Section 2

CHAPTER 2
MATERIAL BALANCE
& OIL RESERVOIRS
Gordon R. Petrie,
Thru-u.com.
Contents:
Page
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Volume Correction Factors
2.3
Gas Solubility
2.4
Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place (STOIIP)
10
2.5
Material Balance Equation

- Schilthuis Formulation
11
2.6
Material Balance Equation

- Havlena & Odeh Formulation
17
2.7
Drive Mechanism Identification
19
2.8
Volumetric Depletion Drive
20
2.9
Natural Water Drive
26
2.10
Gascap Drive
28
A-2
Appendix 2 Water Influx Models
31
Section 2
Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.
1
Rev. 1.0
2
-
MATERIAL BALANCE & OIL

RESERVOIRS
One of the major problems in Reservoir Engineering is that the object of study,
i.e. the reservoir itself, is far removed from direct observation:
-
If variables cannot be directly observed, they cannot be measured.
Hence, there are usually too few independent equations linking together a
larger number of unknown variables.
By assuming values for these unknown variables a solution can be

obtained. However, there is a distinct lack of uniqueness meaning
many variations in the initial assumptions can lead to the same result.
A principle objective, therefore, must be to limit the number of

assumptions made.
2.1
-
INTRODUCTION
Modern reservoir engineering work revolves around the construction of
computerised reservoir simulators. These simulators require a very large amount
of input data, which means that many assumptions must be made. The results
obtained, therefore, often simply reflect the input data.
Material balance methods are simple analytical techniques for finding G (GIIP)
or N (STOIIP), while at the same time helping to determine and quantify
reservoir drive mechanisms.
Material balance results can then be used to fix some reservoir simulator input
parameters. Hence, reducing number of assumptions needed.
Section 2
2
Rev. 1.0
2.2
-
VOLUME CORRECTION FACTORS

The material balance equation has already been discussed in Section 1 in
relation to gas reservoirs. This discussion will now be extended to oil reservoirs.
The material balance equation treats the oil (or gas) reservoir as a single unit,
i.e. the reservoir properties can vary with time, but are uniform throughout the
reservoir at any given instant.
Hence no detailed geological model of the reservoir is needed. All that is

required are pressure-production and p v T data.
For oil reservoirs a number of volume factors must be defined to switch

between surface and reservoir volumes. The gas expansion factor, E , which
has already been discussed, is easily calculated from equation below
E = 35.37
p
..............................................................(1.9)
ZT
where,
p = Pressure of gas at reservoir conditions (psia).
T = Temperature of gas at reservoir conditions (R).
Z = Compressibility factor of gas at reservoir conditions (-).
NOTE -
The gas expansion factor E (SCF/CF) is the volume occupied by one

cubic foot (CF) of gas at reservoir conditions, when brought to the
surface at Standard Conditions (SCF).
The Standard in SCF means the volume is measured at Standard

Conditions usually 14.7 psia and 60oF (520oR).
Section 2
3
Rev. 1.0
2.2.1
-
Gas Formation Volume Factor - Bg

B
In oil reservoirs the pore volume occupied by free gas is expressed in reservoir
barrels (rb) and not (CF). The Gas Formation Volume Factor Bg is therefore
related to the gas expansion factor E through the expression
Bg =
1
5.615 E
...................................................(2.1)
where,
Bg = Gas Formation Volume Factor (rb/SCF).

E = Gas Expansion Factor (SCF/CF).
5.615 = Conversion factor (CF/rb).
1 SCF of
Surface gas
Reservoir
T&P
The Gas Formation Volume

Factor Bg :
Take 1 SCF of surface gas.
What volume does it occupy,

in reservoir barrels (rb), as free
gas in the reservoir?
Bg is the latter quantity

divided by the former. It is
typically around 0.001 rb/SCF
Bg rb of
free gas
Section 2
E is typically around 170

SCF/CF.
4
Rev. 1.0
2.2.2
-
Solution Gas Oil Ratio RS
In the definition of Bg the emphasis is on the ratio between the volume of free
gas (rb), under reservoir conditions, to the volume of 1 SCF of gas at surface
conditions:
That is Bg in no way accounts for the volume of gas which was once
dissolved in the oil and has since been liberated as it passes through
wellbore and surface equipment.
The Solution Gas Oil Ratio ( RS ) is the number of SCF of gas, at standard
conditions, that will dissolve in 1 STB of oil when taken down to the reservoir
and subjected to reservoir temperature and pressure:
1 STB
of oil
Reservoir
T&P
NOTE
RS SCF of
Surface gas
Oil plus
Dissolved
gas
Bg (rb/SCF) and E (SCF/CF) can be determined analytically using

equation (1.9) and equation (2.1).
RS (SCF/STB) cannot be calculated can only measured in p-v-T

experiments.
Section 2
5
Rev. 1.0
2.2.3
-
Oil Formation Volume factor - Bo
The Oil Formation Volume Factor Bo (rb/STB) is the volume, under reservoir
conditions (rb), occupied by 1 STB of oil plus all the gas ( RS SCF/STB) it is
capable of dissolving at reservoir T & p:
1 STB
of oil
Reservoir
T&P
RS SCF of
Surface
dissolved gas
Bo rb of oil
plus dissolved
gas
The more dissolved gas, the larger the oil formation volume factor:
-
Low values of Bo 1.05 rb/STB suggests low volatility oil with little
dissolved gas, i.e. RS < 60 SCF/STB.
For medium volatility oil Bo 1.25 rb/STB, RS 300 - 600 SCF/STB.
For high volatility oil Bo 2.5 - 3.0 rb/STB, RS > 2500 SCF/STB.
NOTE
As before, the oil volume factor Bo (rb/STB) cannot be calculated it can only be measured in p-v-T experiments.
Section 2
6
Rev. 1.0
2.3 GAS SOLUBILITY

-
Gas solubility in oil is a complex function of temperature, pressure and

composition - both crude oil and gas phases. For a particular composition, it is
generally true that the amount of gas that will dissolve in the oil increases:
As the pressure increases, keeping temperature constant.
As the temperature decreases, keeping the pressure constant.
Gas is infinitely soluble in crude oil. Only the prevailing temperature and
pressure and the quantity of gas which is available limit the ultimate solubility.
As far as gas solubility is concerned, the oil can be described as being
undersaturated or saturated:
-
Undersaturated oil is one that is capable of dissolving more gas at

prevailing T & p than it presently contains.
Saturated oil is one that cannot dissolve any more gas at the
prevailing T & p .
The way to determine whether or not an oil is saturated or undersaturated at

prevailing T & p is to decrease the pressure keeping the temperature constant:
-
No gas will be released from solution if oil is undersaturated at these

conditions.
Gas will be released from solution if the oil is saturated at these

conditions.
If the pressure of undersaturated oil sample is gradually dropped eventually it

will become saturated, i.e. oil reaches its bubble-point. Further expansion below
the bubble-point pressure will cause dissolved gas to break out of solution.
NOTE
If oil is undersaturated then p > pbp , i.e. oil is above bubble-point.
Section 2
7
Rev. 1.0
An undersaturated oil implies that not enough gas has percolated through the
oil, during geological time, to saturate it at prevailing T & p :
This implies no free gas in contact with the crude oil.
Which, in turn, implies that no gascap has accumulated updip.
Consider the shape of RS vs. p and Bo vs. p plots, both above the bubblepoint and below the bubble-point:
p < pbp
p > pbp
600
Above the bubblepoint the value of

RS is constant.
Above bubble-point
no gas is liberated
from solution.
Above the bubblepoint oil is

undersaturated.
Below the bubblepoint gas is

liberated and RS
decreases.
Above the bubblepoint the oil

expands due to
compressibility of
oil.
Above bubble-point
no gas is liberated.
Below the bubblepoint gas is

liberated and oil
volume shrinks.
RS = RSi
RS
(SCF/STB)
300
Bubble
Point
Pressure
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Pressure (psia)
1.4
BO
(rb/STB)
1.2
1.0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Pressure (psia)
Section 2
8
Rev. 1.0
For an undersaturated reservoir, the instantaneous gas oil ratio (R) is the same
as the initial gas oil ratio, i.e. R = RSi ; that is, there is no free gas in the
reservoir only liquid oil with its dissolved gas is produced into the wellbore.
After some initial depletion, the pressure of the reservoir drops to its bubble
point and the oil becomes saturated. A further drop in reservoir pressure causes
gas to be released in the reservoir as free gas; i.e. it comes out of solution.
Gas then accumulates in the reservoir. When the gas saturation exceeds some
critical gas saturation, it becomes mobile and begins to flow as free gas into the
wellbore. A typical plot of the instantaneous gas oil ratio, R is shown below:
When p > pbp then
R = RSi and
instantaneous GOR is same
as initial GOR.
-
R
(SCF/STB)
When p < pbp then free

gas accumulates in
reservoir.
Since free gas mobility

greatly exceeds oil mobility
R >> RSi
R = RSi
-
Bubble-point
Pressure
As gas becomes depleted

R peaks then starts to
decline.
Reservoir pressure (psia)
Critical gas saturation can occur somewhere around 10% PV.
NOTE
Solution gas usually does not form a secondary gascap. It cannot

usually be controlled, to any significant extent, by workovers.
Section 2
9
Rev. 1.0
2.4 STOCK TANK OIL INITIALLY IN PLACE

-
The expression for Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place, STOIIP, at the time of
discovery is similar in form to the expression for Gas Initially In Place, G
N =
Vb (1 SWC )
Boi
....(2.2)
where,
N = Stock Tank Barrels of Oil Initially in Place (STB).
Vb = Net bulk volume of the reservoir (rb).
= Porosity - fraction of bulk volume which is pore space (-).

SWC = Connate Water Saturation - fraction of PV occupied by water (-).
Boi = Oil FVF - volumetric conversion factor (rb/STB).
Stock Tank Barrels (STB) is the volume of oil in barrels at Standard stock tank
Conditions - taken to be 14.7 psia and 60oF.
The Pore Volume, PV, is the volume of the pore space, in reservoir barrels (rb),
which can be fluid filled PV = Vb = NBoi /(1 SWC ) .
The Oil Hydrocarbon Pore Volume, HCPV, is the volume occupied by oil only,
in reservoir barrels (rb) Oil HCPV = Vb (1 SWC ) = NBoi .
NOTE -
SWC is the water left behind in the reservoir after the accumulation of
hydrocarbons. & SWC are determined from logs/cores. Boi , is
obtained from p v T studies on oil samples at time of discovery.
Section 2
10
Rev. 1.0
2.5 MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

- Schilthuis Formulation
-
The oil material balance equation is derived in much the same way as the gas
material balance equation.
Total cumulative volumetric production of oil & dissolved gas, plus production
of free gas, LH cylinder - lower diagram, must be equal to total volumetric
expansion of pore fluids from initial conditions to the current stage of depletion
(lower volume - both cylinders, minus upper volume - RH cylinder only):
PRODUCTION
Consider initial condition with

reservoir charged at initial
pressure pi .
At this stage no fluids have been

produced.
At later stage, reservoir pressure

has depleted to lower
pressure p .
Cumulative production must

equal expansion of original pore
fluids from pi to lower pressure
pi
RESERVOIR
PRODUCTION
p
RESERVOIR
p.
NOTE -
However, production must be expressed in terms volume occupied by

hydrocarbons at current reservoir pressure p .
All that are known are measured surface production volumes. Hence,
these must be converted into reservoir volumes at current pressure p .
Section 2
11
Rev. 1.0
Surface production is measured as cumulative surface oil produced N P (STB)

and cumulative surface gas produced GP (SCF). These surface volumes
produced must be converted to reservoir volumes at current pressure p .
In gas reservoirs all the surface gas produced existed in the reservoir as free gas
at reservoir pressure p . For oil reservoirs, some of the surface gas is dissolved
gas and some, depending on pressure, can be free gas at reservoir pressure p .
Hence, cumulative surface production of oil and gas must be converted to

cumulative reservoir production of the following: oil + its dissolved gas at
reservoir pressure p ; plus free gas at reservoir pressure p , or
(oil+dissolved gas) +
(rb)
N P Bo
(free gas)
(rb)
N P ( RP RS ) Bg ........................(2.3)
where,
N P = Cumulative oil produced - surface conditions (STB).
Bo = Oil FVF - referred to pressure p (rb/STB).

RP = Cumulative gas oil ratio GP/NP - surface conditions (SCF/STB).
RS = Dissolved GOR - referred to pressure p (SCF/STB).

Bg = Free gas FVF - referred to pressure p (rb/SCF).
NOTE -
Equation (2.3) mathematically represents the volume of oil, its

dissolved gas and the free gas within LH cylinder- lower diagram.
This is cumulative production referred to current reservoir pressure p .

Notice only surface volumes and p v T parameters are needed.
All the terms in equation (2.3) are known quantities.
Section 2
12
Rev. 1.0
There are several effects that simultaneous lead to production of pore fluids:
-
(A) Expansion of oil plus expansion of liberated gas.
(B) Expansion of gascap gas.
(C) Expansion of immobile connate water.
(D) Reduction in pore volume as pore pressure decreases.
(E) Natural water influx into space occupied by hydrocarbons.
(A) Expansion of Oil & Expansion of Liberated Gas - dVo

-
By re-arranging equation (2.2) the oil HCPV, including dissolved gas, at initial
pressure pi is NBoi (rb). Once reservoir pressure drops to p the notional
expanded oil HCPV, including dissolved gas, would be NBo (rb).
Hence, notional expansion of all this original oil plus dissolved gas is the
difference between the notional final volume minus the actual initial volume
(rb)
N ( Bo Boi )
In addition, free gas may also be released if the pressure drops below pbp .
Hence, expansion as free gas is liberated from solution is N ( RSi RS ) SCF.
Therefore, the expansion caused by liberated gas (rb) must be
(rb)
N ( RSi RS ) Bg
(rb)
Hence, expansion of oil (and dissolved gas) plus expansion of liberated gas is
(rb)
dVo = N ( Bo Boi ) + N ( RSi RS ) Bg ................(A)
Section 2
13
Rev. 1.0
(B)
-
Expansion of Gascap Gas - dVg

Define the ratio of the HCPV of gascap to the HCPV of the oil as m
m=
HCPV .of .Gascap

HCPV .of .Oil
Initial HCPV of gascap, referred to initial volume of oil, must be mNBoi
(rb)
mNBoi
Notional expanded volume of original gas HCPV to lower reservoir pressure p
(rb)
mNBoi
Bg
Bgi
Therefore, the expansion of the gascap dVg after some decline in pressure is the
notional final gas volume (rb) minus the actual original gas volume (rb):
(rb)
Bg
1 ..(B)
dVg = mNBoi
B
gi
NOTE -
These expansion terms (A) and (B) are both equal to the notional
expanded volume minus actual original volume.
Section 2
14
Rev. 1.0
(C)
-
Expansion of Immobile Connate Water - dVCW

Expansion connate water dVCW (rb) from initial reservoir pressure pi to any
lower pressure p , at some future stage of depletion, is therefore given by
(rb)
dVCW = cWVW p = cW
(1 + m )NBoi S p ....(C)
(1 SWC ) WC
where,
cW = Isothermal compressibility of water (psi-1).
p = Pressure drop from pi to p (psi).
(1 + m )NBoi
VW =
SWC or connate water volume (rb).
(1 SWC )
(D)
-
Reduction in Pore Volume dVf

As pore pressure declines, overburden pressure remains constant and grain
pressure increases; the result is a shrinkage in Pore Volume dV f (rcf). This
squeezing of the PV has the same effect as expansion of pore fluids.
(rb)
dV f = c f VPV p = c f
(1 + m)NBoi p ...(D)
(1 SWC )
where,
c f = Isothermal compressibility of formation (psi-1).
p = Pressure drop from pi to p (psi).

(1 + m )NBoi
or Pore Volume (rb).
V f =
(1 SWC )
Section 2
15
Rev. 1.0
(E)
-
Decrease in HCPV due to Natural Water Influx:

Water encroachment also decreases HCPV and must be added to RHS of
material balance equation, just like an in-situ fluid expansion term
(rb)
dVW = We WP BW ..(E)
where,
We = Cumulative water influx from adjoining aquifer (rb).
WP = Cumulative water produced at the surface (STB).
BW = Water Formation Volume Factor (rb/STB).
Now production given by equation (2.3) must be equal to (A)

+(B)+(C)+(D)+(E). Hence, general material balance equation is
N P Bo + ( RP RS ) Bg = N ( Bo Boi ) + N ( RSi RS ) Bg
B
c + SWC cW
+ mNBoi g 1 + (m + 1) NBoi f
p + We WP BW
B
(1 SWC )
gi
..(2.4)
All the volume factors are functions of pressure so the material balance may be
solved at any stage so long as p is known. The results obtained from material
balance equation then become inputs for computer simulation runs.
NOTE -
Equation (2.4) is zero dimensional and treats the reservoir as a single

unit. It is used to find, N , m and/or history match aquifer models.
Section 2
16
Rev. 1.0
2.6 MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

- Havlena & Odeh Formulation
Havlena and Odeh showed that the material balance equation could be
simplified and represented graphically:
-
These graphs are used to check the value of estimated quantities.
Assumptions concerning drive mechanisms can be tested. The reservoir

simulator input file can be upgraded leading more accurate predictions.
First, Havlena & Odeh defined F in much the same way as for gas reservoirs
F = N P (Bo + ( RP RS ) Bg ) + WP BW .......................(2.5)
Notice F is cumulative reservoir production from the formation into the

wellbore (rb); produced water is also accounted for as a production term. Next,
Eo is defined in a similar fashion as for a gas reservoir
Eo = ( Bo Boi ) + ( RSi RS ) Bg ..........................(2.6)
Notice Eo is net expansion of oil plus dissolved gas & free gas (rb/STB),
between pi and lower pressure p . Next, define Eg as per gas reservoir
Bg
1 ....(2.7)
E g = Boi
B
gi
Notice Eg is the expansion of gascap gas (rb/STB) between pi and lower

pressure p ; by itself, expansion, Eg represents a unit gascap, where m = 1 .
Section 2
17
Rev. 1.0
Expansion , E fW , is again defined in much the same way as for a gas reservoir
c f + SWC cW
E fW = (m + 1) Boi
p .......(2.8)
(
1
)
S
WC
E fW is the reduction in PV and the expansion of connate water (rb/STB),
between pi and lower pressure p .
Now (2.5), (2.6), (2.7) and (2.8) are substituted into equation (2.4), to give the
general Havlena & Odeh formulation of the oil material balance equation
F = N ( Eo + mEg + E fW ) + We
...(2.9)
Notice multiplying Eg by m represent expansion of the actual gascap gas

(not unit gascap gas, where Eg appears by itself).
NOTE -
The LHS of equation (2.9) should always be known, assuming that

good production records are kept.
The unknowns on the RHS depend very much on the drive mechanism.
However, in general situation for reservoir with both gascap and

natural waterdrive, unknowns can be N , m and We .
Estimates of N & m may be available from Volumetric Method.

Solving for We requires an independent aquifer model equation.
Section 2
18
Rev. 1.0
2.7 DRIVE MECHANISM IDENTIFICATION

-
The analysis below is quite similar to that given for a gas reservoir. Assume
reservoir has no gascap then equation (2.9) reduces to, after re-arrangement:
F
We
=N+
(Eo + E fW )
(Eo + E fW ) ......(2.10)
Now using production-pressure data, plot F / (Eo + E fW ) versus N P . Notice, all

the terms in the group F / (Eo + E fW ) should be known, as should N P .
-
This plot helps to qualitatively identify the drive mechanism. Even though
no gascap has been assumed, the approach still works with a gacap.
The no gascap assumption is made simply to keep calculation of ordinate

values as assumption-free as possible:
E +E
fW
o
and pressure-production data will plot

as a horizontal straight line as shown.
Moreover, the intercept will be N .
Curve A and B qualitatively indicate

that production has been boosted by
some sort of internal reservoir drive
mechanism.
Extrapolation of curves A or B back

to ordinate to find N is unreliable.
Volumetric Depletion
0
0
NOTE -
For true volumetric depletion

mechanism, We m and E g are zero
(N P )
Above plot helps to identify a true volumetric depletion drive reservoir.

Curves A or B can be caused either by water influx, gascap expansion,
variable compaction, or various combinations of drive mechanism.
Section 2
19
Rev. 1.0
2.8 VOLUMETRIC DEPLETION DRIVE

-
If, after plotting pressure-production data on the previous graph a reasonable

horizontal straight line is obtained, then reservoir production-pressure history
matches that of a simple volumetric depletion drive mechanism.
There are two cases: one, either the reservoir is at a pressure above the bubblepoint; or, two the reservoir pressure is below bubble-point, where a Solution
Gas Drive mechanism is operative:
2.8.1
-
Depletion Above Bubble-Point
In this case oil is undersaturated and normally there is no gascap. If there is also
negligible natural water drive, then the assumptions are:
m = 0
We = WP = 0
RP = RS = Rsi
The last assumption is a consequence of the oil being above its bubble-point.
Hence, all the gas at the surface must have been dissolved gas; that is there is no
free gas present. Recall above pbp the GOR remains constant at RSi .
Such a simple case does not require Havlena & Odeh plot, so simplifying the
general material balance equation (2.4) leads to
c f + S WC cW
N P B o = N ( B o B oi ) + NB oi
p
(1 S WC )
The pore volume and connate water expansion term cannot be ignored.
Section 2
20
Rev. 1.0
Re-arranging the above expression gives
( B Boi ) c f + SWC cW
+
N P Bo = NBoi o
p
(1 SWC )
Boi p
While, the compressibility of oil co can also be written as
co =
1 V Bo Boi
=
Vo p
Boi p
Hence, substituting the above equation into the previous one leads to
c f + SWC cW
N P Bo = NBoi co +
p
(1 SWC )
Which, in turn, can be simplified to
N P Bo = NBoi cEFF p
(2.11)
where,
cEFF = co + c f
NOTE -
1
SWC
+ cW
(1 SWC )
(1 SWC )
(2.12)
Equation (2.11) simply expresses the relation dV = cVp recognising

c is in fact cEFF .
Section 2
21
Rev. 1.0
Notice that the cEFF weights compressibility of each component, be it oil, pore
space or connate water, in accordance with that fraction of the HCPV, which the
component in question actually occupies.
Normally production-pressure history would allow N to be found between

equations (2.11) and (2.12). The values of N so found between initial
conditions and some later stage should be reasonable constant.
The value of N found by applying the material balance equation to the

pressure-production history may then be compared with the value of N found
using the volumetric method:
-
The values must be compared and reasons found for any discrepancies.
Remember, so long as good records are kept and sound average reservoir
pressures have been observed, the material balance equation provides
active STOIIP, which is contributing to pressure-production history.
It may be that, for instance, there are errors in geologic maps, or missing
faults, or the presence of tight zones, which are not contributing to
production.
Once the value for N is settled and agreed, the reservoir simulators input file
can be updated and better prediction made. At this stage the recovery factor can
be estimated from the expression:
N P Boi
=
cEFF p
N
Bo
NOTE
Low recoveries are generally obtained from undersaturated oil

reservoirs above their bubble-point, typically much less than 10%,
this is due principally to a small value for cEFF .
Section 2
22
Rev. 1.0
2.8.2
Depletion Below Bubble-Point

Solution Gas Drive
Few reservoirs are now produced in this way. Although, it was the preferred
method when oil prices were low. It is a highly wasteful drive mechanism:
-
High producing GOR serves to deplete reservoir of high compressibility

gas, which leads to in a sharp decline in reservoir pressure.
Also, since gas acts as the non-wetting phase, the relative permeability to
oil becomes quite small. Hence, a sharp decline in well PI often occurs.
Occasionally tight, highly fractured, carbonate reservoirs are developed in this

manner, for fear of early water breakthrough and large-scale by-passing of oil
will occur, in the event that secondary recovery be implemented too soon.
Assuming the reservoir was initially undersaturated, the first step is to examine
the pressure-production history, above and below the bubble-point, in order to
determine whether or not the field is a volumetric depletion type.
As before, ignore gascap expansion, so that Havlena & Odeh formulation gives
F = N ( Eo + E fW ) + We .....(2.9)
or
F
We
=N+
(Eo + E fW )
(Eo + E fW ) ......(2.10)
NOTE -
Plot F / (Eo + E fW ) versus N P . If a horizontal straight line is obtained,

then reservoir is a volumetric depletion type and N is easily found.
Section 2
23
Rev. 1.0
For a volumetric depletion reservoir above the bubble-point, the relevant

Havlena & Odeh and material balance expression are
F = N ( Eo + E fW ) .....(2.13)
and
c f + S WC cW
N P B o = N ( B o B oi ) + NB oi
(1 S WC )
p ..(2.14)
The last expression is Schilthuis formulation of material balance and identical to

equation (2.11).
For volumetric depletion drive reservoir below the bubble-point, there is free
gas present and, in addition, E fW may be ignored, which results in
F = NEo
........(2.15)
and
N P Bo + ( RP RS ) Bg = N ( Bo Boi ) + N ( RSi RS ) Bg .(2.16)
NOTE -
The modern approach is to allow reservoir pressure to fall to around, or

just below pbp . -this helps to identify reservoir drive mechanism.
Water or gas drive is then usually implemented to maintain reservoir

pressure and to displace oil into producing wells.
Section 2
24
Rev. 1.0
Equation (2.16) shows that the recovery factor ( N P / N ) at any pressure p , by

solution gas drive, is inversely proportional to the cumulative gas oil ratio RP :
-
However, controlling RP can be difficult in solution gas drive situation.

Closing in wells with high GOR, or instituting production restrictions to
promote gas segregation, all too often have little long-term affect.
However, in some reservoirs conditions do permit the development of an

artificial gascap by a process of gravitational segregation.
Equation (2.17) below, again shows that the more gas remaining in the
reservoir, s g , the higher will be the recovery factor N P / N
N B
S g = 1 1 P o (1 SWC ) .(2.17)
N Boi

A typical production profile for a solution gas drive reservoir is shown below:
Bubble-point
Pressure
pi
pb
R the
instantaneous
GOR
R = RSi
% Watercut
Above the BP, pressure

declines rapidly, recovery is
low and GOR constant.
Recovery factor < 10%
Below B.P, pressure

declines less rapidly, GOR
peaks and recovery
improves.
However, recovery factor is

still low overall, usually
10 25% .
With small aquifer watercut

is low and steady.
Time
The best ways to improve recovery are by water and/or gas injection into the
reservoir. Often recovery factor can be improved to around 50%.
Section 2
25
Rev. 1.0
2.9
-
NATURAL WATER DRIVE

Take the case of an undersaturated oil reservoir with no gascap. If there is
natural water influx into the reservoir, then general Havlena & Odeh expression,
equation (2.9), reduces to
F = N ( Eo + E fW ) + We
.....(2.18)
The general Schilthuis material balance expression, equation (2.4), can also be
simplified and written term by term in exactly the same way as (2.18) above
c f + SWC cW
N P Bo + WP BW = N ( Bo Boi ) + (m + 1) Boi
(1 SWC )

p + We .(2.19)

Re-arranging equation (2.18) which is the simpler of the two equations to deal
with, gives
We
F
...(2.20)
=N+
( Eo + E fW )
( Eo + E fW )
The next step is to take pressure-production data and to plot F / (Eo + E fW )

versus We / (Eo + E fW ) . Both axes will have units of (MM STB)
NOTE -
To do this an aquifer model is needed to generate values for We as

reservoir pressure declines. See Appendix 2 for such a model.
Section 2
26
Rev. 1.0
Given a suitable mathematical model for the aquifer, Appendix 2, then We

values can be calculated against reservoir pressure data. The Havlena & Odeh
plot, shown below, may then be constructed:
We - too small
data plot as a curve above the

straight line case, then the aquifer
model is too weak.
We - Correct
F
( Eo + E fW " )
o
45
If the data plots as a curve below

the straight line, then the aquifer
model is too strong.
The correct aquifer model will

produce results, which plot along
the straight line with slope 45o.
We - too large
If the pressure-production- We
We
( Eo + E fW )
Once the correct aquifer model has been identified, backward extrapolation of
the straight line to the ordinate will yield, as intercept, STOIIP ( N ), units for
N will be (MM STB). A natural water drive reservoir is shown below:
pi
Reservoir Pressure
Pressure decline is
moderated by water influx
and may eventually stabilise.
If water drive is sufficient

then oil pressure will not
drop too far below saturation
level.
Hence, GOR is nearly

constant at R = RSi .
Watercut will rise as water

influx breaks through into
down-dip producers.
% Watercut
GOR R RSi
Time
Section 2
27
Rev. 1.0
2.9
-
GASCAP DRIVE
Consider a gascap drive reservoir without any natural water influx then, in the
presence of a highly compressible gascap, the generally small pore shrinkage
and water expansion effects can be ignored.
In the presence of a gascap the oil is generally at or near its bubble-point so that
any drop in pressure generally leads to free gas accumulating in the oil column.
This can cause problems associated with measuring reservoir pressure.
The general Havlena & Odeh expression, equation (2.9), and the general
Schilthuis material balance expression, equation (2.4) become in this case
F = N ( Eo + mEg )
....(2.21)
and
Bg
1 .(2.22)
N P Bo + ( RP RS ) Bg = N ( Bo Boi ) + N ( RSi RS ) Bg + mNBoi
B
gi
There are two Havlena & Odeh plots, both of which are recommended in view
of the uncertainty associated with average reservoir pressure determination.
These plots should be as follows:
-
First, plot F versus ( Eo + mEg )
Second, plot F / Eo versus E g / Eo
Section 2
28
Rev. 1.0
The first plot should be constructed as follows:
Plot F vs. ( Eo + mE g ) .
1
-
If m is correct then data will

plot as a straight line of slope
N passing through origin.
If curve 2 is produced then m

is too small.
If curve 3 is produced then m

is too large.
( Eo + mEg )
The second plot is then constructed as follows:
By plotting F/Eo versus Eg/Eo

then data should plot as a
straight line.
The intercept should be N and

the slope of the line should be
(mN).
Hence, it should be possible to

independently find both m and
N.
Slope - mN
Eo
N
Eg
Eo
NOTE -
Both plots should be constructed and results compared.
Notice the major use is to verify estimated quantities and discover

reservoir drive mechanism. These become known inputs into numerical
simulator.
Section 2
29
Rev. 1.0
A typical plot showing the production features of a gascap drive reservoir with
little or no natural water influx is given below:
pi
Reservoir Pressure
R the instantaneous
GOR
R = RSi
% Watercut
The pressure decline is less steep

than for a solution gas drive case.
Watercut is low and steady

assuming little water influx.
The shape of the gas oil ratio R

curve reflects updip producers
being closed-on gas breakthough.
Recoveries will be higher than

solution gas drive reservoirs
without gascap
- Generally around 30- 40%
STOIIP depending on
reservoir geology.
Time
The recovery depends on many factors such as: gascap size; permeability
distribution; potential for gravity segregation of gas.
GOR development for gascap reservoir is less pronounced than for volumetric
solution gas drive reservoir. Pressure maintenance is better and higher pressures
tend to keep more gas in solution.
Working over high GOR wells which breakthrough to gas up-dip is generally
more successful for gascap drive than solution gas drive. Recompleting up-dip
wells and concentrating oil production from down-dip wells can facilitate high
oil production rates at moderate GOR.
NOTE -
For gascap reservoirs with strong water drive Havlena & Odeh can be
used if some of the potential unknowns ( N , m,We ) can be fixed.
Section 2
30
Rev. 1.0
APPENDIX 2
Water Influx Calculations
Section 2
31
Rev. 1.0
APPENDIX 2
(I)
-
Steady-State Water Influx Calculations

The very simplest possible type of aquifer response occurs when the aquifer is
approximately the same size as the reservoir itself. It is can then be assumed that
any p in the reservoir will be instantaneously transmitted throughout the
aquifer; unsteady-state behaviour of the aquifer can be ignored, leading to
We = c Wp
where,
c = Total Compressibility of aquifer, cW + c f (psi-1).
W = Total volume of water in aquifer (rb).
p = Total pressure drop in reservoir since start of production (psi).
Taking a radial geometry the total volume of water in the aquifer is then
W =
f (re2 ro2 )h
5.615
ro
-
f =
re
Section 2
The encroachment factor is that

fraction of a circle that the aquifer is
encroaching into the gas reservoir
along.
360
32
Rev. 1.0
Solving for We leads to the aquifer model below
We = 0.560 c f re2 ro2 hp
Adjusting the parameters of this model to get a satisfactory match with

production-pressure data is a process called aquifer fitting.
(II) Unsteady-State Water Influx Calculations

-
The above is the very simplest type of aquifer where the pressure is transmitted
everywhere throughout the aquifer instantaneously. It is rarely applicable except
where the aquifer is small approximately the same size as the reservoir.
More realistically the aquifer is much larger than the reservoir so that pressure
response is unsteady-state.
As the reservoir pressure depletes the pressure wave gradually travels through
the aquifer, so that is never experiences as low a pressure as the reservoir itself.
The most realistic method of calculating water influx from a large active aquifer
is that of Hurst and van Everdingen. However, the method is time-consuming to
apply and simpler techniques have evolved which produce similar answers.
One popular method was developed by Carter & Tracy. This method, which is
very easy to use, is described here. In Module-2, the Hurst and van Everdingen
approach is presented with worked examples.
Section 2
33
Rev. 1.0
The Carter & Tracy Method uses the Constant Terminal Rate (CTR) solution of
the diffusivity equation. The basic expression for We is given below
U p j (We ) j 1 Pj
(t D ) j (t D ) j 1 ..(I)
Pj (t D ) j 1 Pj
(We ) j = (We ) j 1 +
where,
(We ) j
= Cumulative water influx to the (t D ) j time period (rb).
(W e ) j 1
= Cumulative water influx to the (t D ) j 1 time period (rb).
U = Radial geometry aquifer constant (rb/psi).
p j = Total drop in pressure since start of production, pi p j , (psi).

Pj = CTR solution of diffusivity equation to (t D ) j time period (-).
Pj = Derivative of above function, dP / dt D , at (t D ) j (-).
(tD ) j
= Dimensionless time at the jth time period (-).
(tD ) j 1 = Dimensionless time at the (jth-1) time period (-).
Now, the radial flow aquifer constant is given by the expression
U = 1.119 fhcro2 ....(II)

where,
f = Fractional encroachment angle, / 360 , (-).
= Aquifer porosity (-).

h = Aquifer thickness (ft).
c = Effective aquifer compressibility, c f + cW , (psi-1).
ro2 = Reservoir radius (ft).
NOTE -
Parameters in equation (II) must be determined in association with

geoligists amd petrophysicists.
Section 2
34
Rev. 1.0
Now, the expression for dimensionless time t D (-) can be evaluated at any time
period. For equation (I) it must be evaluated twice, first at the (jth-1) time
period, then at the subsequent jth time period. For any time period t D is
0.00634 k
t ..(III)
t D =
2
cro
where,
0.00634 = Dimensionless time constant where t is expressed in days.
2.309 = Dimensionless time constant where t is expressed in years.
k = Aquifer permeability (md).
= Aquifer porosity (-).
= Aquifer water viscosity (cP).

c = Effective aquifer compressibility, c f + cW , (psi-1).
ro2 = Reservoir radius (ft).

t = Time period, where t is expressed in (days or years) - depending on
constant used in equation (III).
The CRT solution of the diffusivity equation, evaluated at dimensionless time
(tD ) j
is Pj . These functions are often presented graphically of in tabular form.
However, the functions can be regressed and expressed as polynomials.
This gives more accurate values using a spreadsheet or a calculator than

interpolating graphs by eye or interpolating tabular values which may be nonlinear functions. The expression for Pj is given below
Pj = ao + a1 (t D ) j + a2 ln (t D ) j + a3 ln (t D ) j ..(IV)
The constants ao a1 a2 a3 are functions of dimensionless radius reD .
Section 2
35
Rev. 1.0
Pj is the derivative of above function, i.e. dP / dt D , at (t D ) j . Hence,

differentiating Pj with respect to t D results in
Pj = a1 +
2 a3 ln (t D ) j
a2
+
.(V)
(t D ) j
(t D ) j
The values of the coefficients ao a1 a2 a3 are functions of dimensionless

radius reD . These values were determined by Fanchi and are listed below
reD
ao
a1
a2
a3
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
0.10371
0.30210
0.51243
0.63656
0.65106
0.63367
0.40132
0.14386
0.82092
1.66657
0.68178
0.29317
0.16101
0.10414
0.06940
0.04104
0.02649
3.68 104
-0.04579
-0.01599
0.01534
0.15812
0.30953
0.41750
0.69592
0.89646
0.28908
-0.01023
-0.01356
-0.06732
-0.09104
-0.11258
-0.11137
-0.14350
-0.15502
0.02882
Solving equations (IV) and (V) at the required (t D ) j , where (t D ) j is obtained

from equation (III), then finding a value for the aquifer constant U from
equation (II), the results are substituted into equation (I) to find (We ) j .
This is the cumulative water influx (rb) into the reservoir system up to the jth
time increment, assuming that the cumulative water influx up to the (jth-1) time
interval, (We ) j 1 , has been found for the previous calculation cycle.
Section 2
36
Rev. 1.0

Section 2

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CHAPTER 2

Volume Correction Factors

Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place (STOIIP)

Material Balance Equation

Material Balance Equation

Drive Mechanism Identification

Volumetric Depletion Drive

Natural Water Drive

Appendix 2 Water Influx Models

MATERIAL BALANCE & OIL

If variables cannot be directly observed, they cannot be measured.

By assuming values for these unknown variables a solution can be

A principle objective, therefore, must be to limit the number of

VOLUME CORRECTION FACTORS

Hence no detailed geological model of the reservoir is needed. All that is

For oil reservoirs a number of volume factors must be defined to switch

The gas expansion factor E (SCF/CF) is the volume occupied by one

The Standard in SCF means the volume is measured at Standard

Gas Formation Volume Factor - Bg

Bg = Gas Formation Volume Factor (rb/SCF).

Copyright: Thru-u.com Ltd. 2000.

The Gas Formation Volume

Take 1 SCF of surface gas.

What volume does it occupy,

Bg is the latter quantity

E is typically around 170

Solution Gas Oil Ratio RS

Bg (rb/SCF) and E (SCF/CF) can be determined analytically using

RS (SCF/STB) cannot be calculated can only measured in p-v-T

Oil Formation Volume factor - Bo

For medium volatility oil Bo 1.25 rb/STB, RS 300 - 600 SCF/STB.

2.3 GAS SOLUBILITY

Gas solubility in oil is a complex function of temperature, pressure and

As the pressure increases, keeping temperature constant.

As the temperature decreases, keeping the pressure constant.

As far as gas solubility is concerned, the oil can be described as being

Undersaturated oil is one that is capable of dissolving more gas at

The way to determine whether or not an oil is saturated or undersaturated at

No gas will be released from solution if oil is undersaturated at these

Gas will be released from solution if the oil is saturated at these

If the pressure of undersaturated oil sample is gradually dropped eventually it

If oil is undersaturated then p > pbp , i.e. oil is above bubble-point.

This implies no free gas in contact with the crude oil.

Which, in turn, implies that no gascap has accumulated updip.

Above the bubblepoint the value of

Above the bubblepoint oil is

Below the bubblepoint gas is

Above the bubblepoint the oil

Below the bubblepoint gas is

When p > pbp then

When p < pbp then free

Since free gas mobility

As gas becomes depleted

Reservoir pressure (psia)

Critical gas saturation can occur somewhere around 10% PV.

Solution gas usually does not form a secondary gascap. It cannot

2.4 STOCK TANK OIL INITIALLY IN PLACE

Vb = Net bulk volume of the reservoir (rb).

= Porosity - fraction of bulk volume which is pore space (-).

2.5 MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

Consider initial condition with

At this stage no fluids have been

At later stage, reservoir pressure

Cumulative production must