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2015
CHEMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 125
Analytical Methods for Chemical & Environmental Engineers Laboratory
Laboratory Manual
Laboratory Manual
UC Riverside, 2014
Bourns College of Engineering
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
Riverside, CA 92521
Table of Contents
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
and Scheduling
18
Laboratory Preparation
Personnel
by acid-base titration
21
Laboratory Conduct
concentrations
22
General Rules
Experiment #4 - AAS
23
Experiment #5 - HPLC
24
Experiment #6 - GC
26
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
General Considerations
11
Sources of Errors
12
grading policy
Uncertainty Analysis
13
14
Population Statistics
14
Graphical Analysis
15
27
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Chapter
INTRODUCTION
What is the purpose of Analytical Methods for Chemical and
Environmental Engineers Laboratory
To avoid crowded lab conditions and give each student as much hands-one experience
as possible, each lab section is limited to 20 students. Students will work in groups of
two/four. Groups will stay together throughout the quarter. It is important that the
members of the group work together to complete the laboratory exercises and submit
written reports in a time efficient manner. It is strongly recommended that each group
review the informational handouts together prior to doing the lab work, and determine
work tasks before conducting the lab. During each session each student should record
the experimental data in her/his laboratory notebook.
All lab reports are submitted as group lab reports. Write-ups are due at 5 pm one
week after the lab is conducted and are to be given to the laboratory instructor
(TA). Requirements for the lab write-ups will be discussed later in this chapter.
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Topic
Topic
As noted previously, there will be two/four students per lab group. Unless a student
withdraws from the class, the composition of each lab group will remain fixed for the
entire quarter. During the first week of the quarter, groups will be determined and
assigned a number.
If difficulties arise within a group, please communicate them to the faculty member in
charge. REMEMBER, HOWEVER, AN IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC
THAT EMPLOYERS ASK ABOUT IS HOW WELL A PROSPECTIVE
EMPLOYEE CAN WORK AS A TEAM. In a company you will not be able to pick
the people you work with. You must be able to overcome personal idiosyncrasies to
get the job done - period.
The general laboratory schedule will be:
Week
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Date
Task
January 6, 7, 8
January 13, 14, 15
January 20, 21, 22
January 27, 28, 29
February 3, 4, 5
February 10, 11, 12
February 17, 18, 19
February 24, 25, 26
March 3, 4, 5
I N T R O D U C T I O N
The schedule for measurement technique experiments for all groups is as follows:
Lab
No.
1&
2
Topic
All Groups
Laboratory
measurement
techniques
1/13 to
1/22
1/13 to
1/22
1/13 to
1/22
1/13 to
1/22
Instructions on
use of instruments
1/27,
1/28 &
1/29
1/27,
1/28
&1/29
1/27,
1/28 &
1/29
1/27,
1/28 &
1/29
Instrument
UV-Vis
AAS
HPLC
GC
Group
A&E
2/3,
2/4 &
2/5
2/24,
2/25 &
2/26
2/17,
2/18 &
2/19
2/10,
2/11 &
2/12
Group
B&F
2/10,
2/11 &
2/12
2/3, 2/4
& 2/5
2/24,
2/25 &
2/26
2/17,
2/18 &
2/19
Group
C&G
2/17,
2/18 &
2/19
2/10,
2/11 &
2/12
2/3, 2/4
& 2/5
2/24,
2/25 &
2/26
Group
D&H
2/24,
2/25 &
2/26
2/17,
2/18 &
2/19
2/10,
2/11 &
2/12
2/3, 2/4
& 2/5
When you find out what your lab group number is - write it down here.
MY LAB GROUP NUMBER IS ________.
MY INSTRUMENT ANALYSIS GROUP LETTER IS ________.
Laboratory Preparation
Laboratory notebook. Notes and data should be recorded with an ink pen in a
permanently bound laboratory notebook. The most useful notebook is one that
has pages that makes graphing easy. Students should purchase one before the
beginning of the first exercise and use the same notebook for each experiment.
Record pre-experiment notes, changes from standard procedures made during
I N T R O D U C T I O N
the course of the experiment, data, preliminary data reduction (for example,
checks of a calibration curve to make sure an instrument is operating correctly),
and any other observations that you may feel are interesting and noteworthy.
Personnel
Class Instructor:
The professor for the class is Dr. Ashok Mulchandani, his office
is in B317, his phone is (951) 827-6419, and his email address is adani@engr.ucr.edu.
Laboratory Manager
The TAs for Winter 2015 are Tingjun Wu (email address: twu020@ucr.edu), Justin
Neal (email address: jneal002@ucr.edu) and Trupti Terse (email address:
trupti.terse@email.ucr.edu).
TA Office hours: TBA
L A B O R A T O R Y
S A F E T Y
A N D
P R O T O C O L
Chapter
LABORATORY CONDUCT
Proper conduct of everyone in the laboratories is important not only for the efficient
and congenial operation of the labs, but also for the safety of all involved. This
conduct applies to ALL STUDENTS - undergraduate, graduate, and postdoctoral.
ALL STUDENTS ALSO NEEDED TO COMPLETE AN ONLINE
L A B O R A T O R Y
S A F E T Y
A N D
P R O T O C O L
http://ehs.ucr.edu/training/online/lso/indexlms.html
General Rules
Please read these
rules thoroughly.
They are very
important in
ensuring that
students have a
safe lab
experience.
Clothing and shoes: Closed toe shoes and pants that cover the ankles are mandatory.
Open toe sandals are not adequate protection from chemical spills. Spills and
accidents can (and do) happen. Students should not wear clothes that they are worried
about damaging and must purchase a lab coat from the bookstore for participation in
class labs. Clothing is readily damaged as a result of chemical spillage and splashing,
particularly from strong acids, bases, and redox chemicals. As an added precaution
students should wear a chemical resistant apron when handling strong
acid/base/solvent chemicals.
Safety Goggles: CHEMICAL SAFETY GLASSES OR GOGGLES MUST BE
WORN AT ALL TIMES IN THE LABORATORY. If you wear eyeglasses, they
should have splash shields to protect against chemical splashing. Regular eyeglasses, by
themselves, are not adequate protection against chemical splashing. Also, certain
chemicals may ruin plastic lenses. It is recommended that students purchase a pair of
chemical safety glasses/goggles from the bookstore and reserve them for their personal
use when working in the laboratories.
Eyewash stations and showers: There is an eyewash and safety shower located in
the teaching and research laboratories. In addition, drench showers are located in
several of the research labs. Familiarize yourself with the location and use of these
safety items.
Eating and Smoking: Eating, drinking or smoking is not permitted in any of the
laboratories.
Animals and Pets: Animals and pets are not permitted in any of the laboratories.
Refrigerator and Ovens: Refrigerators, incubators, and ovens located in the
laboratories are not to be used for storing or preparing food.
Flames: Open flames should be placed in a fume hood if possible and always on a
non-flammable surface away from combustible material. Never leave open flames
unattended in the lab.
Chemical Spills: Small spills should first be neutralized: sodium borate for base spills
and sodium bicarbonate for acid spills. After neutralizing mop or sponge up spills
immediately. Large spills should first be contained with an absorbent material such as
L A B O R A T O R Y
S A F E T Y
A N D
P R O T O C O L
vermiculite and then neutralized. Additional absorbent may then be added to take up
the neutralized liquid and picked up. A faculty member or the Laboratory Manager,
and Environmental Health and Safety (25528) should be notified when a large spill
occurs.
Volatile Organics: A fume hood should be used when using or dispensing a volatile
organic reagent. If the reagent is to be regularly used or dispensed for a project, as
additional protection, an appropriate respirator should be purchased, fitted, used, and
regularly maintained. Respirators should not be shared; they are to be purchased,
fitted, used, and maintained by one person. Environmental Health and Safety will fit
and test respirators free of charge.
Pipetting: NEVER pipet any solutions by mouth. Pipet with a pipet bulb or a
pipettor. After using any pipet, please place it in a pipet storer for subsequent washing
in a pipet washer.
Gas cylinders: Pressurized gas cylinders should be strapped or chained to a bench
top or wall. Before moving cylinders always remove regulators and screw on the cap.
DO NOT attempt to change regulators without prior training. Depending on the gas
type, regulator threading and connections vary to prevent mixing of incompatible
materials. Empty gas cylinders should be returned to the supplier as soon as possible.
Chemical waste disposal: Chemical wastes, spent and old reagents, and effluents
from bench-scale reactor systems SHOULD NOT BE DISPOSED INTO THE
FLOOR DRAINS OR SINKS! Before beginning your laboratory experiment, check
with a faculty member of the Laboratory Manager regarding proper disposal of
expected wastes. Environmental Health and Safety will collect and dispose of
hazardous wastes upon request.
Daily departure: Check your work area when you leave for the day to be sure
everything is clean and neat. If you are the last person in the room, check all sinks in
the room to make sure the tap water is turned off. Make a cursory glance around the
remainder of the laboratory to see if there are any major problems. If you are the last
one to leave for the day, please check each lab to see that all tap water is off, that there
are no major problems, and that all doors are locked. As you leave the laboratory
TURN OFF THE LIGHTS AND LOCK THE DOORS.
L A B O R A T O R Y
S A F E T Y
A N D
P R O T O C O L
Read the instruction manual or obtain training by qualified personnel on the use, care,
and maintenance of the instrument. Please contact the Laboratory Manager
regarding instruction manuals or training.
Failure to use and maintain instruments properly will lead to poor laboratory results
and jeopardize the progress of important research projects. Students who use and
maintain of laboratory instruments and equipment improperly may be subject to
disciplinary action.
From time to time, students may experience problems when using some of the
analytical instruments. When problems occur, they should be discussed with the
Laboratory Manager. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO "FIX" THE INSTRUMENTS
WITHOUT CONSULTING WITH A FACULTY MEMBER OR THE
LABORATORY MANAGER.
Balances: Balances and their surrounding areas should be cleaned using a brush after
each use. Residual traces of reagents, liquids, etc. should not be evident. The
experiment of the next person using the balance may be ruined by your laziness and
lack of consideration.
pH Meters: pH meters are available in various laboratory rooms. They are not to be
moved from the room without permission from the Laboratory Manager or faculty
member. The pH probes should not be used in harsh solutions or solutions that may
foul the probe. After use, the probes should be rinsed and placed in a neutral buffer
solution for storage; pH meters should be placed in a stand-by mode.
Ovens and Furnaces: Convection ovens are primarily for reagent desiccating and
solids/moisture analyses, and are typically set at around 100 to 110oC. Muffle furnaces
are primarily used for volatile solids analyses and are set at around 550oC. Do not
adjust the temperatures of ovens or furnaces without consulting with the other users.
Autoclaves: In addition to small autoclaves located in several of the research
laboratories, a large autoclave for sterilizing glassware and culture media is located in
B358 Bourns Hall. Students needing to use this autoclave should consult with the
Laboratory Manager before use.
Fume hoods: The Chemical and Environmental Engineering Laboratories contain
two types of fume hoods: canopy (elephant trunk) and sash. Sash-type fume hoods
are to be used for making up strong acid/base reagents, dispensing volatile chemicals,
and performing digestions and extractions. When using sash-type fume hoods, the
glass screen should be lowered at all times, except when placing equipment and or
chemicals inside. Always prepare reagents with the glass screen lowered, wearing
L A B O R A T O R Y
S A F E T Y
A N D
P R O T O C O L
Dry chemicals are separated generally into two categories: organic chemicals and
inorganic chemicals. Strong liquid acids and bases are stored separately in cabinets
under fume hoods. Volatile liquids are stored in cabinets which have exhaust vent
built in to carry away any off-gases.
Labeling: When new reagents are received, either for general lab use or for a specific
project, mark each bottle or jar of chemical with the month and year received, and your
initials (e.g. Rec'd 10/96 MRM). Also mark the bottle or jar when the chemical is first
opened (e.g. Open 12/96 MRM). Use labeling tape (not masking tape) or adhesive
label. Grease pencil, or other non-permanent marker, is not acceptable; labeling
information is easily erased.
L A B O R A T O R Y
S A F E T Y
A N D
P R O T O C O L
10
D A T A
A N A L Y S I S
B A S I C S
Chapter
General Considerations
A good outline that can be used for experimental data analysis has been developed by
Holman1 (1994).
1. Examine data for consistency. Are the measurements reasonable? This basic question
is the common sense approach to experiments. A simple example is when you fill
up your car with gasoline, you expect your gas gage to read Full right after. If it
doesnt, you suspect something is wrong like the gage is broken, your gasoline tank
leaked, or the pump wasnt working correctly.
This same logic applies to engineering experiments. When you bubble pure
oxygen gas through water that is not saturated with oxygen, you would expect that
dissolved oxygen concentration to increase, not decrease or stay the same. Why do
you know this? Based on mass transfer considerations (of course!).
Holman, J.P. Experimental Methods for Engineers, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, Inc., San Francisco, 1994.
11
D A T A
A N A L Y S I S
B A S I C S
Sources of Errors
Errors occur in all experiments. Some of the errors can be avoided while others
cannot. Most of the errors that can be avoided are due to uncontrollable variables,
and/or lack of experience or carelessness on the part of the experimenter. These types
of errors can be avoided by carefully reviewing each step and condition (variable) in an
experiment and assessing whether they can significantly affect the outcome of the
experiment. If so, then the experimenter should alter the experiment, or pay particular
attention to certain aspects of the experiment, to ensure that a gross error does not
occur. As the saying goes, An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. This
12
D A T A
A N A L Y S I S
B A S I C S
means that time spent preparing an experiment is well worth the effort. A great deal of
time and money can be wasted as the result of poor planning.
Beyond these controllable errors, there are errors of uncertainty. These are errors
that are beyond the control of the experimenter. There are two principal uncertainty
errors, fixed and random. Fixed, systematic, or bias errors are errors that are generated
repeatedly by the same amount for an unknown reason. For example, a ruler used to
measure length indicates a length of 1 m. However, the ruler actually measures 0.99 m
when compared to the actual standardized 1 m length. Thus, the ruler always measures
1 cm short per m measurement. These types of errors are often unknown. Calibration
of an instrument to an absolute standard, such as National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
standards, is the best way to detect and/or avoid systematic errors.
The second type of uncertainty errors is random errors. These errors are caused by a
variety of reasons that cannot be avoided such as experimentalist bias, fluctuations in
instrument readings, minor temporal variations in variables, etc. Every measurement
has a random uncertainty associated with it. This uncertainty is often related to the
accuracy of the instrument. For example, a pH probe may have an accuracy of 0.01
pH units within the pH range between 2 and 12. This means that, properly calibrated,
that this particular pH probe is accurate to within 0.01 pH unit between pH 2 and pH
12. Outside of those pH ranges, the pH probes accuracy may or may not fall within
that specification.
2
R 2 R 2
R 2
ET
e1
e2
en
x1 x 2
x n
13
D A T A
A N A L Y S I S
B A S I C S
Based on these
V LWH
V
WH 6020 1,200cm 2
L
V
LH 4520 900cm 2
W
V
LW 6045 2,700cm 2
H
1
2
2
2 2
620 cm 3
1 n
xi
n i 1
Median - middle data point of a sequentially ordered data set. The datum for which half
of the data points in the set are higher and half are lower in value is the median.
14
D A T A
A N A L Y S I S
B A S I C S
Standard deviation - descriptor of the spread of the data compared to the mean =
n
2
xi x
i 1
n 1
12
Confidence interval - the probability that the actual mean value lies within a certain
number of values around an experimental mean. As an example, if a measured flow
reading has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 5, the 95% confidence interval
would be 100 1.96(5) = 100 9.8. In other words, there is a 95% probability that
the actual mean value is between 90.2 and 109.8.
Chauvenets criterion - sometimes one or two data points seem to be very different
compared to all of the other data points in a population. While it is logical to throw
out these types of data points, it is possible to apply a statistical test, Chauvenets
criterion, to determine whether data may be discarded. To apply this criterion, the
deviation of each data point from the mean must be calculated and divided by the
standard deviation: xi x / . The calculated value is compared to Chauvenets
criterion, which is a function of the number of readings in the population.
Number of
total readings
Max.
deviation,
10
15
25
50
100
1.38
1.54
1.65
1.73
1.80
1.96
2.13
2.33
2.57
2.81
xi x max /
Graphical Analysis
Experimental scientists and engineers are well known for the use of graphs to highlight
certain data trends and insights. However, random graphing of data usually generates
an excess of charts that are useless. Considerable thought must be given to the
physical phenomena involved in each experiment before preparing a plot. The person
who understands the physical processes (the theory) is usually the person who can
most successfully present experimental data graphically.
The most common graphical technique is the correlative graph in which the
relationship between two variables is plotted in a linear manner. To do this, the
experimenter must know what type of function will best describe the data. This
knowledge is based on theoretical understanding of physical phenomena.
A summary of plotting methods for various functions to obtain straight lines.
15
D A T A
A N A L Y S I S
Function
y ax b
y axb
y aebx
x
a bx
x
c
a bx
y aebx cs
Plotting Method
y vs. x on linear paper
log y vs. log x on log-log paper
log y vs. x on semilog paper
on linear paper
Slope
a
b
b log e
a
Y-intercept
b
log a
log a
b
y y1
x x1
b + cx1
x x1
y y1
b2
x1
a
a + bx1
1
y
y a bx cx2
B A S I C S
1
x
vs.
1 x x1
y
log
y1
c log e
vs. x on semilog
b + cx1 log e
paper
y 1 ebx
b
ya
x
yab x
log
1 y
vs. x on semilog
paper
y vs. 1/x on linear paper
y vs
on linear paper
The best method to determine the slope and y-intercepts for these various plots is the
use of the least squares method of linear regression, which is found in many standard
plotting software packages such as Excel.
16
L A B O R A T O R Y
E X E R C I S E S
Chapter
LABORATORY EXERCISES
This chapter contains summaries of the laboratory exercises that CHE and
ENVE 125 students will be conducting during this course.
As noted previously, there are a total of 10 different laboratory exercises for
CHE/ENVE 125. The four labs on basic laboratory measurement techniques and six
labs on instrumental analysis will be conducted over ten weeks.
The three laboratory measurement technique laboratories are:
Lab No.
1
2
Topic
Accurate volume measurement by using burets and pipet
Identification of a substance by acid-base titration
Topic
UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Determination of the cobalt and
nickel concentration
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
Gas Chromatography (GC)
To reiterate there will be two students per lab group for laboratory measurement
technique experiments and four students per lab group for instrumental analysis
experiments.
Students are strongly encouraged to review the relevant sections in their texts prior to
conducting each laboratory exercise
17
E X P E R I M E N T S
Exercise # 1:
This lab period is designed to ensure precise and accurate use of basic laboratory
measurement techniques. These techniques will be needed throughout the rest of
the laboratory course and must be mastered to ensure the success of future
experiments.
1. Burets: Burets measure the volume of fluid delivered. The delivered
volume is calculated as the difference of the initial and final buret readings.
(It is noted that always starting from 0.00 on the buret may lead to a bias
error if the first graduation mark is miscalibrated.) Sources of error
include:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
18
E X P E R I M E N T S
M1 2
M 2 2
M 3 2
) (
) (
) 1
W1
W2
W3
iii. RSD (
19
E X P E R I M E N T S
obtained a RSD below 0.0015, have your T.A. sign off on your
pipet abilities.
3. Put your above skills to use:
a. Prepare a 0.25 M aqueous solution of nickel(II) nitrate
hexahydrate, Ni(NO3) 6H2O. (MW = 290.81 g mol-1) using an
analytical balance, 50 mL volumetric flask (contains 50.0 mL at
calibration mark), and distilled water. Calculate the solution
concentration made to the appropriate number of significant
figures. (Note: you are aiming for approximately 0.25 M solution,
you tell me the exact concentration you made.)
b. Pipet 5 mL of your Ni2+ solution into a 50 mL volumetric flask
and dilute to 50 mL. (calibration mark is 50.00 mL; a 10 mL pipet
delivers 10.00 mL fluid)
c. Transfer the Ni2+ solution to a disposable cuvette. Measure the
visible light absorbance of the solution at 658 nm. Use distilled
water as a blank. Your T.A. will help you with this measurement.
4. Report: Your report need only consist of your T.A. signatures that you
completed the buret and pipet training, the concentration of your Ni2+
solution (with appropriate number of significant figures), and the
absorbance of your solution and blank.
20
E X P E R I M E N T S
mass of KHP you will dissolve with 50 mL of water so that you will require
35-40 mL of 0.25 M NaOH to neutralize. Also be sure you know how to
calculate the amount of 6 M NaOH to dilute to obtain 500 mL of 0.25 M
NaOH.
1. Make 500 mL of approximately 0.25 M NaOH solution.
2. Accurately weigh out (record actual mass) your calculated amount of KHP and
dissolve into approximately 50 of de-ionized water. Use some of your dilution
water to help transfer any residual KHP in the weighing tray to solution. Also, be
sure to note the stated purity of the KHP for your later calculations. Add 1-2
drops of phenolphthalein to the KHP solution. Use your buret to accurately
deliver the NaOH until you have the faintest pink possibly perceptible. Be sure to
record the initial and final volume.
3. Repeat step 2 for a minimum of three total trials. (The greater the number of
trials, the more confident you can be about your measured concentration.)
4. Obtain from the TA your unknown KHP solution. Use a small portion of the
unknown for a sacrificial titration so you can estimate the volume of the
unknown necessary so that you use approximately 35-40 mL of NaOH when
titrating. Perform a minumum of three titrations to determine the molarity of the
unknown.
5. Report: The molarity of KHP determined for each trial, the average, and the
standard deviation.
21
E X P E R I M E N T S
Exercise # 3:
22
E X P E R I M E N T S
23
E X P E R I M E N T S
SUMMARY OF METHOD
For this lab, you will use an Agilent high performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC)
equipped with a DAD detector to identify and quantify the concentration of
aspartame. You will use a calibration standard to identify the retention time of
aspartame and generate a calibration curve.
The HPLC sample injection, column, and operating conditions will be set up prior
to the lab. We will use a 10mM Potassium phosphate dibasic (pH 6.3, adjusted
with phosphoric acid) mobile phase buffered at a flow rate of 1.0ml/min. The
detector wavelength will be set to a single channel at 210 nm.
Procedure:
1. You will be provided with pure aspartame to generate your calibration
solutions and determine the retention time of aspartame. Using serial
dilutions, you will make 5 solutions in a range of concentrations for your
calibration curve. You should have an idea of what range to calibrate for.
You will use methanol as your solvent. Inject these into the HPLC.
24
E X P E R I M E N T S
25
E X P E R I M E N T S
compounds.
9. The TA will show you how to use the instrument, the separation column
used, and the temperature program that will separate these compounds.
10. Prepare calibration standards for the compounds identified. This is done
by serial dilution of the stock hydrocarbons. If you semi-quantitatively
performed step 2, you should have an idea what range to calibrate for. A
minimum of three points is necessary for a good GC calibration.
11. Report: identity of unknowns and their concentrations.
26
E X P E R I M E N T S
Chapter
All reports must be prepared using a word processing system such as Microsoft Word or
comparable. Figures should be prepared using Excel or similar. Tables should be
prepared using Microsoft word as well. HANDWRITTEN WORK SHOULD NOT
BE GRADED.
An individual grade for each member of the group will also be assigned based upon the
quality of their contribution to the report. This grade will also be out of 50 and the
average of the individual and group grade will represent the students overall grade for the
lab report [Average of the individual = 50% individual grade + 50% of the group
grade]. If more than one-person works on a section, both will receive the same individual
grade for that section. This total out of 50 should be determined from the sum of the
points earned by each member on their respective sections.
ALL writing should be in complete sentences with appropriate grammar and spelling.
27
E X P E R I M E N T S
Writing should be in the third person and the past verb tense should be used.
Writing should be specific and concise (not rambling, redundant and repetitive).
In total, the reports for experiments in which an experimental protocol was provided
should be no more than 10 pages of written text. Note these page limits are not a requirement.
In total, the written portion (Intro, Experimental, Results and Discussion, Conclusions,
and References) should not exceed these limits. The front matter (Title, Table of
Contents, List of Table and Figures) does not count toward this total, nor do Figures and
Appendices.
Pages should be numbered. Additional details: the cover should not have a page number;
the table of contents and list of tables and figures should be pages i and ii, respectively;
the first page of your report is 1 and all subsequent pages are number in the appropriate
progression.
1.
Are these items located at the front of the report (the first 3 pages; note, these do not
count against your page total).
2.
3.
All equations and topics that are not common knowledge should have references.
28
E X P E R I M E N T S
4.
5.
6.
It should not be a copy and paste of the laboratory manual. Without a reference,
this is plagiarism.
This section should give the results of the experiments in tabular and/or graphical
form. Each table and figure should be numbered (e.g., Figure 1 or Table 1) in the
appropriate order discussed in the text.
All tables and figures should be located at the end of the written portion of the
report (after references but prior to the appendix). Be sure they:
o Present clear and informative figures and tables. Make sure all variables are
defined. For figures, make sure all axes are labeled (with units), that they use
legends to distinguish between multiple sets of data, and avoid the use of colors
unless they print the document in color.
o Put the tables before the figures at the end of the report.
o Number each figure and table according to the order they are discussed in the
text.
o Provide each figure and table with a title and caption. Both the title and caption
should be in sentence form and be as descriptive (yet concise) as possible.
Captions should not be used to discuss or interpret the figure. Rather, it should
clearly describe what the figure/table presents, and in the case of figures with
data, list key conditions under which the data was collected.
o Be sure that all figures and tables are discussed in the text.
o Figures are visually appealing (no border, minimal gridlines, do not overlap
regression lines with lines connecting data points)
o Make sure appropriate significant figures are used in all calculations and in
reporting all values.
Conclusion (6 points):
-
This section should summarize all important results and interpretations in light of
goal and objectives for the experiment.
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E X P E R I M E N T S
7.
Wikipedia and similar web pages are NOT acceptable sources for scientific literature.
The appendices should include all additional information relevant to the experiment
but not necessarily integral to the experimental write-up. Specifically, raw data tables,
raw data collected from analytical instruments, example calculations, etc. should be
included here.
Each student in the group must attach Xerox copies of his/her laboratory notebook
pages that are relevant to the particular lab after the Appendix.
30