Circumpolar around the pole stars. Earths av distance from general a photons energy is proportional to its frequency.

. We wavelengths, redder, redshifted z denotes this. This is

the sun is 1AU = 1.5*10^8 km. Seasons are due to the tilt of
collect light in refracting (use lenses) and reflecting (uses
spectroscopic redial velocity method (using light from stars to
the earths axis, 23.5 deg from the perpendicular. Points
mirrors) telescopes, Both collect, concentrate, and focus light. detect extrasolar planets. If it is moving across your line of
hemispeheres at the sun more, also, sun is higher in summer, Index of refracting is n=c/v, v is a medium. The larger the area sight, neither red or blueshifted. STARS beginning
so sunlight strikes the ground more, makes it warmer. 2 effects- of the lens (tele), the more light gathering power and fainter
Self-gravity holds planets, stars together. It is the gravitational
directness of sunlight, differening length of night means that stars we can observe. Nearly all X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared attraction between parts of a planet or star that pulls all the
summer warmer.Moon has no light source shines by refelected wavelengths are blocked on earth (Earths turbulent
parts toward its center. This is an inward force opposed by
sunlight. Meridan N-S line dividing sky in half. Zenith directly atmosphere degrades images because air bubbles act as
either structural strength or the outward force from gas
overhead.
lenses, Space-based telescopes do not have this problem), Best pressure in a star. Outward force<self-gravity, object contracts.
to observe form space. In contrast, radio and visible light can be Stronger, expands. Stable, inward=outward, balanced. Can
readily observed from the ground. The apparent brightness apply opposing forces ^ to interstellar medium (comprised
is an Inverse Square Law(lumosity)L = 4d2
of H, He), gas, dust that is between stars. Interstellar cloud,
brightness. Spectrum: light sorted by frequency.
dense reign of the interstellar medium, has self-gravity, in most
Spectrographs or spectrometers break up incoming light into
i.clouds, the internal pressure is stronger then self-gravity so
different wavelengths. Allow astronomers to measure the
the clouds should expand: each part is attracted to the other
intensity at each of those Different wavelengths. Stars,
parts of the cloud. Opposing pressure from the less dense,
galaxies, nebulae (etc.) reveal much of their nature through
hotter gas surrounding the clouds helps pull them together.
their spectra. Primary lens or mirror: collects, refracts
Molecular clouds (ML) densest, coolest parts of the clouds,
(bends) the light, and forms an image at the focal plane.
some massive enough that the self-gravity overloads internal
Aperture: area of the objective lens (larger aperture gathers
pressure, collapse under own weight (does this, protostar!), a
more light).
slow process, since other effects slow it: important angular
momentum, turbulence, magnetic fields, but these are temp.
ML fragment as they get smaller, denser, as it collapses, inward
force of gravity increases, collapse speeds up, gravity force
increases quicker. ML not uniform, fragment into dense
molecular cloud cores. the denser regions collapse under
own weight from the inside out, falling material feeding
accretion disk (flat, rotating disk of gas and dust surrounding
an object) with protostars (PS) in the center, objects about to
be a star. Temp in them is hotter, (gravitational energy
converted to thermal), heated by its own weight by particles
pulled into center, randomly collide + conservation of energy.
PS bigger + more luminous then the sun, but it cant be seen,
dust blocks it (infrared light). The PS continues to accrete more
material, which compresses it, It continues to shrink and radiate
New Moon between Earth, sun, (far side illuminated by sun,
near we cant see), is up in the daytime, never visible at night, 4 main process that shape our planet impact cratering leaves away energy: a never-ending battle between pressure and
gravity. The interior temp and pressure keep rising. PSs mass
appears close to the sun in the sky, rises in the E at sunrise,
distinct scars of large collisions, tectonism folds and breaks
determine if it becomes a star:it must be >.08*Ms. Under, never
crosses meridian at noon, sets in the W near sunset. -Waxing
earths crust (mountains, volcanos, earthquakes), volcanism
be hot enough to be a star, instead a brown dwarf (in between
Crescent (growing in size) visible E of sun, notable just after
spills sheets of lave/ash over vast areas, forming mountains or star, planet)(glows by continually cannibalizing its gravitational
sunset. - 1st quarter moon rises at noon, crosses meridian at plans in the process. Erosion slowly levels earths surface.
energy, gets smaller, fainter in time). Accretion disk has matter
sunset, sets at midnight. waxing gibbous waxes until full moon Earths carter shortage due to plate tectonics in oceans and
sun, moon in opposite parts of the sky, rises as the sun sets, erosion on lands. Earth, venus protected from meters by atmo. spit into it, the objects left over in it (not ejected back into
space) become plants by sticking together->planetesiamls,
crosses meridian at midnight, sets in the morning as the sun
Earth has a core, mantle, and a crust. Moon as a tiny core,
then their gravity pulls objects into them, planets. Planets
rises. Waning gibbous moon means left side ( N hemisphere)
formed from earth by a protoplanent. Most accepted theory:
closet to star are of refractory materials (rock, metals)) no
appears bright. 3rd quarter moon rises at midnight, crosses the Giant Impact Theory. All other theories fail to explain at least
volatiles, planets away have volatiles, ice, other.
meridian near sunrise, sets at noon, Waning crescent is W of
one geological property of the Earth/Moon system. General
sun. Apparent retrograde motion turn around, go W, return to idea: Mars-sized planetesimal (baby planet) collided with Earth. Solid planets grab gas from protoplanetary disk to grow, gas
captured at the time of its formation is its primary
E travel. KEPLERS LAWS 1. Orbit of a planet is a ellipse w/sun The energy from this impact caused intense heating. Material
at 1 focus. 2. Law of equal Areas area swept out by a planet in from this object was incorporated into the Earth or coalesced to atmosphere, secondary atmosphere forms later from the life of
the planet. Brightness of stars depend on the observers
the same amount of time is always the same, regardless to
form the Moon. Important properties of the Earth/Moon system:
location in orbit 3. Period of a planets orbit squared is equals to Earth and Moon both lack volatile elements (Moon more so). distance, luminosity does not A hot star us more luminous than
a cool star of the same size, and a small hot star may even by
its av. Distance from the sun cubed. Newton 1. Objects at rest Different compositions (amount of each element present):
more luminous then a larger cool star H-R diagram is the key ti
stay at rest 2. If an unbalanced force acts on a object, then the Earth has a significant iron core, Moon does not. Moons
understanding the stars
objects motion does change (F = ma). 3. Forces always come in composition similar to that of Earths crust. Exact same
pair, and those pairs are always equal in strength but opp in
oxygen isotope ratios. The Doppler effect is one way to
direction (astronaut tossing wrench). Orbits are bodies falling
find other planets as they orbit. Redshift = away. Blueshift =
around another (bodies in free fall around the bigger) (one
toward. Doppler shift an apparent shift in the measured
object falling freely around the other). Orbits are not perfect
wavelength of a wave related to the relative motion of a source
circles. --Light is particle and wave. Long wavelength = short and observer. Key way to measure motion in astro! Wavelength
freq, short wavelength = high freq. Light is massless photons, of light measured sources frame of reference is the rest
they travel at c= 300,000 km/s and carry energy. Amount of
wavelength. If an object such as a star is moving towards you
energy is intensity. Light energy comes in wave bundles called from a object has a shorter wavelength then ints rest, it is
photons Red (blue) light delivers less (more) energy. In
blushifted, bluer. Light moving away from you is longer

This tells you whether it is a MS star, giant star, white

suns.if this is part of a binary star system, then the neutron star
dwarf, protostar, etc.
will have a campanin.an evolving star overflows its roche lobe,
Low-Mass Star = M < 8 Msun. Stages of Evolution of a
puring matter into its campianan, nueton stars, when the
Low-Mass star:Main Sequence star->Red Giant starmeterial hits the acceration disk around the star, it is heated to
>Horizontal Branch star->Asymptotic Giant Branch star- such a high temp that the raditue away most of its energy in X>Planetary Nebula phase->White Dwarf star. End of the rays.netron stars have high magentic fields, electrons, nuetrons
Main Sequence: Eventually, much of the core H is converted to moving in the stars magnetic fields produce radiation that is
He. A core of He ash is built up. H burns in a shell around the He beamed away formt he poles of the star, as it rotates, the
core. Stronger gravity -> higher pressure faster nuclear
beams sweep aroundlike a lighhouse beam, as it sweeps past
burning->more and more energy being produced, Star: larger, us, it appears to pulse n and off, earning the name pulsar.
more luminous, cooler, redder. Interior grows hotter, surface Though electromagnetic radiation detected from pulsars is most
temp drops. Now a red giant.during 1st half(red giant branch,
often in the form of radio waves, pulsars have also been
RGB), Lumosity increases to 10*Lsun.Goes faster and faster on detected at visible, X-ray, and gamma ray wavelength
RGB, 2nd half, L =1,000*Lsun. H core grows in Mass, not in
COSOMOLOGY
radius, as H converts to He inn the H burnig shell. The heat
Cosmological principle the physical laws that apply to one part
forces the outer parts of the star to bloat. The shrinking, dense of our universe apply to all parts of the universe. The universe
core becomes electron degenerate. This means pressure is
homogeneous (all points have the same composition and
not from moving atoms, but from a quantum mechanical effect: properties) and isotrophic (same in all directions) by this
theres a limit tohow tightly electrons can be packed together.
princicple. Observers should see the same universe
Even neutrons can be degenerateHe core becomes smaller, everywhere. We live in a expanding universe. Recession
hotter, He burning as a deginture core begins in a process
Velocity velocity at which an object moves away.
called triple-alpha (He fuses to carbon via the triple-alpha
Hubbles Law the velocity at which a galaxy is moving away
process.)He flash, deginte He core sxplodes in star, moves onto from us is proportional to the distance of that galaxy. This law
horizontial branch, stable HE burnin core, H burning shell sround states that a galaxys recesssion veloicty is proportional to its
it, nonbunring H envolpe around that (on horizontial branch
speed. The h0 contstant is the constanct of proportionality
now) now, Asymptotic giant branch AGB nonburning degenerate between the distance and the speed. Hubbles law states that
carbon ash core, He burning shell, H burning shell, non bruning we are sitting in a unifroamly expading universe, and that the
H envolpe. Moves onyo last stages:loses grip on itself, expels
expansion looks the same, regardless of our location. The only
outer layers into space, (has started losing mass in red g
exception is galaxies that are gravitationally bound together,
phase), may become a plantery nebula (not all do), remaining gravitional attraction dominates over the expansion of space.ho
SUN
outer layers of star eject into space, become expending shell of is currently at 72 km/s/mpc. H0 places the galaxies in time.
Hydrostatic Equilibrium, pressure and gravity balance each gas around white hot remenets of star. Now, becomes white
Look-back time time it takes for the light from an object to
other in the sun. pressure at any point in the sun must be
drawf: smaller, fainter (.1Rsun now), carbon core no more fuel reach our telescope. 13.7 billion years ago (= 1/h0, hubble
enough to hold up all the weight of the other layers, otherwise on surface, raditetes away in space, lumsity smaller then sun
time), there was NO space between all the bits of matter an
sun implode. Deeper in the sun, pressure and density increase, now, cooler.
energy that made up the universe, since matter and energy was
and the temp. Sun is powered by nuclear fusion in the core.
HIGH MASS STARS exhausts H in core, goes to red giant, then shoved together, it was dense and hot. Big bang - tremendous
Nuclei consist of protons( + electrical charge), and neutrons(no supernova. Ignite He in a nondegenerate core (unlike low- mass expanse of space, started 13.7 billion years ago, marked the
electrical Charge), Electrical forces push protons apart. Need
stars). No He flash.Central temperature continues to
beginning of our universe.The big bang took place everywhere.
high energy (heat) to overcome like charges. The strong nuclear rise.Heavier elements (C, Ne, etc.) can fuse to generate heat.no Space itself is expanding, carrying the stars and galaxies with it.
force binds protons together, electric forces repel them. Fusion gravity leading to elctron degency, instead Carbon+other
There is NO center to the big bang, and it happened
requires ramming protons together at high speed. Hydrogen
elemtns fuse in shells.shells of meterial build up around it,like everywhere!!! Expansion does not effect the local physics of a
burning fusion of H into He, most important in main sequence onion. Iron starts to form, extracts heat, cools core. Implosion galaxy, stars, atoms, or anything else. Redshift occurs due to
stars. H most abundant element in universe, abundant soise of more iron more cooling .Runaway fusion. The outside the changing scale factor of the universe. The redshift can be
nuclear fuel, most efficient way to convert mass into energy,
shells collapse onto the shrinking core and furiously generate
measured with doppler shift, but it not caused by it. Redshift
easit atom to fuse. Sun gets energy from proton-proton
and release heat! The fusion of iron and heavier elements
measures how much the scale factor Ru has changed since the
chain. Step 1 creates positron, this hits electrons, creates
absorbs (not releases) heat. The process is a refrigerator. So
light was emitted. The young universe was hot and dense, and
phtons. Gamma rays must created energy. Energy ultimately
rather than fighting against the gravitational crush, forming iron awash with blackbody raidiation, which exhibits a blackbody
emerges as a new core heat that replaces heat that left. Energy assists gravity. Unstable! Why is each stage of burning
spectrum. This would have been redshifted as the universe
escapes by diffusion, then convection from inner part of
progressively shorter? Enegy is leaking out of the star via
expanded. Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
sun(photons scatter to cooler part) (convection is rising falling radition and convection. The octane (heat release potential) radiation blackbody raidation that arose when the universe
of hot/cool gas). Radiation transfers energy from hotter to
is smaller for successive heavier elements Huge production of was hot and ionized. Big Bang thoery predicts that a universe is
cooler regions via photons, carry energy with them. Photons go neutrinos. These carry away energy and abet the collapse. Once 24% He by mass, which is observed.
from hotter to cooler regions(less crowded). The energy is
a star form iron core, no more neculer energy to replece used Big bang nucleosynthesis - the formation of low-mass nuclei
finally carried away via radiation from the suns surface. The
energy.. Iron core collaspes, becomes electron degntite, starts a (H, He, Lithium, Beryllium, Boron) during the first few minutes
suns activity is caused by magnetic effects. Sunspots are
procees that absorbs thermal energy, reverses nuclear fusion
following the big bang
caused by magnetic fields greater then the earths surface. This collaspse accerlates until niclear forces become replusive. Then GALAXIES spiral galaxies are barred and unbarred, have
is from the sun reversing direction in the magnetic fields. Solar core bounces, driving outer layers outward thrugh star Core
central bulges. Stellar motions give stars their shape: elliptical
flares erupt from magnetic energy being released. Suns
collapses until it reaches nuclear densities. Core stops, bounces has irregular, spiral has nearly circular. Stars form from dense
atmosphere is where all visible sola phenomena takes place:
back, driving a shock wave through star. Outer layers blow off in clouds of cold gas, but elliptical galaxies have hot gas, no star
has 3 layers: photosphere, chromosphere, corona. Coronal mass tremendous explosion(Type II supernova) leaving a spinning
formation. The bluish colors of the spiral galaxies have massive
ejections send powerful bursts of energetic particles away from neutron star. Shock wave becomes a type II supernova, and
young hot stars forming in yhr cold molecular clouds in the disk.
the sun (also mag. Related)
then leaves behind the collapsed remains of the cores, a
Most of the stars are old, but the new blue stars are more
.If you know the surface temperature and the luminosity nuetron star.brief time, type II shines brighter then a billion
luminous, so it does not seem to have many old stars. Stars
of a star, you know where on the diagram it belongs.

form in a spiral galaxies arms, have lots of them that show up in

collapse into filaments that connect the giant protoclusters
blue of UV light. Stars form when dense interstellar clouds
The COSMIC WEBtakes shape as time increases and redshift
becomes so massive they collapse under own gravity, spiral
decreases) Now 13.82 Billion y ABB T = 2.735 K The edge of
arms are were clouds of interstellar gas pile up and are
the visible universe expands at the speed of light.
compressed. The disk of a spiral galaxy rotates, not like a solid
We can always see the inner edge, or wall, of the opaque
body, material close to the center takes less time to travel
plasma, but at
around the galaxy then material father out, this creates the
ever larger The wall isnt physically moving. Rather, the edge
spiral. Regular disturbances in the disks of s. galaxies are called
of the visible (knowable) universe recedes from us at 1 l.y. /
spiral density waves regions of greater mass density and
year the distance to the
increase pressure in the galaxys interstellar medium. Galaxies Annihilation @ 103 s T < 1012 K Physics: annihilation rate > opaque wall always lags 380,000 light years behind the
are mostly dark matter. Stars, gas, and dust are called luminous creation rate
outermost edge (big bang)
matter (or normal matter ( since this emits electromagnetic
Now the photons are too redshifted (inadequate energies) to TRANSIT METHOD, GRAVITIONAL LENSING, DIRECT IMAGING
radiation. Stars in disks follows orbits like planets, having
continue creation of particles particle-antiparticle annihilation
circular orbits, but unlike planets, they all have the same speed, continues until all pairs are gone Slight residue of matter (1 Residents of the Southern Hemisphere cannot see the
no matter how close to the center bulge they are. This is due to part in a billion) (we come from this residue) time = 0.001 to
stars around the north celestial pole because Earth itself
dark matter, since there is invisible mass pulling at the stars in 100 sec ABB T 109 K Density and temperature still dropping is in the way. If you are located at a position of 30 degrees
the halo. This is due to the fact the dark matter pulls the
North latitude, a star that you observe near the north
Universe is much hotter than core of Sun Lots of free
graviotaiol field to make the stars move. Active Galactic
celestial pole will stay up longer than a star located on the
protons & neutrons start to fuse into heavier nuclei (2H, 3He,
Nuclei (AGN) several types, one is a quasar, all very bright,
etc). Electrons turn out to be bystanders Neutrons have celestial equator. If Earth's axis were tilted twice as much
more luminous then the sun, size of a solar system, they are
no charge and arent repelled by protons, so n+p > 2H, n+2H as it currently is, summers would be hotter and winters
violent accretion disks surrounding supermassive black holes
colder. We only see one side of the Moon because the
> 3H One way or another the abundance of 4He rises
power AGNS (the accretion onto the supermassive black holes precipitously Heavier nuclei that might form from H and He Moon rotates on its axis once per revolution around Earth.
power them). When the universe was younger, many more
Suppose that you see a full Moon when the Sun is
are rare. Nucleosynthesis < 102 s ABB T 109 K Nuclear
AGNs. H II reign region of interstellar gas that has been
burning produces stable lighter nuclei: 2 protons + 2 neutrons setting. The full moon appears rising from the eastern
ionized by UV radiation from nearby hot massive stars. These
-> Helium plus really tiny amounts of 2H, 3He, Li, Be. But no C, horizon. A crescent phase of the Moon can be seen at
are the clouds from which stars are born, and are indicators of N, O Similar to but somewhat different process than in the
midnight if the Moon is This situation is impossible; you
active star formation. Globular Clusters Globular clusters are
core of the Sun since neutrons are abundant. But the net result cannot view this phase at this time. Comparing a solar
OLDTightly gravitaonally bound, so the stars dont Get flung
eclipse to a lunar eclipse, the solar eclipse is visible over
is much the
out of the cluster very easily and stays bound for a long time
same: lots of ordinary helium. End of Nucleosynthesis > 102 s less of the Earths surface than a lunar eclipse. A lunar eclipse
Old stellar populations look RED. Large spheroidal group of stars ABB, T < 109 K
is possible only when a full Moon enters the Earth's shadow.
held together by gravity. A standard candle is any object for
Ionized ocean of H+, He++, e Lots and lots of photons Copernicus is famous for reviving what ancient Greek
which we know the intrinsic luminosity. This information allows rattle around Still too hot for atoms to form and persist Rate idea? The idea that Earth orbits the Sun The 'eccentricity' of
us to estimate the distance of the object. Recombination
of element production drops when: Neutrons quickly depleted. most planets in our solar system is small (a few
occurred when the universe cooled to a few thousand degrees Density drops with expansion. So too does temperature.
percent). This means that the planets' orbits are nearly
Kelvin, allowing normal hydrogen atoms to form from the gas of Scattering < 3.8 105 y ABB T > 3000 K, Exactly equal
circular. One consequence of Keplers second law, the
free protons and electrons.Primary atmosphere of Earth was numbers of
Law of Equal Areas, is that a planet moves its fastest when
hot. It quickly evaporated (H, He) or chemically evolved
Electrons and protons a sea of increasingly redshifted photons closest to the Sun. When the Sun crosses the meridian at
(metals) Secondary atmospheres were acquired or formed with a standard
your location on Earth, it is Local noon The time it takes a
later by: 3 Accretion (but locked in the interior). 3
blackbody spectrum of a few thousand degrees The expansion planet to complete its orbit is determined by the Sun's
Volcanism & comet impacts (releasing the gas from the
continues, and the Universe cools. Opaque. Way too hot for mass. Galileo observed that Venus had phases, with the
interior). Planck Era < 1043 s, T > 10+31 K Whatever they the formation of protoclusters and star formation. (But thats
full phase occurring when Venus appeared smaller. This
are, the underlying Laws of Physicsare in place, but they have coming.) Recombination (3.8 105 y ABB)
implied that the geocentric model of the Solar System was
not had impact (yet) since
T= 3000 K The Universe continues to cool when T drops incorrect. The first observational evidence that some
nothing connects anything. Particle Era < 103 s T < 10+12 to 3000 K atoms can form as electrons drop into atomic orbits objects in the sky did not orbit Earth was Galileos
K Protons, neutrons, electrons and their antiparticles condense collisions no longer have the energy to tear the bound
discovery that Jupiters moons were near the planet. Who first
from triads of
discovered Newtons first law? Galileo According to
electrons loose With few charged particles left the
quarks. Now they persist since its too cool for collisions to
Universe becomes almost completely transparent. Still true Newtons first law, a space probe traveling through
destroy them
interplanetary space will maintain its motion without any
now. Opaque to Transparent After the temperature drops
Particles and antiparticles continuously annihilate and
below 3000K the nuclei and electrons combine to form neutral outside force. When traveling in a car and suddenly
recreate from photon
braking for a red stop light, the driver is undergoing
atoms No more free charged particles so
collisions Number of particles + antiparticles = numbers of scattering ends The dense fog vanishes. Photons travel
acceleration because the car is slowing down. Which of the
photons (for the last time) pair creation requires 2 photons of unimpeded
following objects is accelerating? Any planet moving in a
sufficient total energy, create a
closed orbit Gravitational forces always occur
from their source through space. The fog clears.
particle-antiparticle pai
Recombination ends at 3.8 105 y ABB, T 3000 K still too simultaneously in pairs. Chris, a space shuttle astronaut is
involved in repairing a satellite while in Earth orbit but
hot to form galaxies or stars yet. transparent space
surrounded by the opaque and redshifted afterglow of BB. he becomes separated from the space shuttle. He has a
massive wrench in his hand. What should he do to
Remember, redshift increases with increasing travel time
through an expanding space Atoms: Post Recombination 3.8 return to the space shuttle? Throw the wrench exactly
opposite to the direction of the space shuttle. Which of the
105 y ABB presentT= 3000 2.735 K
Early:no galaxies yet Radiation of collapse can now escape. following is a type of force? Weight If Earth were twice as
far from the Sun as it is now, the gravitational force
The ripples and lumps seen in the CMB collapse to clumps
r
pair annihilation A particle-antiparticle pair annihilate to make a and giant protoclusters of galaxies, just as protostars do inside between Earth and Sun would be 0.25 times as great.
Astronauts in orbit around Earth feel weightless because
molecular clouds The large-scale features in the CMB
photon pair:

they are falling around the Earth. Escape velocity refers to Moon was formed from a collision between a large
which a star follows through the different states of its
the lowest velocity required for an object to assume a path
planetesimal and the young Earth? The composition of the life isits evolutionary track.A star on the Main
where it never returns. How do we get most of our
Moon is similar to the Earths mantle. If planet A is at a
Sequencemay slowly change its luminosity and temperature
knowledge about our universe? through observation of light higher temperature compared to planet B, then we can even while remaining on the main sequence.While a star is on
from astronomical objects Light is a means of transporting conclude that A will emit more light of all wavelengths and
the main sequence, the amount ofhydrogen decreases
Energy A light year is the distance traveled by light in one
most of it at shorter wavelengths compared to B. Stereoscopic while helium increases.While on the main sequence, the
year. Light can be generally described as an
vision requires two different perspectives.Parallax is a
chemical composition of a star changes most in it
electromagnetic wave. The frequency of a wave is defined measure of an angle to gauge distance.A parsec is a
CoreNormal matter, in contrast to electron degenerate
as the number of wave crests passing a pointing space each
measure of distance.You cannot use parallax to measure matter, is filled with mostlyempty space.As a stars core
second Which of these ranges of electromagnetic
the distance to a star if the star is too far away. A star
progresses into a red giant, its core becomessmaller in
radiation has the longest wavelengths? radio
that appears brighter than another as we view it from
volume, but larger in mass.The triple-alpha process is the
waves Energy of light is proportional to its frequency
Earth must also be There is no general statement that can be fusion ofhelium into carbon.Once one part of a degenerate
Which of the following photons of electromagnetic
made. Most stars are less luminous than our Sun. When an helium core ignites the fusion process, the entire core is
radiation carry the highest energy? gamma rays The
atom's bound electrom "decays" (or "drops") from an
fusing in as little as a few minutesThe core of a red giant
resolution achievable by an unaided human eye is one
excited state to a lower state, it emits a photon of light
star is characterized byhelium burning in the core and
arcminute Resolution is how clearly two objects are
whose energy equals the energy change of the electron. From hydrogen burning in a shell. The core of a horizontal branch
separated. Today, the best device for detecting the light the absorption lines in the spectrum of a cloud, it is
star will eventually be made ofelectron degenerate
from a telescope is the charge coupled device (CCD). From possible to determine the type of atoms in the cloud. The
carbon.Stellar mass loss (via "stellar winds") increases in
the absorption or emission lines in the spectrum of an
higher a stars temperature, the shorter its peak
a stars later stages becausethe stars surface expands and
objects light, it is possible to determine the type of atoms wavelength must be. Higher temperature stars produce
gravity is weaker on the surface.H-R diagrams of star
in the object. Atmospheric "seeing" depends on the
more light per unit of surface area. Annie Jump Cannon is
clusters are snapshots of stellar evolution becausestars
turbulent distortions of the Earths atmosphere. Only _____
known for systematically classifying stars according to
in a cluster all formed at about the same time.The main
traveling through space manage to reach the ground
spectral type. The most prominent ingredient in stars is
sequence turnoff of a star cluster tells usthe age of a star
radio waves. Radio telescopes suffer from poor resolution hydrogen. The mass of a star can be directly determined cluster.A mass transfer can occur between two stars
because radio waves have such a large wavelength compared by knowing its gravitational force on another object.(star or whenthe Roche lobe of one completely fills up with its stellar
to the diameter of the telescope.The Hubble Space
planet)On an H-R diagram, the hottest stars are always
material.A nova results fromthe fusion of hydrogen on the
telescope is in a low Earth orbit.How do molecular cloud
found at the left.On an H-R diagram, the most luminous outside of a white dwarf.A planetary nebula is comprised
cores collapse? The inside of molecular cloud core has a
stars are always found at the top. Where would the
ofmaterial shed from an asymptotic giant branch star. The
stronger self-gravity than the exterior and begins the collapse largest diameter stars be found on an H-R diagram?
eventual fate of a low-mass star is aWhite dwarfA white
from the inside. A protostar is an early form of a star in
Upper right Ninety percent of stars are on the main
dwarf may be composed ofNonburning carbonA white
development. Compared to the Sun, a typical protostar
sequence. Main sequence stars with the largest mass
dwarf cannothave more than 1.4 solar masses.A Type Ia
will be more luminous. A protostar should be most visible would be found where on the H-R diagram? Upper left
supernova results from the fusion of carbon in a white
in infrared light. As a protostar evolves,it becomes smaller The diameter of the Sun is about 100 times the diameter of dwarf.Elliptical galaxiesare spherical or oval.Hubbles
and hotter because its increasing mass compresses and heats Earth. Since the Sun is in hydrostatic equilibrium, the
classification classifies the preponderance of most
up its interior. Before the planets were formed, the cloud size of the Sun will stay the same. Hydrogen burning is the massive galaxies near the Milky Way as?Spiral and
from which our Solar System originated formed a rotating process of combining hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei. The ellipticalIrregular galaxies are Not on the Hubble tuning fork
disk. Evidence that our own Solar System formed from a strong nuclear force holds the protons and neutrons of an
and have no particular shape.The shape of an elliptical
protoplanetary disk is that the orbits of the eight planets are atomic nucleus together. Nuclear fusion is a process in
galaxy isdue to the nearly random orbits of stars around the
almost perfectly in the same plane. Angular momentum
which two nuclei combine to become a larger nuclei with the
galactic center.Besides shape, the average ____ of all spiral
depends upon how fast an object rotates. how massive an
products weighing less than the reactants. The mass lost in a and elliptical galaxies out to a redshift of 0.1 from the
object is. how an objects mass is distributed. As a rotating
nuclear reaction is converted to energy. (E = mc^2)In what Earth are expected to differ primarily by their overall
object pulls more mass toward its center of rotation,
part of the Sun does hydrogen fusion takes place?The
colors.Star birth most actively takes placein spiral arms of
its angular momentum stays the same and its rotational speed coreNuclear fusion must take place at high temperatures galaxies.in irregular galaxies.Spiral arms are more
increases. Materials which remain solid at high
and pressures becausethe strong nuclear force can only
prominent in UV light than visible light becausemassive,
temperatures are called refractory materials. A primordial overcome electric repulsion at small distances.The convective young stars are concentrated in the spiral arms.With a great
(inital) atmosphere around a planet is formed from
zone of the Sun isextends from the radiative zone to the solar deal of star birth taking place in spiral arms, we should
capture of gas from the protoplanetary disk. Asteroids are
surface.A count of neutrinos from the Sun should tell us also expect the spiral arms to containlarge concentrations
planetesimals that never came together to form a major planet. something aboutits current rate of nuclear fusion.Listed
of dense, cold clouds of molecules and dust.Spiral density
A popular scenario for the formation of Earths Moon is from the inside to the outside, the regions of the Sun
waves in galaxies are responsible forpromoting star
that it was the result of a large impact on Earth. The
arecore, radiative zone, convective zone, photosphere,
formation.To measure a galaxys mass, one needs to
formation of planets seems to be a standard part of star
chromosphere, coronaThe force that is most responsible
analyzethe gravitational effects of the galaxy.The speed of
formation. An object that is red-shifted is moving away from for shaping the corona ismagnetism.Compared to the rest material orbiting in a galaxyis the same value for all
us. As a large planet orbits a star, it can dim the light from of the photosphere, sunspots area lower temperature.A
material far from the center.The outer parts of spiral
the star by passing directly in front. the stars position can be
solar flare can causea burst of energetic particles outward
galaxies aremostly dark matter.On the average dark
observed to change periodically. Which of the following is a from the sun.The Suns magnetic polarityreverses itself
matteraccounts for 90% of the total mass of a galaxy.What
process that gradually smooths the surface of a planet? every 11 years.Only a third of the predicted rate of solar extraordinary feature is common among quasars,
Erosion Why does the Earth lack small meteor impacts?
neutrinos were measured by neutrino detectors
Seyfert galaxies, and radio galaxies?Very high
Small meteors burn up in the Earths atmosphere.Which of the becauseneutrinos were changing from one form to another and luminosityWe know that active galactic nuclei are small
following can give evidence for the past existence of
the detectors werent sensitive to a different kind of
becausethey can vary drastically in luminosity in a couple of
water on Mars? The analysis of impact craters Most craters neutrino.The length of time an isolated star line the Sun days.The most spectacular and unusual feature of an
on the Moon are 3.1 billion years old or more, because
spends on the main sequence is determined exclusively active galactic nucleus is(are)a supermassive black
most impacts in the Solar System took place about 4 billion
byIts massA high temperature in a star should result
hole.Active galactic nucleioften convert about 50% of
years ago. Which of the following is evidence that the
infaster burning of material.On the H-R diagram, the path
infalling mass to luminous energy.How are galaxies

distributed in the universe?Gathered together in groups

gravity.Dark energyis energy that will cause even empty
allows us to estimate the likelihood of finding an intelligent
linked by a large-scale network of filamentsGalactic clusters Universe to expand.Inflation (if it is real) explains why the civilization in our galaxy. What evidence do we have that an
which are bright in X-ray radiationare evidence of large
universe is so flat.Inflation is presumed to be a period of
intelligent civilization has purposefully or accidentally
concentrations of dark matter.The most abundant element timeduring which the universe expanded at a rate exceeding
sent any sort of message to us on Earth? No evidence of
in our region of the Milky Way ishydrogenTo see into dark the speed of light.In pair production, which of the
extraterrestrial intelligent transmissions has been collected.
clouds, the most useful part of the spectrum would
following occurs?A pair of high energy photons produce a
What seems to have caused the mass extinction of the
beinfrared light. A globular cluster is a cluster of hundreds of particle and antiparticle pair.Why do antimatter particles
dinosaurs? impact from an asteroid or comet.
thousands of stars found in our own galaxy.Which of the
seem to be extremely rare in our universe?Antiparticles
LOW MASS STARS red giant (H burning in shell around
following is **NOT** a constituent of the interstellar
and their ordinary matter counterparts annihilate until only a
collapsing core) -> AGB (burningHe in core, H in shell around
medium (the material between stars)?Pulsars. (does have net residue of just one of them survives (ordinary particles).The core, building up carbon ash in core), sometimes this throws a
The gaseous remnants of supernovae explosions, Dense clouds unification of three fundamental forces into a single
lot of material off into space forms planetary nebule, smalle
of molecules. Grains of dust)How have distances to the
grand force would be readily observable only during the
stars cant form nebulae -> white dwarf degenerate carbon
globular clusters in our galaxy been measured?The
very young universe.Find the **FALSE** statement: By the core
apparent brightness of standard candles such as Cepheid
time the universe was five minutes old, The Universe was Red supergiants He burning, get hot noughin core to burn C
variables have been used to calculate the distance.Which of
no longer opaque.(true: the four fundamental forces had
and progressively larger atoms until Iron (Fe), no more fusion ->
its intrinsic properties reveals the age of a globular
separated. there existed more matter than antimatter.
no energy source, star to massive for Fe core to hold it up ->
cluster?By determining the main sequence turnoff.The total materials such as helium were able to form and survive. )We
core callapses -> supernove Type IIa, remnat neutron star /
mass of our galaxy is dominated byDark matterTypically, can detect dark matterfrom its gravitational forces on
black hole
the oldest objects of our galaxy are globular
observable forms of matter.What evidence do we have that Most stars are in binary systems. A tiny percentage are in very
clusters.Compared to the oldest stars in our galaxy, the cold dark matter clumps initiate galaxy formation?The
close
youngest stars will have larger fractions of massive
amount of dark matter needed to initiate galaxy formation
binary systems In each pair of low-mass stars, the more
elements.Our sunIs a star on the disk of the galaxyThe
agrees with the observed mass of current galaxies.an elliptical massive star evolves
thinnest parts of our galaxys disk are located along its galaxy most likely forms fromthe ongoing mergers of
first. It can only expand so much before it begins to lose
plane and are characterized byyounger stars.We surmise smaller galaxies.Galaxy mergers were more frequent in the
material due to the gravitational pull of a very nearby stellar
that a black hole with a mass of about 4 million masses early history of the Universe when the distances between
companion A secondary star can dump mass from its outer
lies in the center of our galaxy. What is the best
galaxies were smaller.What do scientists mean by a
layers (mostly H and He) onto a companion WD
measure of its mass? The orbital speed of stars in its
parallel universe? A universe whose light, gravity, or other
if theyre close enough Flow through a small nozzle The
immediuate vicinity. Our galaxys center is not currently an forces can never affect us.Earths early secondary
donated mass enters an accretion disk from which it can
active galactic nucleus, but probably was in the past. could
atmosphere contained water, carbon dioxide, methane and eventually land on the surface of the WD.
become active in the future if matter becomes available for
ammonia. An important result of the historical Urey-Miller Radial Velocity Method: This method uses spectrums as its
accretion to its black hole. The definition of a homogeneous experiment was that amino acids and components of nucleic observational data, measured from spectrometers. The Doppler
universe states that the Universe must have the same
acids were readily formed The earliest indirect evidence for effect is the concept used to calculate the radial velocity from
properties in all locations The definition of an isotropic
life on Earth is carbonized material found in rocks in
the movement in the spectral lines of the star. This method is
universe states that the Universe must look the same as
Greenland. About when did life first appear on Earth? 3.8 biased towards detecting a planets minimum mass orbiting
viewed from all directions. The physical rules of the
billion years ago. What happened during the Cambrian
around a low mass star, as the long as the star has an orbital
universe are assumed to be the same everywhere.If galaxy A explosion? There was a spectacular increase in the number
plane of the planet is aligned in the line of sight to the
has a redshift of z=0.2 and galaxy B has a redshift of
and diversity of biological species. How did oxygen get
observers viewpoint (in this case, Earths). This method is
z=0.6Galaxy A is closer to us than galaxy B and galaxy B is
introduced to Earths atmosphere? Cyanobacteria supplied more accurate for stars within 160 light-years from Earth with
moving away from us at the greatest speed.The implication ofoxygen to Earths atmosphere. Natural selection is a process lower mass planets. Massive planets can also be found with this
Hubbles law is thatspace itself is expanding carrying
whereby better adapted molecules survive and less well
method.
galaxies (and everything else) along for the ride. A standard adapted molecules die out. DNA is composed of only 5 basic Transit Method: According to Wikipedia, this method uses
candle isan object for which the luminosity is well known.To
elements, C, H, O, N and phosphorus. Life originating on a
Photometry to measure electromagnetic radiation, and the
directly measure a distance to a very distant galaxy, the planet other than Earth could have carbon based life that is electromagnetic radiation is the observational data. This
most reliable standard candle isa Type I supernova.Looking different from ours. Why do we say that carbon is an ideal method is biased towards detecting the radius of planets whose
at distant objectsallows us to look back in time.allows us to element for the chemistry of living things? Carbon is
orbits about their stars perfectly align to the astronomers
see the objects as they were when light left them .The
tetravalent and can form a large variety of long chain-like
viewpoint. Another restriction for this method is the fact that
universe is somewhere around13.8 billion years old.The Big molecules. What other planet in the solar System is the
red giant branch stars have natural bright pulses of light which
Bang launchedan expansion of space.Cosmic microwave
most likely candidate for finding evidence of primitive
interfere with the detection of the light diming caused by the
background radiation isblackbody radiation created at a time life? Mars What did the period of Snowball Earth
planet moving in front of the star. Direct Imaging Method: This
when the Universe was characterized by a temperature of about precede? The Cambrian explosion A habitable zone is the
uses images as observational data. This method is biased
3000 degrees.Recombination refers tothe formation of
range of distance from a star where the temperature is suitable towards stars that are larger than the Sun, but young enough to
hydrogen atoms from free protons and electrons.Nuclear
for the existence of liquid water. If a star is twice as massive have protoplanetary disks around them, and either dim stars or
reactions taking place in the first few minutes after the as the Sun it will finish its main sequence lifetime in only a
brown dwarfs that have sub-brown dwarfs round them that are
Big Bang produced a sudden enrichment of HeliumThe
billion years and possibly not give complex life a chance to form at least 100 AU from the star they orbit around.Gravitational
observed density of normal matter today and the
Would a star located at the outer edges of a galaxy be in Lensing: This method uses images to measure the bend of
amounts of helium and deuterium made during the Big the galactic habitable zone? No, because stars at the outer light, so the images are the observational data. This method is
Bangshow that dark matter could not be made of ordinary
edge would likely not have enough heavy elements to make
biased towards planets that are 1 to 10 AUs away from stars
neutrons and protons.Recent data from type I supernovae terrestrial type planets. Using the lesson of the Cambrian
that are like our Sun. Also this method cannot be repeated as
indicate that the expansion of the universehas been
explosion, one might say that the best thing to happen the special alignment may never occur again
speeding up.If mass is greater than one it means thatthe to humanity in the past 100 million years is the extinction Regular parallax (trigonometric parallax) is when you measure the
actual density of the universe is greater than the critical density of the dinosaurs. Around which stars should we search for position of a star at one time, then again 6 months later (when the Earth
is on the other side of the Sun). You know the Earth has moved 2 AU, and
and gravity will be strong enough to stop the expansion.The
signs of advanced life if we want to increase our
you know the angle that the star appeared to move between those two
cosmological constantacts like a repulsive force to counteract chances? Stars smaller than the Sun The Drake equation
observations, so you can calculate the distance to the star using

trigonometry. Spectroscopic parallax is using the position of a MAIN

SEQUENCE star on the HR diagram to estimate the distance to the star.
This ONLY works for main sequence stars because they follow a tight

relationship between color (or temperature) and luminosity. You need a

spectrum to confirm that the star is a main sequence star. We measure
the flux from the star, and use flux = luminosity/

(4*pi*distance^2) to calculate the distance from the predicted

luminosity.