Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties

Used to produce containers, light bulbs through pressing,

Copper Alloys Excellent electrical and thermal conductors;
Strain - measure of the amount of elongation per unit length
Good corrosion & wear resistance; Good strength, high ductility, drawing, or blow moulding; A gob of molten glass is
performed into a crude shape (a parison) then pressed or
Elastic Limit - Stress where plastic deformation begins
cold workability
blown into a final shape; Annealing Range: Glass may be
Proportional Limit Magnitude of stress where stress-strain Common Copper Alloys Brass (Cu + Zn) Good strength,
relationship is no longer linear. Deformation of a material is a ductility, corrosion resistance; Bronze (Cu + Sn) Good strengthannealed then slowly cooked to reduce residual stress
Tempered Glass Produced by quenching the surface with air;
combination of both proportional and elastic limit
and wear resistance; Cu + Be alloys Highest strength of Cu Surface contracts quickly while centre contracts more slowly;
Yield Strength Shift strain (0.002) or (0.2%)
alloys age hardenable
Differential cooling causes compressive stresses to develop
Modulus of Resilience, Er: Is the elastic energy absorbed
Magnesium Alloys Low density, melting temp, and modulus of on the surface with tensile stresses in the centre; Improves
during loading and subsequently released when the load is
elasticity; Good specific strength, corrosion resistance (except tensile strength and impact properties
removed
marine environments); Poor fatigue, creep, and wear resistance Laminated Glass Consists of two annealed glass pieces
laminated with a polymer (polyvinyl butyral) in b/w; Used to
Higher Elastic Modulus indicates higher stiffness, steeper
Nickel Alloys Have good strength, particularly at high temp;
make windshields; Bulletproof glass is made with
slope
Good corrosion resistance; Used for heat exchangers, gas
polycarbonate layers instead
Tensile Toughness: Represents the energy absorbed by a
turbines
Glass Ceramics High crystalline materials made from
material prior to fracture (Area under the true stress-strain
Titanium Alloys High strength, low density; Excellent corrosion amorphous glasses;; Heat treatment after forming and added
curve) (Higher strength = higher energy absorption)
resistance; Good high temperature properties; Used in chemical oxides allow for crystallization; Offers good mechanical
strength, toughness, high temperature corrosion resistance,
Brittle Materials: Experience more stress than more ductile
processing equipment, biomedical implants, jet engines
with a low coefficient of thermal expansion;
materials/Experience very little plastic deformation/Glasses and Chapter 15: Ceramics
Chapter 16; Polymer
ceramics, the yield strength, tensile strength and fracture
Ceramics: solid compounds that comprise at least one metal
and one non-metallic element or a combination of at least two Polymer is a long chain of molecules made from many
strength are all the same. Tested through the bend test
monomers bonded together; Typically polymers consist of a
non-metallic element solids.
Hardness of Materials Measure of the resistance to plastic
Properties of Ceramics Hard and wear resistant, brittle, prone carbon backbone which is covalently bonded to other atoms
deformation
such as hydrogen oxygen or nitrogen
to thermal shock, refractory (high melting point), generally
Chapter 2: Atomic Structure
electrically insulating, generally thermally insulating, generally 3 Types of Polymers
Thermoplastics; Atoms within the chains are covalently
Bonds: (Ionic, covalent, metallic and Van der Waals)
non-magnetic, chemically stable and oxidation-resistant
Ionic: Cation/Anion; Covalent: Limited ductility and poor
Processing of ceramics: 1. Synthesis of ceramic powders 2. bonded with the chains themselves bonded by van der Waals
electrical conductivity. Ceramics and Polymers; Metallic:
Blending and spray drying using additives 3. Shaping into useful bonds; Are generally ductile; May be amorphous or crystalline
depending on the temperature; Soften when heated which
shapes called green ceramics 4. Consolidation into a dense
Provides good electrical conductivity, good ductility, and high
allows for shaping and easy recycling
melting temperatures; Van der Waals: Important in polymers as object using sintering or firing 5. Secondary processing such as Thermosetting Also long chain molecules; Strongly crosscutting or polishing 6.Final sintered ceramic product.
they determine strength and ductility
linked forming rigid 3D structures; Stronger but more brittle
Shaping methods:
Interatomic Spacing: Spacing b/w atoms is dependent on the Uniaxial pressing: makes simple, small parts. Powder is
than thermoplastics; Do not melt simply decompose;
Recycling difficult
attractive and repulsive forces. The equilibrium interatomic
compacted in a die cavity to give moderate strength and
Elastomers Capable of elastic deformation greater than
spacing occurs when the net forces acting on the atom is zero. increase part density
Slip casting: 1. Fill Paris mould with slip 2. Mould extracts liquid200%; May be both a thermoplastic or thermosetting; Contain
Typically equal to the atomic diameter.
and forms compact along mould walls 3. Excess slip is drained coil-like molecules that stretch
Chapter 13: Steels and Cast Iron
Types of Polymerization (2 types)
4. Casting is removed after partial drying
Cast Iron Carbon content > 2.1% Carbon; melt at lower
Addition Polymerization (Chain Growth)
temperatures (better for casting); contain graphite (form of pure Tape casting: Produces thin ceramic tapes, alumina electronic
Under heat/pressure/catalysts double bonds within a
packages,
barium
titanate
capacitors.
Slurry/mixture
is
poured
carbon); used for engine blocks, gears, pistons
monomer molecule are broken to form a single bond; Ends of
Steel Carbon content < 1.4%; Plain carbon steels: No alloying into a doctor blade, which controls its thickness as it is cast onto
single bond can now bond with other monomers to form longer
a
substrate
(polymer
sheet
or
stainless
steel).
elements added for strength; very good general properties
Extrusion process: 1. Blending 2. Extrusion- pushed through a chains; Smaller chains may bond together (combination),
(strength, ductility, weldability, machinability); very poor
hydrogen atoms bond with one end (creating a C double bond
die cavity through pressure to get the desired 3. Cutting and
corrosion resistance
drying - after desired length is extruded, green part is cut and - called disproportionation) or terminators can be added
Types of Carbon Steels
Condensation Polymerization (Step-Growth)
dried before sintering
1. Low Carbon steels (<0.3% C) - highest tonnage of steel
Injection Moulding: 1. Blending and compounding 2. Moulding Two or more molecules combine to form a polymer and a
produced; 2. Medium Carbon steels (0.3-0.6% C) - railway
small molecule by product (water, methanol, ethanol); Length
tracks, gears, crankshafts; 3. High Carbon Steels (0.6-1.4%) - - pressed into cold die cavity with a plunger or screw mechanism
3. Ejection and binder removal - after the part is removed from of chain depends on the ability of the reacting molecules to
cutting edges, dies, punches
reach the ends of polymer chain; Process continues until no
Note: The more carbon the harder and stronger it is but the less the mould, the binder is removed by heat treatment
more monomers available
Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP): useful for complex shapes.
weldability and formability it has.
Powder is placed inside a mould and pressed in all directions in Degree of Polymerization
Classification of Steels - AISI/SAE (Not used for stainless
pressure vessel to compress into a useful shape, high pressed Average length of a linear polymer chain is given by degree of
steels or tool steels) consists of 4 digit number; first digit:
polymerization
indicates alloy steel (1xxx plain carbon steel, 40xx = Mo steel, green densities
Degree of Polymerization =
41xx Cr Mo steel, 15xx Mo steel, 50xx Cr steel); second Sintering of Ceramics: to reduce surface area in green body
1.
After
pressing
to
form
a
green
body,
particles
are
in
contact
digit: indicates a modification;last two digits indicate %C in
with each other forming necks 2. Grain boundary forms in each
hundredths of a %
Tool Steels high carbon with addition of alloying elements for neck (b/c crystallographic orientation is different in each particle)
high hardenability and carbide formation; high hardness, wear 3. As sintering progresses, spaces b/w particles become pores
and keep on shrinking
resistance, shock and impact resistance, and elevated
If polymer contains more than one monomer; the molecular
temperature service (Obtained through heat treating); used to Pressure Assisted Sintering
weight of the repeat unit is the sum of the molecular weights of
(Cold) Hot pressing
cut, machine, hot/cold form or mould metals, polymers, and
the monomers minus the molecular weight of the by-product

Uniaxial pressure applied before sintering (cold)

ceramics
Weight Average Molecular Weight: MW=fiMi ;MW is the
Classification based on quenching method, application method,

Uniaxial pressure applied during sintering (hot)

weight average molecular weight
or composition:
(Cold) Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP)
fi is the weight fraction of the polymer having chains within that
W - water hardening (inexpensive); S - shock resisting (impact);

High gas pressure (-100 MPA) applied in all directions to assist range; Mi is the mean molecular weight of the chains within a
O - oil hardening cold work steels (dies, punches); A - air
compacting the green body (before and after sintering)
range
hardening cold work steels (dies, punches); D - high carbon,

Ar typically used to prevent reacting with material (argon)

Number Average Molecular Weight: Mn=XiMi; Mn is the
high chromium, cold work steels (dies, punches); H - hot work Sintered Ceramics The goal of green forming and sintering is number average molecular weight; X is the number fraction of
i
steels; M - Mo high speed steels (cutting tools); T W
to reduce the porosity as much as possible; Pores can be inter chains within that range ; Mi is the mean molecular weight of
(tungsten) high speed steels (cutting tools)
connected or isolated depending on the amount of sintering;
the chains within a range
Stainless Steels Alloys of iron and chromium; excellent
Interconnected pores allow for filtering but are structurally weak

The number average molecular weight is always smaller than

corrosion and high temperature oxidation resistance
Porosity Pores are flows that reduce the tensile strength of
the weight fraction molecular weight
Five types: Ferritic - less expensive, used for construction, lack ceramics; Some porosity can be helpful for thermal shock but
Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastics
ductility and weldability, used for automotive exhaust,
generally should be avoided
Viscoelastic: Viscoelastic behaviour is a deformation of a
dishwashers, decorative. Martensitic - selected for cutting
material by elastic deformation and viscous flow; Under slow
edges with good wear and corrosion resistance, high
strain rates, chains are able to move past one another
w
d
temperatures will cause embrittlement. Austenitic - not heat
resulting ins large plastic deformation; With strain rates,
Apparent
Porosity
=
treatable, strain hardenable, strengthened by cold working,
chains cannot move and the material acts in a brittle mater
excellent corrosion resistance and formability, used for
Elastic Behaviour
w
s
appliances, kitchen sinks. Duplex - combination of austenitic
Stretching of covalent bonds: Covalent bonds stretched
and ferritic stainless steels with properties between each type.
under applied stress; Strain instantly recovered after stress
Precipitation Hardened - high strength and corrosion/
w
released
oxidation resistance
Distortion of Chains: Under applied stress, chains may move
Cast Iron Fe-C-Si alloys; excellent casting, good wear/
slightly; Over, chains move back to original position; Noncorrosion resistance, low cost (10% less dense than steel);
d
linear elastic behaviour
Advantages: low cost, easily melted, free-flowing liquid, low
Plastic Deformation (Amorphous): Deformation different
solidification shrinkage; Disadvantages: high solidification temp,
mechanism metals; Chains stretch, glide, disentangle under
s
sensitive to solidification rate
load; At high stress necking begins
Five types: White Iron - relatively hard and brittle, increased
Necking in Thermoplastics: Randomly oriented; As the
wear and corrosion resistance, used for rolling mills, grinding
stress is applied a neck develops and the chains begin to
True Porosity =
plates, cement mixers, extrusion dies. Gray Iron - most
locally align until the chains have aligned along the entire
common, graphite flakes form, low solidification rate, high
gage length; This process of aligning chains strengthens the
machinability and wear resistance, good oil retention and
polymer; Eventually the covalent bonds fracture after the
dampening. Ductile Iron - similar properties to gray irons
chains have fully aligned
except stronger and tougher. Malleable Iron - formed by
Deformation of Crystalline Polymers: Crystalline - folding of
annealing white iron (contain irregular graphite nodules called
chains in tension; Eventually disentangle and break
mallebalization). Compacted Graphite Iron - properties
Crazing: Localized plastic deformation that occurs
between gray and ductile irons, good for high-temperature
perpendicular to an applied stress; Causes colour change
Glasses
Non-crystalline,
i.e.
short-range
order
of
molecules
but
applications
no long-range order; Usually based on Sio2; Most properties arefrom transparent to opaque, and often leads to cracks; May
Chapter 14: Non-Ferrous Alloys
lead to brittle failure. Thermoplastics are brittle under impact
similar to those of ceramics; Glasses are metastable and will
Non-ferrous alloys dont contain iron
since there is little time for the chains to move
crystallize given the right combination of circumstances.
Aluminum Alloys: Low density; low stiffness, high electrical / Exceptions: Most cannot be used to at very high temperatures; Stress Relaxation: under constant strain stress levels
thermal conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good strength / Glass Formation Upon Cooling For crystalline materials, whendecrease overtime (think of a stretched elastic band)
a liquid is cooled below the metling temperature, a solid forms
ductility; poor fatigue resistance
Wrought Alloys Use a 4 digit system where first digit indicates having a higher density; A liquid may be cooled below the
)
principle alloying elements, suffix after digits indicates how alloy melting temperature becoming an undercooled liquid; if cooling = oexp(
is sufficiently fast, crystals of solid will not form and liquid
is heat treated.
remains undercooled; Below the glass-transition temperature,
(1xxx = commercially pure Al (99% min); 2xxx = copper (major the liquid solidifies with an amorphous structure forming a glass;
alloying element); 3xxx = manganese; 4xxx = silicon; 5xxx =
The glass-transition temperature is noted by the reduced rate of
= oexp(
), o = original stress,
=
magnesium; 6xxx = magnesium and silicon; 7xxx = zinc; 8xxx density change with decreasing temperature
Classification of Glass Oxides
= other elements (e.g. lithium; 9xxx = unused series)
Glass Formers: These oxides are capable of forming glass.
Temper Designations F = as fabricated, no mechanical
property limits; O = Annealed and re-crystallized, low strength, Intermediates: Oxides that may be incorporated into the glass relaxation time,
= a constant, Q is the activation
structure but do not form glasses on their own.
o
high ductility; H = strain hardened; W = solution heat treated,
Modifiers: Oxides that break up the network structure and allow energy
good formability, but unstable as alloy will become stronger with the glass to crystallize; Reduce melting point and viscosity of
Degree of Polymerization Increasing the average molecular
time; T = Heat treated to produce stable tempers, age
SiO2 making it easier to form glasses at lower temperatures.
weight increases: tensile strength, creep resistance, impact
hardened; OH = Strain hardened and annealed; WTF = Heat Types of Glasses
toughness, wear resistance, melting temperature
Soda Lime Glass - reduces melting temperature, reduces waterStructure-Property Relationships in Thermoplastics
treated
solubility; Borosilicate Glass - Possess excellent chemical and Effect of Side Group - adding atoms changes the properties of
dimensional stability, used for lab ware, containers for nuclear the polymer; Larger side groups make it more difficult for
waste. Calcium Aluminoborosilicate Glass - used for glass chains to uncoil and slide past one another - this increases
fibres in fibreglass and composites. Magnesium
strength and stiffness; Branching reduces strength
Aluminosilicate Glass - used for glass fibres in high strength Tacticity Arrangement of non-symmetrical polymer chains
composites Fused Silica - Best resistance to high temperature, (isotatic repeat unit is on the same side, syndiotactic
thermal shock, and chemical resistance
repeat unit is on opposite sides, Atatic random, Atotic
Glass Processing Heating the glass to high temperatures
structure has the poorest packing and least favourable
changes the viscosity of the glass and gives different
mechanical properties)
characteristics; Liquid Range: Glass is molten and used to
Crystallization Polymer may crystallize to improve: Density,
produce glass sheet; Mirrors and fibres are produced in this
Resistance to chemical attack, Mechanical properties. May
state; Working Range: Glass is heated so it is formable but not cause polymer to be translucent
liquid;
Copolymers Copolymers are polymers made of different

Crystallization Polymer may crystallize to improve: Density,

Resistance to chemical attack, Mechanical properties. May cause
polymer to be translucent
Copolymers Copolymers are polymers made of different
molecules within a chain; Created to blend properties of different
polymers
Temperature Effects
Mechanical properties of thermoplastics change with temperature
4 Thermoplastic States
Liquid: Thermoplastics above melting temperature. Bonds
between chains are weak; chains move easily; no strength and
elasticity: Rubbery: Thermoplastics just below melting
temperature just below melting temperature; chains move easily
resulting in plastic deformation (state used for forming); Leathery:
At lower temperature(Just above glass transition temp); Bonds
between chains strengthen; Polymer is stronger and more rigid
Glassy (Rigid State): Polymer structure becomes rigid (glass
like); Strength and stiffness improve but polymer becomes brittle
Crystallinity in Polymers: Thermoplastics may partially
crystallize at temperatures blow melting point; Chains become
closely aligned folding over themselves creating plates (lamella)

% Crystalline =

Q
RT

, p is the measure

of density of the polymer, pa is the density of amorphous polymer,

Pc is the density of completely crystallized polymer
Mechanical Properties of Polymers
Molecular weight, Amount of branching, Degree of branching,
Degree of cross-linking, Degree of crystallinity (folding of chains),
Tacticity, Temperature, Strain rate
Geometric Isomers: Monomers with the same composition but
different structures (ie rubber)
Cross-linking: Bonding between polymer chains to prevent
viscous plastic deformation (Low cross-linking - soft, flexible (i.e.
rubber bands, rubber gloves)
High cross-linking - hard rigid (i.e. hockey pucks))
Vulcanization: Technique for cross-linking elastomer chains by
adding sulphur atom chains which displace hydrogen atoms (non
referable, cant recycle)
Tensile Testing of Elastomers: All deformation is elastic (nonlinear); Initially the polymer chains uncoil; Chains then stretch with
further deformation; Eventually the bonds break
Thermoplastic Elastomers Dont rely on cross linking for plastic
deformation - instead one chain crystallizes to prevent the sliding
of chains
Thermosetting Polymers
Highly cross linked; Limited chain movement due to 3D structure;
Good strength stiffness and hardness, but brittle; Begin as linear
chains-mixed with resins and heat to from cross-linking
Common Thermosets Phenolics - adhesives, brake pads;
Amines cookware; Urethanes mattresses; Polyesters - boat
hulls; Epoxies - Adhesive
Polymer Processing
Heated to near its melting point so its temperature is rubbery or
liquid. Then formed in a die or mild and cooled .
Thermoplastic Forming Processes (Different Processes)
Extrusion, Blow moulding, Injection moulding, Thermoforming,
Calendaring, Spinning, Casting
Extrusion High volume plastic pellets pushed through a hopper
into a turning screw; The screw creates friction > heat (80 to 90%
from friction) + heaters melts the polymers; Pushed through the
die; Cooled (often through water); Most common method
Injection Moulding Similar to extrusion except the molten plastic
is injected into a complicated mould; Mould consists of two
sections that press the plastic together while it is injected
Blow Moulding Used for hollow parts of all sizes; Tube of molten
plastic is extruded into an open mould; Air pressure it used to blow
out the centre of the mould pressing the plastic into the mould;
Often used for bottles
Thermoset Place solid materials in the mould then heating
causes cross linking to form the final product; Compression
moulding - high pressure and temperature causes the plastic to
melt and it fills the mould as it cools
Chapter 12
Compression moulding - high pressure & temperature causes
the plastic to melt & it fills the mould as it cools
of properties, strength, toughness, electrical conductivity i.e. wood,
bone, teeth natural Metal matrix composites (MMCs) Polymermatrix composites (PMCs) ceramic matrix composites
(CMCs)
App cemented carbides i.e. cutting tools
Abrasives i.e. grinding cutting tools
Electrical Contacts switches, relays. Ag-W composites W:
resistance Ag: conductivity
Polymers fillers added to polymers
Rule of Mixtures predicts composite properties density of
comp = volume fraction* density fraction
Fibre-reinforced Composites stronger, fatigue resistance,
elasticity, stiff, brittle, metal, glass, or polymers, carbon, boron
matrix is softer, more ductile, examples Kevlar, tennis rackets
Rule of mixtures predicts density (above) & modulus of elasticity
for loads || to fibres Ec= ffEf +fmEm Load perpen to fibres (stress
same, strain different)1/Ec =fm/Em+ff/Ef
Fibre Length determines load carrying ability, large aspect ratio =
stronger, smaller d=less flaws, longer fivers stronger b/c end dont
support load, fibre volume = strong too
Whiskers simple crystal fibres - strong
Matrixes support fibres and keep them in proper positions,
prevents damage of fibres and cracks in material controls
electrical, chemical & thermal properties of composites
Polymer & Metal Matrix good bonding, allow transfer of load to
fibres, coefficients of thermal expansion similar throughout
Ceramic weak bond between fibres and matrix, deflect cracks
make less brittle
Bonding & Failure Good bonding between matrix & fibres helps
transfer of stress coating improves bonding
Fibre Production Metallic, glass & most composites fibres formed
from the drawing process. carbon, Boron, & ceramics produced
through chemical vapor deposition Fibres, twisted to form yarn or
bundled to form tows
Composite production Short fibre, casting or injection moulding,
continuous handlayup
Metal Matrix Composites Strengthened by metal or ceramic
fibres, good high temp properties i.e. Aluminum
Ceramic Matrix Composites Ceramic fibres in a ceramic matrix,
strong, fracture resistance,poor bonding between fibres and
matrices
Carbon Carbon Composite Super strong
Laminar Composites coatings which improve corrosion & wear
resistance
|| to lamellae properties Density = c = ifi Modulus of
elasticity = Ec = fiEi
Perpen to lamellae Modulus of elasticity = 1/ Ec= fi/Ei
7 Crystal Systems Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic,
Rhombohedral, Hexagonal, Monoclinic, Triclinic. Number of
Atoms per Unit Cell Corners = 1/8 atom, Face-Centres =
atom, Body-Cetnres = 1 atom. Simple Cubic Structure (SC) = 1
atom. Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC) = 2 atoms. Face
Centered Cubic Structure = 4 atoms. All have 8 corner atoms. The
stacking of the atoms within the crystal structure determines the
size of the unit cell. Coordination Number Higher number
indicates more efficiently packed atoms

Average molecular weight of polymer

Molecular weight of repeat unit

W W
x 100
W W
W =Weight of ceramic after submergingwater ;
W =Dry weight of ceramic ;
W =Weight of ceramic when suspended water
pB
x 100 ;
p
p=theoretical density of the ceramic ; B isthe measured
density of the ceramic

P c ( PPa )
P(P c Pa )