convention Relating to the Status of

Refugees (Refugee Convention) 1951
Type of treaty
Multilateral: Denmark was the first state

to ratify the convention in 1952. Since
this time a total of 145 countries,
including Australia, have agreed to the
terms of the agreement
Main aims of the treaty
Defines the nature and rights of refugees

as well as the obligations of member
states to protect these rights
Who administers this

treaty?
Individual countries are required to

follow the terms of the convention.
The United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR) will, however,
intervene when necessary to ensure the
rights of refugees are respected. This
involves ensuring that refugees are
granted asylum and are not forcibly
returned to countries where their lives
may be in danger.
Source: UNHCR website, Convention Relating to the

Status of Refugees (1951)
ICT
The Refugee Convention
Access the website of the

UNHCR and complete the following tasks:
1 Why was the Refugee Convention established
and what are its main aims?
2 Is the Refugee Convention still relevant today?
Explain your response.
3 List the responsibilities of signatory countries
under this treaty.
4 What, if any, power does the UNHCR have to
enforce the terms of this treaty?
5 Is the treaty designed to regulate the
movements of people within and between
countries? Explain your answer
6 Access the Australian Parliamentary Library
website and locate the research paper The
problem with the 1951 Refugee Convention.
Then answer the following questions:
a What are the Australian Governments
obligations under the Refugee Convention?
b What weaknesses does the Australian
Government identify in this convention?
It is important to note that, under the terms of the Refugee

Convention, an individual can only be determined a refugee if he or
she makes an application for refugee status from outside his or her
country of nationality or usual residence. One of the key principles
of the convention is that countries cannot force refugees to return to
a country where their personal safety could be put at risk. Signatory
countries are also required to adopt a uniform (non-discriminatory)
approach to the treatment of refugees regardless of their country
of origin.
The Refugee Convention is overseen and administered by the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
which is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The UNHCR, an
intergovernmental agency (IGO), was established by the United
Nations General Assembly in 1950 to protect the rights and wellbeing of refugees on a global scale. The agency provides support for
individuals and groups who have been granted protection on
humanitarian grounds but have not yet been classified as refugees.
The UNHCR also plays an important role in the reintegration of
refugees into their country of nationality once it is safe for them to
return. Over the past half a century the UNHCR has assisted more
than 50 million refugees and asylum seekers to restart their lives.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 279
Cultural and economic advantages and

disadvantages of migration for Australia
Cultural and linguistic diversity has, for a long time, been a
significant strength of the nation and continues to be a valuable
resource for the country as a whole. Over 200 languages are spoken
across the country, with the most common being English, Italian,
Greek, Cantonese, Arabic, Vietnamese and Mandarin. The rich mix
of traditions, cultures, languages and beliefs is a defining
characteristic of Australias national identity. Despite these
advantages, some groups in Australian society see Australias
diversity as a threat rather than an asset. These groups claim that
immigration is a threat to Australias unique national identity and
culture and would like to see a return to a dominantly AngloAustralian population base.
The economic benefits and costs of migration have also been an
ongoing source of debate in Australia. Some groups argue that
immigration is a drain on the Australian economy, that new
settlers take jobs from Australians and that immigration creates
unemployment and harms our balance of payments. In contrast to
this viewpoint, studies conducted by the Bureau of Immigration,
Multicultural and Population Research indicate that increased
migration has a positive impact on the Australian economy.
Research findings suggest that migration increases average incomes
and generates both wealth and employment for the Australian
economy as a whole. Migrants are a significant source of investment
funds and they help to address skilled labour shortages in the
economy. In addition, many migrants are entrepreneurial and
contribute to our understanding of international markets and
cultures. The key economic benefits of migration for Australia are
summarised in the box The economic benefits of migration.
Geopolitical advantages and

disadvantages
Australias migration policies have important geopolitical impacts.
Australias migration policies have an important impact upon our
relationships with our immediate neighbours as well as other nations
across the globe. Migration policy is a politically sensitive topic and
governments need to consider a range of factors when making policy
decisions in this area. Many of these factors, including our treaty
obligations and relationships with other nations, are geopolitical in
nature. The section below discusses some of the geopolitical
consequences of Australias migration policies.
The economic benefits of

migration
Migrants generate wealth and employment for
all Australians
Federal and state governments gain extra tax
revenue from the income migrants generate.
This is particularly the case for skilled
migrants.
Twenty-nine per cent of small businesses in
Australia are owned and/or operated by
people born overseas.
Australias diverse population and workforce
provide businesses with important language
skills and a better understanding of other
cultures.
New settlers create economic growth by
investing in the Australian economy.
As Australias population ages, migration will
have a more significant impact on the size of
our total population. Migration could be used
in the future to counter the potential economic
impacts of changes in Australias age profile.
As a migrants length of time in Australia
increases, the persons dependence on
services decreases and average income
increases. This has a positive impact on
economic growth.
The balance of payments

is a record of Australias
trade dealings with the rest
of the world.
Geopolitics is the study of the power relations
between countries and the strategies that
nations use to maintain or expand their power
base.
Shifting bilateral and multilateral

relations in the AsiaPacific region
Australias abandonment of the White Australia Policy in the late
1960s and the development of a non-discriminatory migration policy
have enabled Australia to build its bilateral and multilateral links in
the AsiaPacific region. As a result, a number of areas have
benefited. These include trade (see Unit 9.5), defence (see Unit
9.6), tourism (see Unit 9.4) and the sharing of cultures (see Unit
9.2). Australias more open approach to migration may also help the
government to achieve its other key geopolitical goal of becoming a
member of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
trade forum. These changes in regional relations have the potential
to create significant political and economic benefits for Australia.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 280
UTT worksheet 9.8
der
gee defined un
1 How is refu
the Status
to
g
Relatin
the Convention
of Refugees?
onsibilities of
e role and resp
2 Describe th
mmissioner
Co
ns High
the United Natio
for Refugees.
nefits
immigration be
3 Explain how
.
lly
ra
Australia cultu
ic benefits
e main econom
4 Describe th
r Australia.
fo
n
migratio
and costs of im
vantages and
geopolitical ad
e
th
e
lin
ut
O
igration
5
of Australias m
disadvantages
links.
Another important geopolitical development in the AsiaPacific

region has been the use of small Pacific island states as part of
Australias Pacific solution for the processing of asylum seekers.
Certain Pacific island states, including Nauru, have agreed to
become declared countries for the processing of asylum seekers in
exchange for economic aid from the Australian Government (see
p. 282).
Relationships with IGOs and the

international community
Another important geopolitical development has been our changing
relationship with IGOs, such as the United Nations, and the
changing perception of Australia within parts of the international
community. The Australian Governments policies for the processing
and detention of asylum seekers and the excising, or removing, of
islands from the nations migration zone, have attracted criticism
from the United Nations and members of the international
community. These changes in Australias international relations
could potentially affect future economic and political links with the
nations who are critical of our policies.
Social justice and equity issues
Internet research Access the

Australian Treaties Library at the
Australiasian Legal Information Institute
website. Use this website to identify one
other treaty relevant to Australias migration
links. Answer the following questions about
the treaty you identified:
a When was this treaty signed and who are
the signatory countries?
b What are the main aims of this treaty?
c Is the treaty bilateral or multilateral?
d Who administers this treaty?
Structure your response in the form of a
table. Use Table 9.8b (p. 278) as a model.
Group work: Internet research In

groups of two or three, use the Internet to
research the economic and cultural
advantages and disadvantages of migration
for Australia. List the advantages and
disadvantages you find. Present your
findings in the form of a mindmap or poster
display.
Using the media: Collage Construct a

collage of newspaper and magazine articles
summarising the geopolitical advantages
and disadvantages of migration for
Australia.
The term social justice means protecting human rights and ensuring
that international law is adhered to. Social justice is also about
ensuring fairness and rectifying social wrongs. One of the key social
justice issues facing Australia in recent decades has been the
treatment of refugees and asylum seekers. A number of NGOs and
IGOs (including the United Nations) have criticised the Australian
Government for its policies and practices regarding asylum seekers.
This section looks at the Australian Governments policies
concerning asylum seekers and the impact that these policies have
on social justice and equity.
The Australian Governments policy for processing

asylum seekers
The Australian Government treats each asylum seeker differently
depending on their travel documents when they reach Australia.
People entering the country legally (with appropriate visas) can
apply for a permanent protection visa. Bridging visas are granted to
these individuals while their refugee applications are being
considered and after background character and health checks have
been conducted. Those arriving without a relevant visa are
determined to be unauthorised arrivals and are detained until they
prove their claim to be refugees or are removed from the country.
Figure 9.8h shows the number of unauthorised boat and air arrivals
between 1998 and 2002. If determined to be refugees, these individuals
are granted a temporary protection visa, which is valid for three years.
They dont have the right to apply for permanent residence and their
families are not able to join them in Australia. An exception is made
for those who hold a temporary protection visa, have worked in
regional Australia for twelve months or more, and whose skills are
required by an employer. Refugees in this situation may be able to
apply for a visa under the skilled migration scheme.
To be considered for permanent settlement in Australia under the
humanitarian program, individuals must apply for asylum from
outside the country. The aim of this approach, according to the
Australian Governments Immigration Fact Sheet, is to ensure the
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 281
5 000
4 000
Number of unauthorised arrivals
integrity of Australias borders and the effective control and

management of the movement of people to and from Australia.
Many NGOs are concerned about the governments approach to the
treatment of asylum seekers. These groups point out Australias
obligations under the Refugee Convention (1951). According to this
document, any person arriving in Australia, regardless of their mode of
transport or lack of documentation, has a right to seek protection from
persecution. The convention also states that a refugee seeking protection
from persecution should not be penalised for entering a country without
valid documentation. Many NGOs accuse the government of
discriminating between different groups of asylum seekers and of failing
to protect the most vulnerable members of the international community
(see the article Dual refugee system shames us).
Boat
3 000
2 000
Air
1 000
The Tampa crisis
199899
19992000
200001
200102
Year
The plight of asylum seekers in Australia was brought to the

attention of the world in August 2001 when the Norwegian freighter
MV Tampa (see Figure 9.8j, p. 282) rescued 433 asylum seekers
(mostly Afghan and Iraqi) trying to reach the Australian mainland
in a sinking ship. The Australian Government refused the Tampas
request to enter Australian waters and unload the asylum seekers on
Christmas Island (within Australias migration zone). When the
captain of the Tampa decided to enter Australian waters against
these instructions, the navy and SAS intercepted the freighter and
took over the management of the asylum seekers on the ship.
In order to avoid processing the asylum seekers in Australia, the
government made arrangements with Papua New Guinea and the
Pacific island nation of Nauru to accommodate the asylum seekers
while their claims were being determined (see Figure 9.8k, p. 292).
In return, Australia provided Nauru with $20 million in economic
aid. Australia later accepted twenty-seven of the refugees from the
Tampa and 131 were settled in New Zealand. The offshore
processing of asylum seekers has become a key element of the
governments Pacific solution, a strategy designed to discourage
people smuggling operations in the AsiaPacific region. By
processing the Tampas human cargo offshore, the government
denied the refugees access to the Australian legal system.
Figure 9.8h Unauthorised boat and air arrivals in Australia,

19982002. (Of the 3648 boat arrivals in 200102, 1212
people reached Australia and the remaining 2436 people
arrived at Australias external territories.) Source: HREOC.
Dual refugee system shames us

By Malcolm Fraser
The Refugee Council advises me that about
8000 asylum seekers arrive in Australia each
year and live in the community. They are not
put into detention. These people mostly arrive
by air; they could have any form of visa, but
generally a student or visitors visa; they
would have been cleared by immigration, and
then they apply for refugee status.
Most of them would have had the intention
[of applying for refugee status] before they
arrived in Australia. They would have papers
but, at the same time, they have deceived the
authorities. I make this point only to draw a
comparison with boat people. Those who can
get access to a passport and to travel documents
and to a visa are, indeed, the lucky ones.
I am advised that the group who arrive by
air, with appropriate papers and who are
Immigration cleared, form 66 per cent of total

applicants for refugee status. However, they
form only 20 per cent of the total accepted as
refugees. These figures show that their
application for refugee status is far less likely
to be granted than for boat people.
A third of all the applicants for refugee
status have been arriving by boat, and this
one-third makes up
80 per cent of those granted refugee status.
They are far more likely to be genuine
refugees than the ones not in detention in the
community.
This means that the Government is quite
happily leaving out in the community very
large numbers of asylum seekers, most of
whom arrive by air and most of whom, on
past experience, will not get refugee status.
How does the Government run two quite
separate and contrary policies? Is it justified

because one group is morally or ethically
superior to the other? Those who arrive with
papers and are cleared by immigration have
indeed deceived the authorities because they
have applied for a visa which had hidden
their real intention.
These people, who make up two-thirds of
asylum seekers, are in the community, but
there is little public realisation of this. There
is no real evidence that they cause trouble or
difficulty. Why is the one-third, who have
suffered most, who are far more likely to be
genuine refugees, who have risked great
danger, penalised so harshly and placed in
detention centres?
(Malcolm Fraser is a former Liberal prime
minister.)
Sydney Morning Herald, 4 October 2002
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 282
Papua New Guinea

N
Nauru
Christmas Island
Cocos Island
Curtin
Port Hedland
Woomera
Perth
Baxter
0
500km
Villawood
Maribyrnong
Figure 9.8i The location of Australias immigration

detention centres. Source: HREOC.
Figure 9.8j The Norwegian cargo ship Tampa with its cargo of 433 asylum
seekers.
The Pacific solution
ICT
Australias use of detention

centres
1 Access the website of the Human Rights

and Equal Opportunity Commission and
answer the following questions:
a What is immigration detention?
b Who is detained and for how long?
c How many children are held in mainland
detention centres?
d What impact does the detaining of children
have on the childrens basic human rights?
e How much does detention cost?
2 Undertake Internet research to summarise the
views of each of the following NGOs concerning
mandatory detention: Amnesty International
and Oxfam Community Aid Abroad.
3 Locate the websites of the Department of
Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Department
of Immigration and Multicultural and
Indigenous Affairs. How does the Australian
Government justify its policies regarding the
detention of asylum seekers?
In response to the Tampa crisis in 2001, the Australian Government

developed a strategy to prevent unauthorised boats from reaching
the Australian mainland. The first part of the strategy, implemented
in September 2001, involved changes to the Migration Act to
excise, or remove, a number of islands off Australias northern
mainland from the nations migration zone. The new exclusion
zone included virtually the entire Northern Australian coastline,
including Ashmore and Cartier Islands as well as the Christmas and
Cocos (Keeling) Islands. The alterations to Australias migration
zone meant that people arriving on these excised islands could not
automatically apply for Australian visas or gain access to the
Australian legal system (unless permission was granted by the
Minister for Immigration). Boat people would now have to reach the
mainland before they had the right to plead for asylum.
Figure 9.8k Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australia.

www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 283
The changes to the Migration Act also meant that the Australian
Government could intercept asylum seekers on their way to
Australia and transport them to declared countries, such as Nauru
and Manus Islands (Papua New Guinea). Once the asylum seekers
have been delivered to these countries, they could have their claims
for asylum assessed by the Australian Government and the UNHCR.
Group work In small

groups, discuss the meaning
of the term social justice.
Undertake library research to
find examples of social
justice issues from around
the world.
a What is the view of

Malcolm Fraser
concerning Australias
refugee system?
Interpreting graphs With

the aid of Figure 9.8h
(p. 281), write a paragraph
describing the trend in
unauthorised boat and air
arrivals between 1998 and
2002. As a class, discuss the
economic, social and political
causes of refugee
movements.
c Make a list of the

arguments that Fraser
puts forward to support
his view. Include statistics
in your response.
b Explain what Fraser

means by a dual refugee
system.
d Refer to the DIMIA

website. How does the
government respond to
these criticisms?
Class debate Conduct a

class debate investigating the
advantages and
6
disadvantages of the
governments migration
policy. Topic: The Pacific
solution is no solution.
Research Undertake library
or Internet research to find
out more about one of the
following issues:
a the Tampa crisis and the
impact of this event on
Australias migration policy
b the Pacific solutionits
aims and strategies
c the forces promoting
refugee movements in the
AsiaPacific region
d the strategies of active
citizenship used by
individuals and NGOs to
influence government
decisions regarding
migration policy.
Present your findings as a
multimedia presentation

(see Unit 2.8).
5 Using the media: Internet

research Read the extract
Dual refugee system shames
us (p. 281) and complete the
following tasks:
e What is your view on this

issue? Explain your
response.
Interpreting cartoons:
Group work Working in
groups, discuss the issues
raised in Figure 9.8k. Share
the main points raised in your
groups discussion with the
rest of the class. To what
extent do you think this
cartoon reflects the current
state of Australias mandatory
detention policy?
UTT worksheet 9.8
e
t is meant by th
1 Explain wha
.
ice
term social just
ents
ralian Governm
st
Au
e
th
2 What is
?
sylum seeker
definition of a
een an
difference betw
3 Explain the
ed arrival.
ris
ho
d unaut
authorised an
rivals are
unauthorised ar
4 Outline how
arrivals in
r
he
ot
m
ly fro
treated different
Australia.
r which an
conditions unde
5 Outline the
rmanent
pe
in
ta
can ob
asylum seeker
stralia.
residence in Au
m seekers
e rights of asylu
6 What are th
nvention
Co
e
e Refuge
according to th
(1951)?
e Australian
y NGOs view th
7 How do man
ylum
as
treatment of
Governments
seekers?
and what
e Tampa crisis
s) did it
8 What was th
justice (fairnes
issues of social
raise?
and what
Pacific solution
9 What is the
ribe the
sc
De
e?
ev
achi
does it aim to
rt of the
pa
as
gies used
types of strate
n.
tio
lu
so
fic
ci
governments Pa
7 Internet research:
Group work Access the
ABCs website and conduct a
search for all articles relevant
to asylum seekers. Form
groups of three or four. Each
group member should select
one of the following
stakeholders: the UN (and
other international agencies),
the Australian Government,
NGOs, the Australian Federal
Court (representing Australian
law). Summarise the point of
view of one of these
stakeholders and present
your findings to the group.
Write a short report
describing the various
perspectives (points of view)
that exist on this issue.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:07 AM Page 284
9.9 Review and reflect

Chapter summary
In this chapter we have investigated our cultural, economic and political links with the region and wider global
community. These links include communication, culture, sport, tourism, trade, defence, aid and migration and are
shaped by various levels of government as well as intergovernmental and non-government organisations. Bilateral
and multilateral treaties can have a range of cultural, economic or geopolitical consequences for the nations
involved. Some of these impacts are positive, such as increased economic growth and improved regional relations.
Other impacts, such as increased regional tension and reduced cultural diversity, can cause problems for member
nations. It is important for governments to question whether all people are treated fairly and equally as a result of
our economic, cultural and political links with other countries. The fairness with which individuals and groups are
treated is known as social justice.
Exam-style questions
In your answers you will be assessed on your
ability to:
Research: Australias interactions

with other nations
Use Internet and/or library research to investigate Australias interactions
with other nations in terms of one of the following:
aid
communication
culture
defence
migration
tourism
trade
sport.
organise and communicate your knowledge

and understanding effectively
support your ideas with relevant examples
use geographical terms appropriately.
Answer at least one of the following questions:

1
b Describe Australias location in the world

and its position relative to the three
countries mentioned above. (Hint: Use your
skills of direction, distance and scale).
2
Explain the nature of Australias regional and/or

global role in relation to one of the following:
a communication
b culture
c defence
Produce a web page or multimedia presentation providing a summary

of the key points in the topic you chose. As part of your research,
assemble a media file of articles relevant to your topic.
Present your finished product to the class. You have ten minutes
to give your presentation. Use the guidelines in Unit 2.8 to assist
you with this task.
a Identify three countries that are close

neighbours with Australia.
d tourism
e sport.
3
In your study of the focus area Australia in its

regional and global contexts you have
investigated one regional and global link from
aid, defence, migration or trade. Select one of
these links and answer the following:
a Describe the nature of this link.
b Explain the roles and actions of different
levels of government in relation to this link.
c Discuss the importance of one relevant nongovernment organisation in relation to this
link.
Internet research: Global free

trade
Access the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade website and find
out about the advantages and disadvantages of global free trade. Using
this information, write an exposition. Topic: Global free trade is essential
for the development of a better Australian future.
d Identify one treaty or agreement relevant to

this link and describe its purpose.
e Outline the cultural, economic and
geopolitical advantages and disadvantages
of this link for Australia.
f
Describe the implications of this link for

social justice and equity.
22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:08 AM Page 285
GeoWords
GeoMatch
GeoQuiz
Chapter test
Refer to the Reflection

box on page 25.
Foundation
worksheet 9.2
Interpreting cartoons: Australias links with the region

and the world
Study Figures 9.9a to 9.9c, then complete the following tasks for
each cartoon:
1
Identify the issue or regional/global link addressed in the

cartoon.
Who do the characters in the cartoon represent?
What perspective or opinion is the cartoonist expressing?
Use the information in this chapter as well as your own

research to put together a fact file of evidence both for and
against the cartoonists view.
Do you agree or disagree with the perspective of the

cartoonist? Put forward evidence to justify your point of view.
Figure 9.9b Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian.

Figure 9.9a Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian.

Figure 9.9c Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian.


Australia's Regional and Global Links PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Australia's Regional and Global Links PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 246

Australias regional and

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 247

Australias Asian links

Asylum seeker A person wanting to enter or stay

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 248

The growth of the Internet

Australian adults (%)

Historically, Australias remote location has presented a number of

Figure 9.1a Growth in Internet use: Australian

Global mobile phone use

248 Australian Explorations: Stage 5 Geography

By late 2002 there were 1.3 billion mobile

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 249

The social divide: inequalities in access to

UTT worksheet 9.1

Bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data that can be

Research task Interview some older

Challenge: Interpreting graphs Study

Figure 9.1b The capacity (bandwidth) of Internet connections worldwide, 2001.

The impacts of information inequality

d In small groups, brainstorm the reasons

Challenge: Class debate

Interpreting maps: Using an atlas

Australias regional and global links 249

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 250

The impact of TNCs

Preserving unique cultures

UTT worksheet 9.2

250 Australian Explorations: Stage 5 Geography

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 251

The Australian film and television industry

and April 2003 were from overseas; most were American.

One response to this threat has been the establishment of quotas

Class brainstorm As a class,

2 Using the media: Internet

Group work In small groups,

Writing task A number of

Challenge: Research Undertake

Wall display Using photographs,

Australias regional and global links 251

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 252

The Sydney Olympics

Sport is an important part of the Australian culture and lifestyle.

Colonial links and international migration

Hosting key international events and

252 Australian Explorations: Stage 5 Geography

Australia has world-class sporting facilities and an excellent

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 253

TNCs and international branding

Group work In small

Internet research Australia

UTT worksheet 9.3

Australias regional and global links 253

22160 CH09_246-285 6/1/04 4:05 AM Page 254

Domestic tourism is travel

Inbound tourists by country of

Data for 200101 is not available.

Outbound tourists by country

The tourism industry is of great economic importance to Australia.

Number of people ('000 000)

254 Australian Explorations: Stage 5 Geography