The wave like nature of light

Light undergoes diffraction and displays other wave properties such as polarisation and
interference.
By the late 19th century most scientists considered light and other electromagnetic radiations
to be like water waves

The particle like nature of light

Light also produces photoelectric emission which can only be explained by treating light as a
stream of particles.
These particles with wave properties are called photons.

Wave particle duality

In 1923 de Broglie proposed that particles such as electrons, protons and atoms also
displayed wave like properties.
The de Broglie wavelength of such a particle depended on its momentum, p according to the
de Broglie relation:
=h/p
As momentum = mass x velocity = mv
= h / mv
This shows that the wavelength of a particle can be altered by changing its velocity.

Evidence for de Broglies hypothesis

The de Broglie hypothesis, formulated in 1924, predicts that particles should also behave as
waves. De Broglie's formula was confirmed three years later for electrons with the
observation of electron diffraction.
At the Bell Labs Clinton Joseph Davisson and Lester Germer passed a beam of electrons
through a through a crystalline grid and observed the predicted interference patterns.
diffraction was a property that was thought to be only exhibited by waves. Therefore, the
presence of any diffraction effects by matter demonstrated the wave-like nature of matter.
Thomson and Davisson shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1937 for their work.

Christopher Nishan de Mel

The very small wavelength of electrons means that the obstacles used to diffract them must
also be very small and the atomic lattice is found to be suitable.
The diffraction pattern observed on the screen is a series of concentric rings. This is due to
the irregular way in which the graphite layers overlay each other.
The radii of the circles can be decreased by increasing the speed of the electrons. This is
achieved by increasing the potential difference of the tube.

Continuous Spectrum
A light source, such as a light bulb, emits visible light at a range of wavelengths, from violet
to red, but our eyes see it as white light. If you pass this white light through a prism or
diffraction grating however, it splits into a continuous spectrum of colours

This happens because as the light enters the prism, it is bent or refracted by differing
amounts. The red wavelengths are refracted the least, whilst the violet ones are refracted the
most. Then, as the light passes out of the prism into the air again, each wavelength of light is
refracted once more, making the separate colours even more visible.

Atomic emission line spectra

Christopher Nishan de Mel

An electron in its orbital around an atom is said to be at its lowest energy level (called the
ground state). When light photons carrying a specific amount of energy hits the electron, the
electron will become excited and jump into a higher orbit. Eventually the electron will come
back to the ground state orbital, but it must get rid of the excess energy. The electron
releases a photon of light with the same energy it absorbed from the light. This photon
corresponds to a specific wavelength and frequency. An electron in an atom has to be hit by
Christopher Nishan de Mel

a photon carrying a very specific amount of energy to do this. Any more or less than this
specific energy, and the electron will not become excited. This gives different atoms unique
emission patterns that can be observed.
Each type of atom gives off a unique set of colors. The colored lines (or Spectral Lines) are a
kind of "signature" for the atoms. scientists can tell what elements they are looking at just by
reading the lines. Spectroscopy is the science of using spectral lines to figure out what
something is made of. That's how we know the composition of distant stars, for instance.

Absorption line spectra

Atoms do not only emit photons; they also absorb photons. If a photon hits an atom and the
energy of the photon is the same as the gap between two electron energy levels in the atom,
then the electron can absorb the photon and jump up to the higher energy level. If the atom
has no energy level differences that equal the incoming photon's energy, it cannot absorb the
photon, and can only scatter it.
When white light is passed through a cool gas and then through a diffraction grating, a series
of black lines cover the continuous spectrum. This is because
certain wavelengths of the light have been absorbed by the gas - this is an absorption
spectrum. In a star, the central regions are very hot, so they emit white light. However, the
light has to pass through the outer layers of the star, which are cooler, so some of the
wavelengths are absorbed this spectrum can then be analysed by astronomers to determine
the gases in the star

Christopher Nishan de Mel

The Doppler Effect of light waves

With light waves:

Source of wave moves towards an observer:
decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency
makes the light BLUER
Source of wave moves away from the observer:
increasing wavelength and decreasing frequency
makes the light REDER

Christopher Nishan de Mel

Doppler shift in spectra

Light that is red- or blue-shifted merely changes color. There is no way to tell from color
alone that a star is moving. Red-shifted stars do not look red; as the visible spectrum of a star
is shifted to longer wavelengths, its ultraviolet spectrum is shifted into the visible range. The
key to the Doppler effect is that spectral lines change position.

Christopher Nishan de Mel