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CHEMISTRY FORM 4
CHAPTER 2 : THE STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Zn
B) MOLECULES
Molecules are the smallest particles of an element or compound that are made up of two or
more atoms.
Examples :
Water, H2O
Carbon Dioxide, CO2
O
H
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C) IONS
An atom or a group of atoms that has acquired a net electric charge by gaining or losing one or
more electrons.
Ions that are positively charged is called cations (loss of electron)
Ions that are positively charged is called anions (gain/accept electron)
Examples: Oxygen ion Hydrogen Ion Hydroxide ion
2O
Mg
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SOLID
Arrangements of
particles
Movements of
particles
Forces of
Attractions
between particles
Ability to be
compressed
Volume
Shape
Heat Energy
Content
- Very difficult to be
compressed because the
particles are packed
closely.
- Has definite volume
- Fixed shape
- Fixed
LIQUID
GAS
- Easily compressed
because the particles
are very far apart.
- No Definite volume
- Fills the whole container
- Highest energy content
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Evaporation takes place more slowly than boiling at any temperature between the melting point
and boiling point, and only from the surface, and results in the liquid becoming cooler due to
loss of higher kinetic energy particles.
Condensation ( GAS LIQUID)
Condensation is the change of gas to liquid. Heat energy is given out as gas particles slow down
and move closer to one another to form liquid.
On cooling, gas particles lose kinetic energy and eventually become attracted together to form a
liquid i.e. they haven't enough kinetic energy to remain free in the gaseous state.
There is an increase in order as the particles are much closer together and can form clumps of
molecules.
Heating Curve
A-B
BC
C
CD
DE
E
E-F
Cooling Curve
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PQ
QR
R
RS
ST
T
TU
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JJ Thomsons
atomic model
1897
Discover the electron
Atom is a positively charged sphere
Rutherfords
atomic model
1911
Discover the existence of neutron
Nucleus contain proton and neutron
James Chadwicks
atomic model
1932
Neil Bohrs
atomic model
1913
Discover the proton.
Nucleus contain proton.
Electron moves outside nucleus
Electron
1908zmoves in the shell s
around nucleus
SYMBOL OF ELEMENTS
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Magnesium
H
O
N
S
Mg
Aluminium
Sodium
Silicone
Calcium
Iodine
AlS
Na
Si
Ca
I
USES OF ISOTOPES
Medical
Gamma rays of cobalt-60 are used to kill cancer cells without surgery in patients. This treatment
is known as radiotherapy.
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Patients with skin cancer can be treated using beta rays from the isotopes phosphorus-32 and
strontium-90
Medical instruments such as surgical equipment, syringes and bandages can sterilize by using
gamma rays.
Radioisotopes are also used as tracers.
A small amount of sodium-24 is injected into the patient's body.
A radioactive detector is then used to detect accumulation of sodium-24 and therefore detect
tumours and blood clots before they become dangerous.
This tracing method is also used to investigate the thyroid glands by measuring the uptake of
iodine-131.
Plutonium-238 in a nuclear battery is used to produce small electric shocks in the heart
pacemaker.
People with irregular heartbeats need to have a heart pacemaker implanted inside their chest.
The nuclear battery of the pacemaker provides a tiny electrical shock to ensure a steady
heartbeat.
Agricultural
Radio isotopes are used to cause mutation in insects so as to make them sterile or to cause
death. These serve as pest control in agriculture.
The metabolism of phosphorus by plants can be studied using phosphate fertilisers that contain
phosphorus-32.
A small amount of phosphorus-32 is used in fertilisers.
The radiation produced by phosphorus-32decaying is detected by a Geiger-Miller counter.
This method can trace the passage of phosphate ions in plants..
Carbon-14 is used to study the passage of carbon during photosynthesis in plants.
Industrial
Isotope sodium-24 is used to detect leakage of underground pipes.
Beta rays are used to control the thickness of plastic, paper and metal sheets in factory.
Gamma rays are used to detect whether cans or bottles are filled up to the required amount.
Sodium-24 is used to measure the wear out rate of engine in a vehicle.
Food Preservation
The gamma rays from cobalt-60 are used to kill bacteria in food to make fresh vegetables and
fruits last longer without any change in quality, flavour and texture of food.
Food Preservation
Gamma rays are used to inhibit budding in potatoes.
Others
Radioisotope carbon-14 is used to study and estimate the age of ancient artifacts. This method
is named as the radiocarbon dating.
Plutonium is used in nuclear reactors to produce electrical energy.
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Nucleus
Examples :
Chlorine , Cl
Proton Number : 17
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