1

MAE 455 notes for 11-8-07 & 11-13-07

Notes and Lectures by Dr. Hassan
7 Turbulent Flows
1. Introduction
It is not easy to define turbulence. However, we can indicate its important features.
Probably, the most important characteristic of turbulence is its randomness. This makes a
deterministic approach extremely difficult and, in most cases, we rely on statistical methods.
The diffusivity of turbulence, which causes rapid mixing and increased rates of momentum and
heat transfer, is another feature.
The mean flow may be two- or three-dimensional. However, turbulence is three
dimensional and rotational and always occurs at high Reynolds numbers. Vorticity plays a major
role in turbulence; thus, the random vorticity fluctuations that characterize turbulent flows,
cannot maintain themselves without the mechanism of vortex stretching which is absent in twodimensional flows.
Turbulent flows are highly dissipative, viscous shear stresses perform deformation work
at the expense of the kinetic energy of turbulence. Thus, without the continuous supply of
energy provided the mean flow, turbulence cannot be sustained.
Finally, turbulence is not a property of the fluid, it is a property of the flow. Thus
turbulent flows are highly dependent on initial and boundary conditions.
2. Turbulent Boundary Layer Equations
Turbulent flows are governed by the exact unsteady Navier-Stokes equations. Because of
the large number of scales that exist in turbulent flows, current solutions of the unsteady NavierStokes equations are limited to low Reynolds numbers and, as such, are not suited for
engineering applications. As a result an approach based on a statistical description of turbulence
will be employed. This approach describes the manner in which turbulence affects the mean
flow.
In the statistical approach, a flow variable is set as the sum of a mean and fluctuating
quantity. Thus, as an example,
u ( x, y, z , t ) u ( x, y , z , t ) u ( x, y , z , t )

where
thus

1
T

(7.1)

t T

u ( x , y, z, t ) dt

(7.2)

u 0

(7.3)

It is important to remember that turbulence flows are three dimensional. Thus, even if u is twodimensional (u u ( x, y ) ), the velocity fluctuations in the x, y, and z directions (u , v, w)
are not zero. Moreover, although the average of each flow property fluctuation is zero, averages
of products of various fluctuations are not zero, i.e. u v 0, u w 0 .

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The boundary layer equations in two-dimensions for incompressible or constant density
flow can be written as
u
v

0
x
y

(7.4)

xy

u
u
dP
u

u
u

, where xy
x
y
dx
y
y

(7.5)

Multiplying Eq. (7.4) by u and adding to Eq. (7.5) yields

xy
u 2
(uv )
dP

x
y
dx
y

(7.6)

Equation (7.6) is an alternative form of Eq. (7.5)

u u u , v v v , P P p , xy xy xy

Setting

(7.7)

Substituting into Eqs. (7.4) and (7.5), and averaging, the following equations that govern the
mean flow result.
u
v

0
x
y

(7.8)

dP

[(u ) 2 (u ) 2 ]
u v u v

xy
x
y
dx
y

(7.9)

u 2

dP
(u ) 2

uv

( xy u v)
x
y
dx
x
y

(7.10)

or

u 2

and

u v

are called the turbulent normal and shear stresses, respectively. In boundary

layers, the normal stresses are usually much less than shear stresses. Moreover

x
y

Therefore, the term involving normal turbulent stress is a small term and will be neglected.
Expanding the left hand side of Eq. (7.10) and substituting for xy , Eq. (7.10) reduces to

u
u
dP

u
v
dx y

u
y u v

(7.11)

The resulting turbulent boundary layer equations cannot be solved without a closure
assumption which relates the turbulent shear stress to the mean flow variables. As a first attempt
in this direction and using the analogy of laminar flow, Boussinesq proposed that

u v t

u
y

(7.12)

where t is the turbulent shear viscosity or eddy viscosity. There is a major difference between
and t . is a property of the fluid and is a function of the temperature, while t is a
function of the flow and its value depend on the initial and boundary conditions of the problem
under consideration.
The first theory for predicting t is the mixing length theory developed by Prandtl. He
used a combination of dimensional analysis and experiments on a flat plate to develop his theory.
For laminar flows on a flat plate all velocity profiles reduce to a single curve given by u/ue =
f(). Prandtl discovered that such similarity does not exist in a turbulent boundary and he had to
consider two regions, one close to the wall, the inner region, and one away from the wall, the
outer region. He reasoned that, in the near region, the velocity u should depend on the y location,
wall shear stress, shear viscosity and density but does not depend on the freestream conditions.
On the other hand, the velocity in the outer region is independent of the direct effects of
viscosity. Noting that w can be written as

w u *2

(7.13)

where u* is called the friction velocity and using the methods of dimensional analysis, one can
show that

u y u *
f , /
u*

(7.14)

ue u
g ( y / )
u*

(7.15)

in the inner region, and

where u e is the edge velocity, and is the boundary layer thickness, in the outer region. It
should be noted that dimensional analysis does not provide expressions for the function f and g.
Equation (7.14) is referred to as the law of the wall and Eq. (7.15) is referred to as the velocity
defect law or Clauser defect law.
Prandtls measurement in the near wall region produced velocity profiles similar to those
shown in Fig. 7.1. It is seen from Fig. 7.1 that it consists of three distinct regions: the viscous

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sublayer, the log layer and the defect layer. The viscous sublayer lies in the range 0 y+ 30-50,
where y+ = yu*/. In this region, the inertia terms are negligible. Moreover, the turbulent
fluctuations are negligible with the result that the turbulent shear stress is much less than the
laminar shear stress. Within the viscous sublayer there is a region very near the wall (y +<5),
called the laminar sublayer, where u+=y+. The width of log layer is Reynolds number dependent
and typically lies in the range 30-50<y+ < 350-500 and .01-.02<y/<0.1-0.2. In this region, the
inertia terms are also negligible but the turbulent shear stress dominates the laminar shear stress.
Finally, the defect layer lies between the log layer and the edge of the boundary layer.

u u*
u

y y u * /

Figure 7.1. Typical velocity profile for flat plate turbulent-boundary layer

In the log layer

u
C1 ln( yu * / ) C2
u*

(7.16)

where C1 and C2 are constants. Now Prandtls task reduced to finding an expression for t
that reproduces Eq. (7.16). For a flat plate in the near region, where the inertia terms are
negligible, Eqs. (7.11) and (7.12) reduce to
d
dy

du
( t ) dy 0

or
( t )

Outside the laminar sublayer t , thus

du
w
dy

(7.17)

du
w u *2
dy

(7.18)

Prandtl assumed that, analogus to molecular momentum transport,

t vmix mix
vmix mix

with

du
,
dy

mix y

(7.19)

where mix is called the mixing length, and = 0.4 is the Karman constant. Using Eq. (7.19)
into Eq. (7.15),

2mix

du du
u *2
dy dy

(7.20)

du

Since u is increasing with y, dy 0 and Eq. (7.20) reduces to

du
u*
dy

(7.21)

which upon integration gives

u 1
ln y const
u*

1 y u*
l n C , C 5 .0

(7.22)

As may be seen from Fig. (7.1) and Eq. (7.22), the mixing length expression indicated in
(7.19) can not produce the entire velocity field. As a result, two different approaches are
employed in further developing turbulent boundary layer theory: one suited for use in
conjunction with integral methods while the other is suited for use with differential methods
which solve the turbulent boundary layer equations numerically
In the first approach Coles developed the composite law of the wall-law of the wake,
which describes the velocity profile in the log-law region and outer region. This law can be
written as

u 1 yu* 2I 2 y
ln C sin
u* 2

(7.23)

where II is Coles wake-strength parameter and is the boundary layer thickness. The quantity
II varies with the pressure gradient and can be estimated using the relation
II 0.6 0.51 T 0.01 2
T

(7.24)

where

* dP
w dx

(7.25)

As may be deduced from Eq. (7.24), II

0.6 for a flat plat.
By integrating Eq. (7.23) across the boundary layer, one obtains

* 1 2II

(ue / u*) (2 / C f )1/ 2

* 2 6.4II 6 II 2

2 2

(7.26)

(7.27)

The local skin friction coefficient, C f , may be related to II and local Reynolds number
Re ue / by evaluating the wall-wake law, i.e., Eq. (7.23), at the edge of the boundary layer

ue
1
(2 / C f )1/ 2 ln(Re / ) C 2II /
u*

(7.28)

In order to calculate the flow properties as a function of x, use has to be made of the
momentum integral equation. The momentum integral equation for turbulent flows has the same
form as that developed for laminar flow, i.e.

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Cf
d
1 due

(2 *)
dx ue dx
2

(7.29)

Although the momentum integral equation for laminar and turbulent flows are the same, there is
no length scale in turbulent boundary layers that leads to the collapse of the complete set of
velocity profiles into a single set as was the case for laminar flows. Therefore, relations amongst
, * and C f depend on the assumed velocity profile. And, as may be seen from Eq. (7.23),
their dependence on x will also depend on the assumed velocity profile. Thus, if Eq. (7.23) is
chosen as the velocity profile, * and can be expressed in terms of and II from Eqs. (7.27),
and (7.27) and equation (7.28) provides an implicit relation for C f in terms of . Because of
this, a numerical solution of Eq. (7.29) is required. Such a solution will yield = (x) and this,
in turn, will provide *(x), (x), and C f (x) .
A simple example of historical interest is due to Prandtl who assumed the velocity profile
over a flat plate to be
u
y

ue

1/ n

n7

(7.30)

Above relation is not valid in the near wall region and thus cannot provide information on the
skin friction coefficient. However, it can provide a relationship between and x which can be
used to calculate C f (x) .
For a flat plate, Eq. (7.29) reduces to
d
Cf /2
dx

Equation (7.30) and the definition of

and give

*
1/ 8 ,

For

Cf

(7.31)

/ 7 / 72

(7.32)

, Prandtl used the correlation from pipe flow to get

C f 0.0456(Re ) 1/ 4

(7.33)

Substituting Eqs. (7.32) and (7.33) into Eq. (7.31) and integrating

0.375 / Re1x/ 5
x

(7.34)

Although the above development is crude, it nevertheless indicates that a turbulent boundary
layer grows much faster than a laminar boundary layer where / x 5 / Re1x/ 2 .

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The approach based on the solution of the turbulent boundary layer is discussed next. As
is seen from Fig. 7.1, there is a need to develop an expression for t which is valid in the
laminar sublayer region. Moreover, another expression is required for the outer region.
The near wall modification of t is due to van Driest. He modified the expression
derived in the log layer by a damping factor, with the result that the mixing length is now given
by

mix y[1 exp( y / A )];

yu *

(7.35)

A for flat plates is a constant and is chosen so as to reproduce the velocity profile in the near

wall region and log-law region. Since in the near wall region the laminar shear stress, , is not
negligible, Eq. (7.17) gives

du
y
w
2 y 2 1 exp

dy

du du
dy dy

(7.36)

Dividing by w and using the definitions

u * u / u*,

w u *2 ,

yu*

(7.37)

Equation (7.36) can be written as

du

y
1
( y ) 1 exp

dy

Equation (7.38) is quadratic in

du / dy .

du
dy

Solving explicitly for

1

1 4 2
2 2

du

dy

du / dy

(7.38)
gives
(7.39)

where

y 1 exp y / A

As is seen from Eq. (7.40) = 0 when y 0 . Therefore, Eq. (7.39) is singular at

remove the singularity we multiply the right hand side of Eq. (7.39) by
1

1 4 2

1 4 2

(7.40)
y 0 .

To

and simplify, this results in

du

dy
1

Note that

du
dy

1 at

y 0 .

2
1 4 2

Equation (7.41) can be integrated numerically.

experimental data, van Driest found that

the presence of pressure gradient to

A 26

dP/ dx
A 26 1 y
2
u*

(7.41)

To fit

. Later, Cebeci and Smith modified A in

1/ 2
(7.42)

One of the widely used expressions for the eddy viscosity in the outer region is that
developed by Clauser

t outer 0.018 ue *

(7.43)

It has been found by Corrsin and Kistler and Klebanoff that approaching the freestream
from within a turbulent boundary layer that the flow is not always turbulent; it is intermittent,
i.e., it fluctuates between laminar and turbulent To account for this behavior, Eq. (7.43) is
multiplied by

y
Fkleb 1 5.5

6 1

(7.44)

While carrying out numerical calculations of the turbulent boundary layer, one starts by
the near wall expression for t and switches to the outer region expression when the two
quantities are equal.
Since t 0 at y = 0, w retains its traditional definition
w

du
dy y 0

(7.45)

Above equation does not mean that the wall shear stress is the same for laminar and turbulent
du
flows. The turbulent shear stress is higher because dy y 0 is higher in turbulent boundary
layers.

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The above turbulence model, where t is given by algebraic expressions works well as
long as the flow is attached. More complicated theories are needed in the presence of flow
separation.