1.

Process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted to a specific cellular

response in a series of steps.
2. Alpha yeast sends alpha signals that A yeast receives. A yeast sends A signals
that only alpha can receive. The respective signals are then transduced and a
response is carried out (mating).
3. Intercellular connections functions by both plant and animal cells have cell
junctions that, where present, directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells.
4.
a. Secreting cells sends regulators to target cells and to all cells in the
vicinity. Examples are
animal cells and growth hormones.
b. Electrical signals trigger chemical signal. Very specific; affects only target
cell. Examples are neurotransmitters
5. Long distance signals are sent via hormones.
6. Sutherland and his colleagues investigated how the animal hormone epinephrine
stimulates the breakdown of the storage polysaccharide glycogen in liver and
skeletal muscle cells This result showed that epinephrine does not interact directly
with glycogen phosphorylase and the plasma membrane is somehow involved in
transmitting the epinephrine signal.
7.

a. Detection of signaling molecule

b. converted to form that can bring about a specific cellular response.
c. signal triggers some sort of cellular response.

8. A molecule that specifically binds to another, usually bigger molecule.

9. Intracellular receptors are typically proteins dissolved in the cytosol or nucleus of
a target cell that may become activated with the binding of the signal molecule. The
activated form may then respond or cause a change (i.e. enter the nucleus and turn
on specific genes)
10. see packet
11. Water soluble messengers would most likely bind to receptors on the outside
surface of the plasma membrane because they are water-soluble and probably too
large to pass through the cell membrane.
12. A G-protein-linked receptor is a plasma membrane receptor that works with the
help of a G-protein.
13. see packet
14. A kinase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP
to another molecule.
15. see packet
16.see packet

17. Conformation is the three-dimensional arrangement of side groups on a

molecule which can freely rotate into different positions without breaking any
bonds.
18. See answer one
19. see packet
20. Protein photophatases are enzymes that remove phosphate groups from
proteins. They help to rapidly turn off a signal-transduction pathway then the initial
signal is no longer present
21. Second messengers are small, non-protein, water-soluble molecules that are
involved in the signal-transduction pathway (other than the first messenger)
22. Sutherland found that the binding of epinephrine caused an elevation of the
cytosolic concentration of cyclic AMP. an enzyme in the plasma membrane, adenylyl
cyclase, converts ATP to cAMP, which then broadcasts the signal to the cell. This
mechanism is used in many signal-transduction pathways
23. Adenylyl cyclase is an enzyme in the plasma membrane that converts ATP to
cAMP in response to an extracellular signal.
24. see packet
25. The bacteria that cause cholera colonize the lining of the small intestine and
produce a toxin, which is an enzyme that chemically modifies a G-protein involved
in regulating salt and water secretion. The modified G-protein cannot hydrolyze GTP
to GDP and remains in its active form, continuously stimulating the production of
cAMP. This continuously stimulates the intestinal cells to secrete large amounts of
water and salts into the intestines. An infected person quickly develops profuse
diarrhea and could die from loss of water and salts
26. Calcium concentrations are kept different and separate from the active
transport of Ca2+ ions by various protein pumps. This is done so that Ca2+ ions can
be used as second messengers
27. see packet.
28. Signal amplificaction is accomplished when at each step in the pathway, the #
of activated products is much greater than in the preceding step.
29. Specificity in cell signaling is accomplished by its particular collection of: signal
receptor proteins, relay proteins, and proteins needed to carry out the response.
30. A scaffolding protein is a large relay protein to which several other relay proteins
are simultaneously attached. This facilitates signal-transduction pathways because
it gathers together all of the proteins involved in the pathway; it enhances speed
and accuracy of signal transfer.

31. A cell is terminated when a signal molecule leaves the receptor, the receptor
reverts to its inactive form and the relay proteins return to their inactive forms. This
is important so that a cell may continue to be receptive to a particular signal