GREENSTONE-HOSTED QUARTZ-CARBONATE VEIN DEPOSITS (OROGENIC, MESOTHERMAL, LODE GOLD, SHEAR-ZONE-RELATED QUARTZCARBONATE OR GOLD-ONLY DEPOSITS)

BENOT DUB AND PATRICE GOSSELIN

Geological Survey of Canada, 880 Chemin Sainte-Foy, Quebec, G1S 2L2, Canada
E-mail:bdube@nrcan.gc.ca
Definition
Simplified definition
Quartz and carbonate veins with valuable amounts of
gold and silver, in faults and shear zones located within
deformed terrains of ancient to recent orogenic greenstone
belts.
Scientific definition
Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits
(GQC) are a sub-type of lode gold deposits (Poulsen et al.,
2000) (Fig. 1). They are also known as mesothermal, orogenic (mesozonal and hypozonal - the near surface orogenic
epizonal Au-Sb-Hg deposits (Groves et al., 1998) are not
included in this synthesis), lode gold, shear-zone-related
quartz-carbonate or gold-only deposits (Roberts, 1987;
Colvine, 1989; Kerrich and Wyman, 1990; Robert, 1990;
Kerrich and Feng, 1992; Hodgson, 1993, Kerrich and
Cassidy, 1994; Robert, 1995; Groves et al., 1998; Hagemann

and Cassidy, 2000; Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al.,

2001; Groves et al., 2003; Goldfarb et al., in press; and references therein).
They correspond to structurally controlled complex
epigenetic deposits hosted in deformed metamorphosed terranes. They consist of simple to complex networks of goldbearing, laminated quartz-carbonate fault-fill veins in moderately to steeply dipping, compressional brittle-ductile
shear zones and faults with locally associated shallow-dipping extensional veins and hydrothermal breccias. They are
hosted by greenschist to locally amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks of dominantly mafic composition and formed at
intermediate depth in the crust (5-10km). They are typically
associated with iron-carbonate alteration. The mineralization
is syn- to late-deformation and typically post-peak greenschist facies or syn-peak amphibolite facies metamorphism.
They are genetically associated with a low salinity, CO2H2O-rich hydrothermal fluid thought to also contain CH4,
N2, K and S. Gold is largely confined to the quartz-carbon-

EPITHERMAL CLAN
ADVANCED ARGILLIC

HOTSPRING

km
0

HIGH-SULPHIDATION

PALEOPLACER

Rhyolite dome

LOW SULFIDATION

HIGH-SULPHIDATION AURICH MASSIVE SULPHIDE

ARGILLIC

STOCKWORKDISSEMINATED
AU

(mainly after Hannington)

SERICITE

BRECCIA-PIPE AU
Carbonate
rocks

Permeable
Unit

GREENSTONE VEIN CLAN

CARLIN TYPE

PORPHYRY
AU

AU MANTO

Dyke

5
TURBIDITE-HOSTED
VEIN

AU SKARN
Stock

Wacke-shale

BIF-HOSTED VEIN

sea level

Vein

INTRUSION-RELATED CLAN
(mainly after Sillitoe)

Volcanic

10

Iron formation
Granitoid

Shear zone

INFERRED CRUSTAL LEVELS

OF GOLD DEPOSITION

Figure 1: Inferred crustal levels of gold deposition showing the different types of gold deposits and the inferred deposit clan (from Dub et al., 2001c; modified from Poulsen et al., 2000).

Benot Dub and Patrice Gosselin

New Brittannia
Discovery
Yellowknife
Kensington

Natalka

Lupin

Casa Berardi
Chibougamau
Val d'Or
Treadwell
Bralorne-Pioneer
Malartic
Timmins
Homestake San Antonio
Meguma
Ross
Alleghany District Grass Valley District
Kirkland Lake
Mother Lode System
Beardmore-Geraldton Larder
Lake
La Herradura
Renabie

Zun-Holba

Kochkar

Stepnyak
Darasun
Duolanasayi
Qiyiqiu No. 1
Paishanlou
Daugyztau
Akbakay
Baguamiao
Shanggong
Zarmitan
Wenyu

Svetlinskoe

Aksu

Amesmessa
El Callao
Gross Rosebel
Omai

Karalveem

Berezovkoe

Red Lake

Alaska-Juneau

Hutti
Kolar

Yatela
Morila

Woxi
Hetai
Erjia

Lega Dembi

Syama
Poura

Bibiani
Obuasi
Cam & Motor
Fazenda Brasileiro
Morro do Ouro
Globe and Phoenix
Morro Velho
Passagem de Mariana

Bulyanhulu Shamva

Navachab
Fairview
New Consort
Sheba

Tarmoola
Plutonic
Jundee
Wiluna
The GranitesBronzewing
Lancefield
Granny Smith
Meekatharra
Gympie
Day Dawn
Wallaby
Sunrise Dam - Cleo
Morning Star / Evening Star
Stawell
Sons of Gwalia
Bendigo
Golden Mile

Mazoe
Dalny
Golden Valley
Lonely
Blanket

Mount Charlotte

Royal

New Celebration
Norseman
Victory-Defiance

Legend
Cenozoic

Archean

Mesozoic
Paleozoic
Proterozoic

Phanerozoic
Precambrian
Proterozoic-Phanerozoic

Gold deposit types:

Qtz-cb shear zone-related
BIF-hosted
Turbidite-hosted

FIG. 2: World distribution of world class greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits.

ate vein network but may also be present in significant

amounts within iron-rich sulphidized wallrock selvages or
silicified and arsenopyrite-rich replacement zones. They are
distributed along major compressional to transtensional
crustal-scale fault zones in deformed greenstone terranes of
all ages, but are more abundant and significant, in terms of
total gold content, in Archean terranes. However a significant number of world-class deposits are also found in

Proterozoic and Paleozoic terranes. International examples

of this sub-type of gold-deposits include Mother Lode-Grass
Valley (U.S.A.), Mt. Charlotte, Norseman and Victory
(Australia) (Fig. 2). The best Canadian examples are SigmaLamaque (Quebec); Dome and Kerr Addison (Ontario);
Giant and Con (Northwest Territories); San Antonio
(Manitoba); and Hammer Down (Newfoundland).

Casa Berardi

Hollinger McIntyre
PDF
Pamour
Dome

Kirkland Kerr Horne

Lake Addison
LLCF
Doyon
Bousquet-LaRonde
Malartic
Sigma-Lamaque

100 km
Granitoid rock

Proterozoic cover

Mafic intrusion

Sedimentary rock

Volcanic rock

Major fault

World-class orogenic gold

Other gold deposits
deposits
LLCF Larder Lake - Cadillac
World-class gold-rich
Fault Zone
volcanogenic massive-sulfides
PDF Pocupine - Destor Fault Zone
Other gold-rich VMS

FIG. 3: Simplified geological map of the Abitibi greenstone belt showing the distribution of major
fault zones and of gold deposits. Modified from Poulsen et al. (2000).

Diagnostic features of greenstone-hosted

quartz-carbonate vein type of gold
deposit
The diagnostic features of the
greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein
type gold deposits are arrays and networks of fault- and shear-zone-related
quartz-carbonate laminated fault-fill and
extensional veins in associated carbonatized metamorphosed greenstone rocks.
The deposits are typically associated with
largescale (crustal) compressional faults
(Fig. 3). They have a very significant vertical extent (</= 2km), with a very limited
metallic zonation.
Associated mineral deposit types
Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein (GQC) deposits are thought
to represent a major component of the
greenstone deposit clan (Fig 1). They can

Greenstone Gold Synthesis

35
30
25
20
15
10

165

155

145

135

125

115

95

105

85

75

65

55

45

35

25

15

915

0-50

Summary of economic characteristics

The total world production and reserves of gold,
including the Witwatersrand placer depost, stands at 126,423
metric tonnes Au (Gosselin and Dub, 2005). Canadian production and reserves, at 9,276 metric tonnes Au, represent
7,3% of the world total. The world production and reserves
for the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposit subtype is 16 585 metric tonnes Au (Dub and Gosselin, 2004),
equivalent to 13,1% of the world total production. The
Canadian production and reserves is 6,173 metric tonnes,
which constitutes 37,5% of the world production and 66,6%
of the Canadian production and reserves. The Superior
province contains 87,8% (5,419 metric tonnes) of Canadian
gold production and reserves for greenstone-hosted quartzcarbonate vein deposits. The Abitibi subprovince is the main
source and represents 72,4% (4 470 metric tonnes) of the
total.
There are 104 known greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits world-wide containing at least 30
tonnes (~1 M oz) of Au (production and reserves), including
32 Canadian deposits. There are 33 deposits in Canda, and
several hundreds worldwide, with more than 7,5 tonnes
(250,000 oz) but less than 30 tonnes. A select group of 41
world-class deposits contains more than 100 tonnes of Au,
including 12 giant deposits with more than 250 tonnes. In
this group of world-class deposits, 7 are from the Canadian
Archean Superior Province, 6 from the Abitibi greenstone
belt and one from the Uchi sub-province (Campbell-Red
Lake). The Superior Province is the largest and best preserved Archean craton in terms of gold endowment, followed by the Yilgarn craton of Australia.
The temporal and geographical distribution of the
greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits is shown
in Figure 2. Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein
deposits are found in greenstone terranes of all ages.
Although they are present in the Paleozoic, the greenstonehosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are largely concentrated in Precambrian terranes, and especially in terranes of
Archean age. In Canada, all the world-class deposits but one
are of Archean age. Their concentration in the Archean is
thought to be related to the continental growth and the related higher number of large scale collisions between conti-

Grade and tonnage characteristics

The greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits
are one of the most significant sources of gold and account
for 13.1% of all the world gold content (production and
reserves). They are second only to the Witwatersrand paleoplacers of South Africa. The largest GQC deposit in terms of
total gold content is the Golden Mile complex in Kalgoorlie,
Australia with 1821 tonnes Au. The Hollinger-McIntyre
deposit in Timmins, Ontario, is the second largest deposit
ever found with 987 tonnes of gold. The average grade of the
deposits varies from 5 to 15 g/t Au, whereas the tonnage is
highly variable from a few thousand tonnes to 10 million
tonnes of ore, although more typically there are only a few
million tonnes of ore (Fig. 4).

Number of deposits

Economic Characteristics Of Deposit Type

nents, and to the associated development of major faults and

large scale hydrothermal fluid flow during the super continent cycle and mantle plume (cf. Barley and Groves, 1992;
Condie, 1998; Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001).

Ore tonnage (Mt)

45
40
Number of deposits

coexist regionally with iron-formation-hosted vein and disseminated deposits as well as with turbidite-hosted quartzcarbonate vein deposits.
However, in metamorphosed terranes, different styles
of gold deposits formed at different crustal levels, such as
Au-rich VMS or intrusion-related gold deposits, may have
been juxtaposed against greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate
vein type deposits during the different increments of strain
and metamorphism that characterized Archean greenstone
belts (Poulsen et al., 2000). Although they were formed at
different times, they are now co-existing along major faults.
Good examples are the Bousquet 2 - LaRonde 1 and
LaRonde Penna Au-rich VMS deposits distributed along the
Cadillac-Larder Lake fault near the former GQC mine (Fig.
3) east of Noranda.

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

0 -15

2
10

3
15

4
20

5
25

6
30

7
35

8
40

Ore grade (g/t)

FIG. 4: Tonnage and grade repartition for gold deposits of 30t Au or more.

Comparison of grade and tonnage characteristics with the

global range
In Canada, this type of gold deposits is widely distributed from the Paleozoic greenstone terrane of the
Appalachian orogen on the east coast with the Hammer
Down and Deer Cove deposits in Newfoundland (Dub et
al., 1993; Gaboury et al.,1996), to the Archean greenstone
belts of the Superior (Dome and Sigma mines) and Slave
provinces (Con and Giant mines) in central Canada to the
oceanic terranes of the Cordillera (Bralorne-Pioneer).
The average gold grade of world-class Canadian
deposits (over 30t Au) stands at 10,06 g/t, which is a little
3

Benot Dub and Patrice Gosselin

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits

100

Grass Valley Campbell-Red Lake

Kirkland Lake
Kolar
Bulyanhulu
Hollinger-McIntyre
Kerr Addison
Sigma-Lamaque
Dome
Kochkar
Berezovskoe

10

Grade (g/t)

10

0t

00

Golden Mile
Alaska-Juneau

Au

10

100

u
tA

00

10

Au

0t

u
tA

Au

0
0,1

10

10

1t

0,1
0

1000

10000

Tonnage (Mt)
World 30t (70)

to the nature of the host structure (extensional vs compressional). Extensional veins typically display quartz and carbonate fibres at high angle to the vein walls with multiple
stages of mineral growth, whereas the laminated veins are
rather composed of massive fine grained quartz (Fig. 7E).
When present the fibres are sub-parallel to the vein walls
(Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen, 2001). In Red
Lake, the high-grade mineralization is typically related to
silicification and associated arsenopyrite, of barren to low
grade quartz-carbonate cavity fill vein (Dub et al., 2001b,
2002) (Fig. 8).

Canada (128)

FIG. 5: Tonnage vs grade chart of Canadian and world-class-size (>/=100 t

Au) world deposits.

higher than the average for this type of deposit around the
world (7,63 g/t) (Fig. 5). In Canada, the Discovery and
Campbell-Red Lake deposits have the highest average
grades at 34 g/t and 23 g/t Au, respectively. The Goldcorp
High-grade Zone is part of the Campbell-Red lake deposit
and has an average production grade of 88 g/t Au since the
beginning of its extraction (Dub et al., 2002). World-class
deposits in Canada have on average lower tonnage (20,91 Mt
of ore) then those the worldwide (39,91 Mt). Mining in
Canada has traditionally taken place underground, whereas
in other countries open pits are used more frequently.

Dimensions
Individual veins vary from a few cm to 5m thick and
10 to 1000m long. Vertical extent of the orebody is commonly larger than 1 km and reach 2 km in a few cases (ex:
Campbell-Red Lake and Kirkland Lake deposits, Canada).
Morphology
The gold-bearing shear zones and faults are mainly
compressionnal and they commonly display a complex
geometry with anastomosing and/or conjugate arrays
(Daigneault and Archambault, 1990; Hodgson, 1993; Robert
et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen, 2001). The individual faultfill veins are 10 to a few hundreds of meters long, although

Exploration Properties Of Deposit Type

Physical Properties

Dub and Gosselin, 2005

Mineralogy
The main gangue minerals are quartz and carbonate
(calcite, dolomite, ankerite and siderite) with variable
amounts of white micas, chlorite, scheelite and tourmaline.
The sulphide minerals typically constitute less than 10% of
the ore. The main ore minerals are native gold with pyrite
pyrrhotite chalcopyrite without any significant vertical mineral zoning. Arsenopyrite commonly represents the main sulphide in terranes at amphibolite facies of metamorphism (ex:
Con, Giant and Campbell-Red Lake deposits). Trace
amounts of molybdenite and tellurides are also present in
some deposits such as those hosted by syenite in Kirkland
Lake (Thompson et al., 1950) (Fig. 6).
Textures
Moderately to steeply dipping shear-zone-hosted laminated fault-fill quartz-carbonate veins in brittle-ductile
shear zones, with or without fringing shallow-dipping extensional veins and breccias, characterize this type of gold
deposit (Fig. 7). Textures of the quartz veins vary according
4

Dub and Gosselin, 2005

FIG. 6: A. Quartz-breccia vein, Main Break, Kirkland Lake; B. High-grade
quartz veinlets, hosted by syenite, with visible gold, disseminated pyrite
and traces of tellurides, Main Break, Kirkland Lake.

Greenstone Gold Synthesis

FIG. 7: A. Laminated fault fill veins, Pamour mine, Timmins ; B. Closed up

laminated fault fill veins showing iron-carbonatized wall rock clasts.; C.
Boudinaged fault-fill vein, section view, Dome mine; D. Arrays of extensional quartz vein , Pamour mine; E. Extensional quartz-tourmaline "flat
vein" showing multiple stages of mineral growth perpendicular to vein
walls, Sigma mine (from Poulsen et al., 2000); F. Tourmaline-quartz vein,
Clearwater deposit, James Bay area.

San Antonio Mine, Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen,

2001). Due to the complexity of the geological and structural setting and the influence of strength anisotropy and competency contrasts, the geometry of the vein network varies
from simple such as the Silidor deposit, Canada, to more
commonly fairly complex with multiple orientations of anastomosing and/or conjugate sets of veins, breccias, stockworks and associated structures (Dub et al., 1989; Hodgson,
1989, Robert et al., 1994, Robert and Poulsen, 2001).
Arsenopyrite-rich auriferous silicification of low grade to
barren carbonatequartz veins is the main host of the
Campbell-Red Lake deposit (Figs. 8) (Penczak and Mason,
1997; Tarnocai, 2000; Dub et al., 2001b, 2002). Ore-grade
mineralization also occurs as disseminated sulphides in
altered (carbonatized) rocks along vein selvages.
Ore shoots are commonly controlled by: 1) the intersections between different veins or host structures, or
between an auriferous structures and an especially reactive
and/or competent rock type such as iron-rich gabbro (geometric ore shoot); or 2) the slip vector of the controlling
structure(s) (kinematic ore shoot). For laminated fault-fill
veins, the kinematic ore shoot will be oriented at a high angle
to the slip vector (Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen,
2001).
The world-class and giant deposits commonly exhibit
a complex geometry mainly due to multistage barren and/or
gold-bearing hydrothermal, structural and magmatic events
(e.g. Dome Mine in Timmins Ontario, Campbell-Red Lake
deposit in Red Lake).

the vein network could extend to 1-2 km in its longest

dimension (vertical). The laminated quartz-carbonate veins
are commonly infilling the central part of, and are sub-parallel to slightly oblique to, the host structures (Hodgson, 1989;
Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen, 2001) (Fig. 9). The
shallow-dipping extensional veins are either confined within
the shear zones, in which case they are relatively small and
sigmoidal in shape, or they extend outside the shear zone and
are planar and laterally much more extended (Robert et al.,
1994).
Stockworks and hydrothermal breccias may represent
the main host to the mineralization when developed in competent units such as granophyric facies of gabbroic sills (e.g.

Host rocks
The veins are hosted by a wide variety of host rock
types including all the lithologies present in the local environment, but especially mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks
and competent iron-rich tholeiitic gabbroic sills and granitoid intrusions of Archean age. However, there are commonly district-specific lithological associations acting as chemical and/or structural traps for the fluid (e.g. Golden mile
dolerite sill in Kalgoorlie Australia, Balmer basalt in Red
Lake, Canada). Some deposits are also hosted by and/or centered within or next to intrusive complexes (e.g. syenite porphyry complex in Kirkland Lake, Canada).

15 cm

15 cm

3m

12 cm

Arsenopyrite
replacement

Biotite
alteration

Amphiboles

Visible gold

Silica
replacement

Basalt
Carbonate vein

4 cm

6 cm

FIG. 8: A. High-grade zone showing a silicified carbonate vein with visible gold and arsenopyrite-rich replacement of the host basalt, Red Lake Mine, Red
Lake; B. High-grade vein from Campbell Mine, Red Lake, showing a clast of collofrm carbonate vein within a highly silicified and arsenopyrite-rich breccia.

Benot Dub and Patrice Gosselin

SLIP PLANE

FOLIATION

STAGE II FILLING

Z
EXTENSIONAL
VEIN

Y
(B-AXIS)

STAGE I FILLING
FAULT-FILL VEIN

FIG. 9: Schematic diagram illustrating geometric relationships between

structural element of veins and shear zones and deposit scale strain axes
(from Robert, 1990).

Chemical Properties
Ore chemistry
The metallic signature of the ore is Au, Ag, As, W, B,
Mo Sb, typically with no or very low concentration of base
metals (Cu, Pb, Zn). There is no vertical metallic zoning. The
Au/Ag ratio typically varies from 5 to 10.
Alteration mineralogy/chemistry:
At the district scale, the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate-vein deposits are associated with large-scale carbonate alteration commonly distributed along major fault zones
and associated subsidiary structures (Fig. 10A, B). At the
deposit scale, the nature, distribution and intensity of the
wall-rock alteration is largely controlled by the composition
and competence of the host rocks and their metamorphic
grade. Typically, the alteration haloes are zoned and characterized - at greenschist facies - by iron-carbonatization and
A

sericitization, with sulphidation of the immediate vein selvages (mainly pyrite, less commonly arsenopyrite).
Chemically, altered rocks show an enrichment in CO2, K2O
and S and leaching of Na2O. Further away from the vein the
alteration is characterized by various amounts of chlorite and
calcite and sometimes magnetite. The dimensions of the
alteration haloes vary with the composition of the host rocks
and may envelope entire deposits hosted by mafic and ultramafic rocks. Pervasive green micas (fuchsite, roscoelite) and
ankerite with quartz-carbonate stockwork is common in
sheared ultramafics (Fig. 10C, D). In amphibolite facies
rocks common hydrothermal alteration assemblages associated with gold mineralization contain biotite, amphibole,
pyrite, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite and at higher grade,
biotite/phlogopite, diopside, garnet, pyrrhotite and/or
arsenopyrite (cf. Mueller and Groves, 1991; Witt, 1991;
Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000; Ridley et al., 2000 and references therein) with variable proportions of feldspar, calcite
and clinozoisite (Fig. 11). The variations in alteration styles
have been interpreted as a direct reflection of the depth of
formation of the deposits (Groves, 1993). The mineralogy of
the amphibolite facies deposits (diopside, K-feldspar, garnet,
staurolite, andalusite, actinolite) implies that they are by definition skarn-like deposits. Canadian examples of such
amphibolite facies deposit include the replacement style
Madsen deposit in Red Lake (Dub et al. 2000, 2001b) and
the quartz-tourmaline vein and replacement style Eau Claire
deposit in the James Bay area (Cadieux, 2000).
Geological Properties
Continental scale
Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate-vein deposits typically occur in deformed greenstone terranes of all ages,
especially those with commonly variolitic tholeiitic basalts
(Fig. 12A) and ultramafic komatiitic flows intruded by intermediate to felsic porphyry intrusions, and sometimes
swarms of albitite or lamprophyre dykes (ex: Timmins and
Red Lake districts) (Fig. 12B). The deposits are associated
with collisional or accretionary orogenic events (cf. Kerrich

1m

10 cm

4 cm

10 cm

FIG. 10: A. Large boudinaged iron-carbonate vein, Red Lake district; B.

Iron carbonate pervasive replacement of an iron-rich gabbroic sill, Tadd
prospect, Chibougamau; C. Green-carbonate rock showing fuchsite-rich
replacement and iron-carbonate veining in a highly deformed ultramafic
rock, Larder Lake; D. Green carbonate alteration showing abundant green
micas replacing chromite-rich ultramafics, Baie Verte, Newfoundland.

FIG. 11: A. Diopside vein in a biotite-actinolite-microcline rich gold-bearing alteration, Madsen mine, Red Lake; B. auriferous metasomatic
hydrothermal layering with actinolite-rich and biotite-microcline rich
bands, Madsen mine, Red lake. C. Gold-rich no. 8 vein showing visible
gold in a carbonate-actinolite-diopside-rich vein, Madsen mine, Red Lake.

Greenstone Gold Synthesis

A

15 cm

C
C

20 cm

22 cm

FIG. 12: A. Variolitic basalt, Vipond Formation, Timmins; B. Lamprophyre

dyke cross-cutting ankerite vein, Campbell Mine, Red Lake; C. Mylonitic
foliation, Cadillac -Larder Lake Break, Val D'Or; D. Close-up showing
mylonitioc foliation within Cadillac-Larder Lake break, Val D'Or.

et al., 2000 and references therein). They are typically distributed along reverse-oblique crustal-scale major fault
zones, commonly marking the convergent margins between
major lithological boundaries such as volcano-plutonic and
sedimentary domains (ex: Cadillac-Larder Lake fault) (Figs.
3 and 12C-D). These major structures are characterized by
different increments of strain, and consequently several generations of steeply dipping foliations and folds resulting in a
fairly complex geological collisional setting. The crustalscale faults are thought to represent the main hydrothermal
pathways towards higher crustal level. However, the
deposits are spatially and genetically associated with higherorder compressional reverse-oblique to oblique brittle-ductile high-angle shear zones (Fig. 13) commonly located less
than 5 km away and best developed in the hanging wall of
the major fault (Robert, 1990). Brittle faults may also be the
main host to mineralization as illustrated by the Kirkland
Lake Main Break; a brittle structure hosting the 25 M oz Au
Kirkland Lake deposit (Fig. 14). The deposits formed typically late in the tectonic-metamorphic history of the greenstone belts (Groves et al., 2000) and the mineralization is
syn- to late-deformation and typically post-peak greenschist
facies and syn-peak amphibolite facies metamorphism (cf.
Kerrich and Cassidy, 1994; Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000).
B

15 cm

10 cm

10 cm

FIG. 13 : A, B & C. Section view showing auriferous quartz vein hosted by

a second-order reverse shear zone, Cooke mine, Chapais, Quebec (from
Dub and Guha, 1992).

All world-class greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein

deposits are hosted by greenschist facies rocks. The only
exceptions are Campbell-Red Lake (Canada) and Kolar
(India) at amphibolite facies.
The greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits
are also commonly spatially associated with Timiskaminglike regional unconformities (Fig. 15). Several deposits are
hosted by (e.g. Pamour and Dome deposit in Timmins) or
located next to such a Timiskaming-like regional unconformity (Campbell-Red Lake deposit in Red Lake) (Dub et al.,
2003, in press), suggesting an empirical time and space relationship between large-scale greenstone quartz-carbonate
gold deposits and regional unconformities (Hodgson, 1993;
Robert, 2000; Dub et al., 2003).
District scale:
In this section, some of the key geological characteristics of prolific gold districts are presented. The list is far
from complete as to the definite reasons why a district like
Timmins contains such a large number of world class gold
deposits or why the gold grade in the Red Lake district is
overall so high. Only a brief overview is presented here, the
reader is referred to key papers such as Hodgson and
MacGeehan (1982), Hodgson (1993), Robert and Poulsen
(1997), Hagemann and Cassidy (2000), Poulsen et al.
(2000), and Groves et al. (2001) among others for more
information.
A

2m

50 cm

FIG. 14: A. Section view showing the 25 M oz Kirkland Lake Main Break;
B. Closed up showing the Kirkland Lake Main Break in section view, note
the brittle nature of the structure.

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate-vein deposits are

essentially structurally controlled epigenetic hydrothermal
deposits. Large gold camps are typically located in greenschist facies Archean greenstone belts and are commonly
associated with curvatures, flexures and dilational jogs along
major compressionnal fault zones such as the DestorPorcupine fault in Timmins or the Larder Lake-Cadillac fault
in Kirkland Lake, which have created dilational zones where
the hydrothermal fluids were drained (Fig. 3). In terms of
stratigraphical settings, several gold districts such as Red
Lake or Timmins are characterized by presence of variolitic
tholeiitic basalts and ultramafic komatiitic flows intruded by
intermediate to felsic porphyry intrusions, and sometimes
swarms of albitite or lamprophyre dykes. Timiskaming-like
regional unconformities distributed along major faults or
stratigraphical discontinuities are also typical characteristics.
In terms of hydrothermal alteration, the main characteristic
is the presence of large scale iron-carbonate alteration which
gives some indication on the size of the hydrothermal system(s). Protracted magmatic activity with syn-volcanic and
syn-to late tectonic intrusions emplaced along structural dis7

Benot Dub and Patrice Gosselin

A

25 cm

10 cm

10 cm

10 cm

FIG. 15: A. Timiskaming conglomerate, Kirkland Lake ; B. Mineralized

quartz veins hosted by Timiskaming conglomerate, Pamour mine,
Timmins; C. Mineralized quartz vein hosted by Timiskaming conglomerate, Kirkland Lake; D. Huston assemblage conglomerate, Red Lake.

continuities (e.g. Timmins) or surrounding the district (e.g.

Red Lake district) appears to be key empirical factors. In
many cases, the U-Pb dating of these intrusive rocks indicated that they are older than the mineralization. They have then
mainly acted as competent structural trap or induced an
anisotropy in the layered stratigraphy which have influenced
and partitioned the strain. In other cases, the intrusive rocks
are post mineralization. However, it remains possible that
the thermal energy provided by these intrusions may have
contributed to large-scale hydrothermal fluid circulation.
Presence of other deposit types in the district such as VMS
or Ni-Cu deposits is also commonly thought to be a favorable factor (heritage) (cf. Hodgson, 1993).
Knowledge gaps
One of the main remaining knowledge gap is the tectonic significance and structural evolution of the large scale
faults which control the distribution of the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate-vein deposits. As an example, despite
decades of work, the exact location and structural evolution
of the Destor-Porcupine Fault in the Timmins district, and its
relationship to gold mineralization, remain largely to be
established. As well, such a district-scale fault controlling
the distribution of the major gold deposits in the Red Lake
district remains to be found unless the Cochenour-Gullrock
Lake deformation zone (Red Lake Mine trend) (Andrews et
al., 1986; Zhang et al., 1997; Dub et al., 2001a, 2002, 2003)
and/or the regional unconformity between the Mesoarchean
Balmer and the Neoarchean Confederation assemblages
(Sanborn-Barrie et al., 2000, 2001, 2002; Dub et al., 2003,
in press) are marking such a crustal structure.

categories of ore shoots are recognized: 1-geometric and 2kinematic (Poulsen and Robert, 1989; Robert et al., 1994).
As proposed by Poulsen and Robert (1989), geometric ore
shoots are controlled by the intersection of a given structure
(such as a fault, a shear zone, or a vein) with a favorable
lithological unit as a competent gabbroic sill, a dike, an ironformation or a particularly reactive rock. The ore shoot
defined will be parallel to the line of intersection. The kinematic oreshoots are syn-deformation and syn-formation of
the veins and are defined by the intersection between different sets of veins or contemporaneous structures. The plunge
of kinematic ore shoots are commonly at high angle to the
slip direction.
Structural traps such as fold hinges or dilational jogs
along faults or shear zones are also key elements in locating
the richest part of an orebody. However, multiple parameters
are commonly involved in the formation of the richest part
of an orebody. For example, at the Red Lake Mine, several
parameters are believed to have played a key role in the formation of the extremely rich High-grade Zone (Dub et al.,
2002), including: 1-the F2 fold hinge deforming the basalt
and komatiitic basalt contact; 2-the carbonatized komatiitic
basalt located in the F2 antiform, which acted as a low permeability cap; 3-the iron-rich content of the tholeiitic basalt
that allowed precipitation of the arsenopyrite and gold by
reaction with the fluids; 4-the more competent nature of the
host basalt; 5-several increments of D2 strain; and 6-a new
stage of gold mineralization or gold remobilization in
extremely-rich fractures that postdated the emplacement of
lamprophyre dykes.
A

10 cm

30 cm

10 cm

3 cm

Deposit scale
The localization of higher grade mineralization (ore
shoot) within a deposit is the subject of investigation since
the early works of Newhouse (1942) and McKinstry (1948).
Ore shoots represent a critical element to take into account to
define and follow the richest part of the orebody. Two broad

15 cm

30 cm

FIG. 16: A. Boudinaged ankerite vein, with late quartz veins, cross-cutting
the Paymaster porphyry, Dome Mine; B. Boudinaged ankerite veins with
syn-deformation late extensional quartz veins, Dome mine; C. Massive
ankerite Kurst vein cut by late gold-bearing extensional quartz vein, Dome
mine area; D. Ankerite vein clast within Timiskaming conglomerate, Dome
mine (from Dub et al., 2003); E. Close-up of D (from Dub et al., 2003);
F. Deformed quartz vein hosted by folded Timiskaming argillites, Dome
mine.

Greenstone Gold Synthesis

Table 1
District
Timmins
Kirkland Lake
Val d'Or
Rouyn-Noranda
Larder Lake
Malartic
Joutel
Matheson
Cadillac
Red Lake
Pickle Lake
Rice Lake
BeardmoreGeraldton
Michipicoten
Mishibishu
GoudreauLolshcach
Flin Flon
Lynn Lake
La Ronge
Keewatin
Yellowknife
MacKenzie
Cassiar
Baie Verte

As of December 31, 2002

Prod.+Reserves
(tonnes Au)

Resources
(tonnes Au)

2,072.9
794.8
638.9
519.6
378.7
278.7
61.4
60.4
22.1
834.5
90.4
51.6

78.5
72.6
171.6
66.5
14.5
686.8
27.5
9.7
25.1
153.3
8.1
25.2

Superior/Wabigoon
Superior/Wawa
Superior/Wawa

123.5
41.1
26.7

35.1
2.8
16.8

Superior/Wawa
Churchill
Churchill
Churchill
Churchill-Hearne
Slave
Slave
Cordillera
Appalachian/Dunnage

8.8
62.2
19.5
3.4
7.2
432.8
38.1
14.9
10.3

19.6
12.7
14.6
5.6
252.4
16.6
286.6
55.4
8.9

Geological Province
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Abitibi
Superior/Uchi
Superior/Uchi
Superior/Uchi

As mentionned by Groves et al. (2003), several

hydrothermal events are sometimes superimposed and have
probably played a key role in the formation of giant gold
deposit. This is especially well illustrated at the giant Dome
mine in Timmins, where low grade ankerite veins cut across
the 2690 Ma Paymaster porphyry (Corfu et al., 1989) (Fig.

16A). These ankerite veins have been deformed; they are

typically boudinaged and cut by extensional en echelon
auriferous quartz veins (Fig. 16B-C). As reported in Dub et
al. (2003), the ankerite veins are also present as clasts within the 2679 4 Ma Timiskaming conglomerate (Ayer et al.,
2003) (Fig. 16 D-E) in the open pit, whereas the argillite and
sandstone above the Timiskaming conglomerate are themselves cut by folded auriferous quartz veins (Dub et al.,
2003) (Fig. 16F). These chronological relationships clearly
illustrate the superimposed hydrothermal and structural
events involved in the formation of the deposit with postmagmatism carbonate veining, but pre-deposition of the
Timiskaming conglomerate. The latter is pre-formation of
the bulk of the auriferous quartz vein mined in the open pit.

Distribution Of Canadian Metallogenetic Districts

The most productive metallogenetic districts for

greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are centered on (Late) Archean greenstone belts of the Superior,
Churchill and Slave provinces (Table 1). Key features of
these Canadian districts are: 1) presence of ultramafic-mafic
volcanic rocks (including variolitic basalts); 2) major compressional crustal-scale fault; 3) presence of competent intrusions; 4) district-wide zones of carbonate alteration; and 5)
presence of a regional Timiskaming-like unconformity.
Other important features include: I) curves, bends and dila-

FIG. 17: Location of Canadian greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein districts

Benot Dub and Patrice Gosselin

tional jogs in the major crustal-scale fault; II) metamorphism
not higher than amphibolite grade; III) size of the greenstone
belt (smaller belts lost in intrusive and highly metamorphosed rocks, are yet to be proven as productive as larger
ones); and IV) well-developed set of subsidiary faults and
shears near the major crustal-scale fault.
The Abitibi greenstone belt (Superior Province)
regroups the majority of productive districts, including the
very large Timmins, Kirkland Lake, Larder Lake, RouynNoranda and Val d'Or districts. Others, more recent greenstone belts of the Appalachian and Cordilleran orogens, are
also favorable terrains for gold deposits of the greenstonehosted quartz-carbonate vein type (figure 17). Districts listed in table 1 also include deposits of the iron formation-hosted vein and disseminated sub-type (Homestake-type). They
are typically formed in similar geological settings and at
similar crustal depths (Fig. 1).
Temporal distribution of world-class-size (>30t Au)
greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits is illustrated in figure 2. The greatest concentration of deposits is found
during the Archean, and particularly during the Late Archean
period (Fig. 17). Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits are rarer
but have been known to occur in recent collisional orogenic
belts (e.g. Mother Lode-Alleghany districts, Mesozoic, and
Alaska-Juneau-Treadwell deposits, Cenozoic, USA). The
total tonnage and average grade of Canadian deposits
appears significantly smaller and larger, respectively, than
the total tonnage and grade of world deposits. This discrepancy diminishes when one eliminates the giant Golden Mile
deposit (Australia) and its 914 Mtonnes of ore at an average
of 1,99 g/t. However, the average grade of Canadian Archean
deposits still remains ~2 g/t higher than other world deposits.
Proterozoic gold deposits occur in greenstone belts of Brazil,
western Africa and China, whereas deposits of this age are
noticeably few in Canada but for the New Britannia deposit
in the Flin Flon district (Manitoba), and other smaller
deposits of the Churchill Province. The lone world-class
Mesozoic Canadian deposit represented in figure 17 is the
Bralorne-Pioneer deposit (British Columbia). Other smaller
deposits (unrepresented on this figure) were also formed in
the Cordilleran during the Mesozoic, and during Paleozoic
times in the Appalachians.
Additionally, three important unexploited deposits (as
of December 31, 2001) outside of represented districts are
noted on figure 17. These are:
1) Hope Bay (Hope Bay district, 134 t Au in unmined
resources)
2) Moss Lake (Shebandowan district, 66 t Au)
3) Box (Athabaska district, 29 t Au)
The following deposits are located inside districts represented on figure 15 but also contain important un-mined
resources (as of December 31, 2001) :
1) Tundra (Mackenzie district, 185 t Au in unmined
resources)
2) Goldex (Val d'Or district, 57 t Au)
3) Taurus (Cassiar district, 50 t Au)

10

Genetic/Exploration Models
As indicated in Poulsen et al. (2000), one of the main
problem in deformed and metamorphosed terranes such as
greenstone belts is that the primary characteristics may have
been largely obscured by overprinting deformation and
metamorphism to an extent that they are difficult to recognize. This is particularly the case with gold-rich VMS or
epithermal deposits. But since quartz-carbonate greenstonehosted are syn- to late main phase of deformation, their primary features are in most cases relatively well preserved.
Consequently, once a deposit is appropriately classified,
exploration models for that type of gold deposits are relatively well defined (cf. Hodgson, 1990, 1993; Groves et al.,
2000, 2003). Academic work done since the early eighties
have proposed several different genetic models to explain
the formation of these deposits and have raised significant
controversy. A portion of this controversy was induced by
mis-classification of certain key deposits, such as Hemlo, as
mesothermal or lode gold deposits. This is why the task of
developing an adequate classification of gold deposits is a
key framework in developing exploration models (Poulsen
et al., 2000). An excellent review of the various genetic models proposed and the pros and cons of each of them has been
presented by Kerrich and Cassidy (1994). Since then,
Hagemann and Cassidy (2000), Kerrich et al. (2000), Ridley
and Diamond (2000), Groves et al. (2003), and Goldfarb et
al. (in press), among others, have also revisited the subject.
Only a brief summary is presented here.
Several genetic models have been proposed during the
last two decades without a definite consensus. One of the
main controversy is related to the source of the fluids. The
ore forming fluid is typically a 1.5 0.5 kbars, 350 50C,
low-salinity H2O-CO2 CH4 N2 fluid which transported
gold as a reduced sulfur complex (Groves et al., 2003).
Several authors have emphasized a deep source for gold and
fluids related to crustal or metamorphic devolatilization and
deposition of gold in a continuum of crustal levels (cf.
Colvine et al., 1989; Powell et al., 1991; Groves et al., 1995).
Others have proposed a magmatic source (cf. Spooner,
1991), a mantle-related model (Rock and Groves, 1988),
passage of a crustal plate over a mantle plume (Kontak and
Archibald, 2002), anomalous thermal conditions associated
to upwelling asthenosphere (Kerrich et al., 2000), or deep
convection of meteoric fluids (Nesbitt et al., 1986).
Hutchinson (1993) has proposed a multi-stage, multi-process
genetic hypothesis where gold is recycled from pre-enriched
source rocks and early formed, perhaps subeconomic gold
deposits. Hodgson (1993) also proposed a multi-stage model
where gold was, at least in part, recycled from gold-rich district-scale reservoirs that resulted from earlier increments of
gold enrichment. The debate was largely alimented by stable
isotopes geochemistry and more than two decades later, it
remains rather impossible (from the isotopic data) to distinguish between a fluid of metamorphic, magmatic or mantle
origin (Goldfarb et al., in press). The major involvement of
meteoric waters in the formation of quartz-carbonate greenstone-hosted gold deposits is now viewed to be unlikely
(Goldfarb et al., in press). Largely based on spatial relationships between the deposits and intrusive rocks, the magmat-

Greenstone Gold Synthesis

ic and mantle-related models are challenged by cross-cutting
field relationships combined with precise U-Pb zircon dating
showing that in most cases, the proposed magmatic source
for the fluid is significantly older than the quartz-carbonates
veins. One such example is from the Timmins area where the
quartz-carbonate veins hosting the gold mineralization at the
Hollinger-McIntyre deposit cut across albitite dyke dated at
2673 +6/-2 Ma (Marmont and Corfu, 1989), themselves 1520 Ma younger than the various porphyries in the regions
ranging in ages from 2691 33 Ma to 2688 2 Ma (Corfu
et al., 1989; Ayer et al., 2003). These chronological relationships rule out the possibility that the fluid responsible for the
mineralization could be related to known intrusions. An
alternate model to the magmatic source model is a model
where the intrusions have provided the thermal energy
responsible, at least in part, for fluid circulation (cf. Wall,
1989). The mantle-related model was largely based on the
spatial relationship between lamprophyre dykes and gold
deposits (Rock and Groves, 1988). Key arguments against
such a model have been presented by Wyman and Kerrich
(1988, 1989). Recently, Dub et al. (in press) have demonstrated that the lamprophyre dykes spatially associated with
the mineralization at the Campbell-Red Lake deposit are 10
Ma younger than the main stage of gold mineralization.
Each of these models have merit, and various aspects
of all or some of them are potentially involved in the formation of quartz-carbonate greenstone-hosted gold deposits in
metamorphic terranes.
It is largely believed that the greenstone-hosted quartzcarbonate vein deposits are related to metamorphic fluids
from accretionary processes and generated by prograde
metamorphism and thermal re-equilibration of subducted
volcano-sedimentary terranes. The deep-seated, Au-transporting metamorphic fluid has been channelled to higher
crustal levels through major crustal faults or deformation
zones (Fig. 18). Along its pathway, the fluid has dissolved
various components - notably gold - from the volcano-sedimentary packages, including a potential gold-rich precursor,
which will then precipitate as vein material or wallrock
replacement in second and third order structures at higher
crustal levels through fluid-pressure cycling process and
temperature, pH and other physico-chemical variations.

SETTING OF GREENSTONE GOLD DEPOSITS

TURBIDITE-hosted
VEIN
GREENSTONE-hosted
VEIN

WACKE-SHALE

HOMESTAKE
TYPE
SULPHIDE BODY

BRITTLEDUCTILE
ZONE
1

VOLCANIC

IRON-FORMATION
GRANITOID

SHEAR ZONE

However, the source of the ore fluid, and hence of gold

in orogenic deposits, remains unresolved (Ridley and
Diamond, 2000). According to Ridley and Diamond (2000),
a model based on either metamorphic devolitilization or
granitoid magmatism fits best most of the geological parameters. These authors indicated that the magmatic model
could not be ruled out simply on the basis that no exposed
granite in proximity of the deposit has the right age, because
the full sub-surface architecture of the crust is unknown.
Ridley and Diamond (2000) also indicated that the fluid
composition should not be expected to reflect the source.
The fluid travels great distances and its measured composition now reflects the fluid-rock interactions along its pathway, or a mixed signature of the source and the wall rocks
(Ridley and Diamond, 2000). In terms of exploration, at the
geological province or terrane scale, geological parameters
that are common in highly fertile volcano-sedimentary belts
include: 1-reactivated crustal-scale fault that focused porphyry-lamprophyre dyke swarms; 2-complex regional-scale
geometry of mixed lithostratigraphic packages; and 3-evidence for multiple mineralization or remobilization events
(Groves et al., 2003). The overprinting or remobilization was
clearly a key factor in the formation of the exceptionally rich
Goldcorp High-Grade Zone of the Campbell-Red Lake
deposit (Dub et al., 2002; in press). The empirical spatial
and genetic (?) relationship between large gold deposits and
Timiskaming-like regional unconformity represents a key
first order exploration target as illustrated by districts such as
Timmins, Kirkland Lake and Red Lake (Hodgson, 1993;
Robert., 2000; Dub et al., 2000, 2003 and in press).
Knowledge gaps
Several outstanding problems remain for quartz-carbonate greenstone-hosted deposits. As mentioned above, the
sources of fluid and gold remain unresolved (Ridley and
Diamond, 2000). Other critical elements are listed in
Hagemann and Cassidy (2000) and Groves et al. (2003). In
practical terms, the authors believe that the two most outstanding knowledge gaps to be addressed are: 1-better define
the key geological parameters controlling the formation of
giant gold deposits; and 2-what controls the high-grade content of deposits or part of deposits. The classification of gold
deposit types remain a problem which is more than academic, as it has a major impact on exploration strategies (e.g.
what type of deposit to look for, where, and how?) (cf.
Poulsen et al., 2000). Why geological provinces such as the
Superior and Yilgarn are so richly endowed also remains
unclear. It is also believed that integrated study such as
Extech or Natmap; where various aspects of the geology of
a gold mining district or camp are addressed; remain the best
approach. The most fundamental elements to take into
account to succeed in addressing these questions remain: 1)
basic chronological field relationships, combined with 2)
accurate U-Pb geochronology in order to establish the definite chronological evolution between mineralizing event(s)
and deformation/metamorphism phase(s).

FIG. 18: Schematic diagram illustrating the setting of greenstone-hosted

quartz-carbonate vein deposit (from Poulsen et al., 2000).

11

Benot Dub and Patrice Gosselin

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