The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors On Social Entrepreneurship Start Up Intention

Springer 2010
Journal of Business Ethics (2010) 95:259282

DOI 10.1007/s10551-009-0358-8
The Influence of Personality Traits

and Demographic Factors on Social
Entrepreneurship Start Up Intentions
ABSTRACT. The sheer impact of the recent global

financial turmoil and scandals (such as Enron and
WorldCom) has demonstrated that unbridled commercial
entrepreneurs who are allowed to pursue their short-term
opportunities regardless of the consequences has led to a
massive depreciation of the wealth of nations, social
livelihood and environmental degradation. This article
suggests that the time has come for entrepreneurs to adopt
a more integrative view of business that blends economic,
social and environmental values. Social entrepreneurs
present such a proposition through their deep commitment towards the social vision, appreciation of sustainable
practices, innovativeness, ability to build social networks
and also generate viable financial returns. It could be
expected that social entrepreneurs often possess certain
distinct personality characteristics which define their
behaviours/actions. Personality traits are partly developed
by innate nurturing, socialization and education. These
tacit traits are also formed values/beliefs held and play an
important role in driving social entrepreneurial decision making. Thus, personality traits may influence the
intentions and the manner in which the individual acts.
We hold that if social entrepreneurship is to be effective
and impactful, business and management education can
facilitate the development of these critical personality
traits. Thus, this study primes at determining the personality traits that influence social entrepreneurs start-up
intentions. It also reinforces the findings that personality
traits do influence entrepreneurship in general. This study
examines the influence of the Big Five personality traits
on social entrepreneurship dimensions. The findings
reveal that agreeableness positively influences all dimensions of social entrepreneurship, whereas openness exerts
a positive influence on social vision, innovation and
financial returns. Methodologically, this study develops
valid and reliable scales for social entrepreneurship and
verifies the adopted Big Five personality measure of
Schmit et al. (Pers Psychol 53:153193, 2000) using the
five-point Likert scale. The implication of this study is
Joyce Koe Hwee Nga

Gomathi Shamuganathan
that element of appreciation of social responsibility, sustainability and character development needs to be integrated within the business education curriculum to
support social entrepreneurs in realizing genuine value
and impact to the causes and communities they serve.
Future business leaders also need to be equipped with
entrepreneurship skills, while exuding independent and
reflective thinking in the pursuit life-long learning. The
originality of this study lies in its focus on personality traits
on social rather than commercial entrepreneurship. It is
hoped that the findings will trigger a paradigm shift towards greater social entrepreneurship through education
by nurturing sustainable development values in future
business graduates.
KEY WORDS: social entrepreneurship, personality traits,
social responsibility, entrepreneurship education
Introduction
Entrepreneurship is often defined as the opportunistic
pursuit of economic wealth via creative initiatives of
the individual operating within an uncertain environment constrained by limited tangible resources
(Austin et al., 2006; Mitchell et al., 2002). The framing of entrepreneurship within economic theory
assumes the rationalistic model of man. Economic
rationale neglects the idiosyncratic human capabilities
that promote flexibility and use of social discretion
in deriving practical innovative solutions (Baumol,
1968; Loasby, 2007). Economic theory also ignores
the differences in human values, capabilities and power
of the human will (Loasby, 2007). Past researchers
have mostly focussed on commercial entrepreneurship with an emphasis of financial returns over social
260
Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan
returns. Their reliance on the invisible hand of the

free-market system has placed the responsibility of
safeguarding the public and social goods within the
ambit of governments. The bureaucratic, political
and inflexible nature of governments, however, have
often rendered implementation of social policies
ineffective (Dees, 2007). As a result, social entrepreneurs have often stepped to meet these gaps where
governments have failed by emphasizing social value
above financial returns (Haughton, 2008). The sheer
impact of the recent global financial turmoil and
scandals (such as Enron and WorldCom) has also
demonstrated that commercial entrepreneurs who are
let free to pursue their short-term opportunities
regardless of the consequences has led to a massive
depreciation of the wealth of nations, social livelihood
and environmental degradation. This article suggests
that the time has come for entrepreneurs to adopt a
more integrative view of business that blends economic, social and environmental values. Social entrepreneurs also adopt a wider viewpoint on value
creation compared to their commercial counterparts.
They uphold the synergistic derivation of social,
economic and environmental values without overemphasis on shareholders wealth maximization
(Kurucz et al., 2008).
Personality traits have been posited in explaining
the industrious behaviours and agile actions of social
entrepreneurs (Llewellyn and Wilson, 2003). Social
entrepreneurs are often distinguished by their ability
to envisage, engage, enable and enact transformational change efficiently in the face of scarce
resources, risks and diverse contexts (Thompson,
2002; Thompson et al., 2000). However, the influence that personality traits play in defining social
entrepreneurs has remained controversial and underexplored and under-researched.
This article endeavours to investigate the influence
of the Big Five personality trait dimensions comprising openness, agreeableness, neuroticism and
conscientiousness on social entrepreneurship. In light
of the findings that the influence of personality traits is
the highest in determining business start-up intentions in budding entrepreneurs, a sample of college
and undergraduates has been employed (Frank et al.,
2007). In addition, the sample consisting of business
and management students from a private higher
education institution (HEI) has also been selected in
view of the implications of this study on the business
education curriculum. The quantitative survey

method is adopted as part of an initial investigation to
obtain the macro view concerning the influence
between personality traits and social entrepreneurship
based on the conceptual framework developed for
this study (Figure 1). Similar studies on commercial
entrepreneurship have also adopted such quantitative
survey methods (Table I). Implications are then
derived by employing theoretical triangulation in
drawing inferences from the findings of the study.
The authors adopt a technical and situational paradigm stance which recognizes that quantitative and
qualitative methods are interconnected but have
distinctive epistemological and ontological assumptions (Bryman and Bell, 2007). Thus, while quantitative and qualitative methods are not compatible
within the same phase of this study, qualitative
methods can be employed to draw theoretical inferences and/or applied within different study situations
and contexts (Flick, 2009; Miles and Huberman,
1994).
As such, this article starts by first reviewing the
underpinning literature concerning the concept of
social entrepreneurship and the Big Five model of
personality traits (Costa and McCrae, 1992 cited in
Llewellyn and Wilson, 2003) to understand their
interconnections that form the basis for the development of the conceptual framework and hypotheses of this study. Second, measurement scales for
social entrepreneurship dimensions, namely sustainability, vision, networking and returns orientation
are developed from concepts derived from extant
literature. The validity and reliability of social
entrepreneurship dimensions as well as the Big Five
personality trait measurement adapted from Schmit
et al. (2000) are determined using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Cronbachs a, respectively.
Third, hypotheses testing are conducted using
the Multiple Linear Regression to substantiate the
research questions. The study found that agreeableness positively influences all dimensions of social
entrepreneurship, whereas openness exerts a positive
influence on social vision, innovation and financial
returns. These findings have important implications
on the design of business education curriculum
particularly in developing personality traits and values within future business leaders/entrepreneurs that
will enable them to be transformative in integrating
social, environmental and economic values.
The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors
261
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
We maintain that if social entrepreneurship is to

be effective and impactful, business and management
education can facilitate the development of these
critical personality traits. Thus, this study primes at
determining the personality traits that influence
social entrepreneurs start-up intentions. It also aims
to reinforce the findings that personality traits do
influence entrepreneurship in general.
Theoretical background
This section provides the theoretical underpinning
surrounding the broad concepts of entrepreneurship
and personality traits. It will then streamline the focus
of this study to social entrepreneurship and Big Five
personality traits and elaborate on their respective
dimensions. The social entrepreneurship dimensions
covered are social vision, sustainability, social networks, innovation and financial returns. The Big Five
personality traits comprises openness, extroversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness and neuroticism.
Overview of the field of entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is a multi-dimensional discipline
with roots spanning the fields of economics,
psychology, sociology and strategic management

(Mitchell et al., 2002). Entrepreneurial motivation
represents the blending of social interaction, technical
competence and emotional zeal of the individual
(Goss, 2008). The definition of entrepreneurship
remains broad. In general, the evolving definition of
entrepreneurship involves individual(s) who are driven to act on opportunities and/or environmental
catalysts by employing innovative processes in the face
of limited resources (Handy et al., 2007; Mitchell
et al., 2002; Schaper and Volery, 2004). Past research
pertaining to entrepreneurship can be classified into
three major genres, namely the functional, personality
and behavioural approaches (Cope, 2005). The
functional approach is linked to rational outcomes
within economic theory. The personality approach
concerns the characteristics of individual psychological traits that define an entrepreneur. Finally, the
behavioural approach derives from strategic management and involves the process of how an entrepreneur
perceives and acts on opportunities presented.
This study is positioned from the personality
approach. Personality traits are predictable characteristics of individual behaviour which assist in
explaining the differences of individual actions in
similar situations (Llewellyn and Wilson, 2003). We
adopt the stance that individual personality of social
Qualitative/longitudinal
Quantitative/
cross-sectional
Quantitative/
cross-sectional
Quantitative
Quantitative/
cross-sectional
Quantitative
Quantitative/
cross-sectional
Matlay (2008)
Schmitt-Rodermund
(2004)
Raposo et al. (2008)
Frank et al. (2007)
Wilson et al. (2007)
Crant (1996)
Abd Moen et al. (2004)
Type
Not stated
417 (18 year olds)

777 (University students)
314 (Business founders)
1169 (Successful
entrepreneurs)
4,292 Middle/high school
students and 1,132 MBA
students
181 Students
320 College and non-college

students
316 Students
64
Sample size
The study investigated the relationship between gender, entrepreneurship selfefficacy and career intentions. Females have been found to generally lower selfefficacy and entrepreneurial career intentions
The study found that proactive personality, gender, education level and
entrepreneurial parentage are important predictors that have a significant
positive influence on entrepreneurial intentions
The Malaysian study found that age, gender, race and religion did not exert a
significant influence on entrepreneurial attitude among youths at Institute
Kemahiran Belia Negara. Arts major students were found to be more entrepreneurial compared to other majors
Study conducted over 10 years to investigate the propensity of undergraduates

in selecting entrepreneurship as a career path. Found positive relationship
between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurship career aspiration
The study found that early parental modelling and personality traits influenced
entrepreneurial competence in adolescence
The study investigated the entrepreneurial profile of university students. The
findings show that the prominent characteristics are the independents and
confidents. The confidents displayed greater leadership, self-belief and
ambition converting to a greater propensity to undertake entrepreneurship
The study found that entrepreneurial personality traits (need for achievement,
locus of control and risk propensity) influence was highest among school and
university students who displayed business start-up intentions. However, personality traits were not able to predict long-term venture success
Previous studies on entrepreneurship employing student samples
TABLE I
262

entrepreneurs provides the impetus to high willpower that drives their passions, innovativeness and
social interactions. This sanctions their choice and
ability to integrate social, environmental and economic aspects in the enhancement of value (Goss,
2005, 2008; Kurucz et al., 2008; Rhee and White,
2007).
Characteristics of social entrepreneurship (SOC_ENT)
In contrast to commercial entrepreneurs, social
entrepreneurs are committed to serve basic human
needs and to facilitate impactful quality of life
improvement within society (Austin et al., 2006;
Elkington, 2006; Ridley-Duff, 2008). Social entrepreneurs fill the gaps in the provision of public goods
where governments have failed and where the private sector views that the risk do not commensurate
the rewards associated with such ventures (Haughton, 2002). Most cited characteristics of the social
entrepreneurs as innovativeness, achievement centred, independence, sense of destiny, low risk aversion, tolerance for ambiguity and social value
creation (Brooks, 2009). However, these highlighted
aspects of social entrepreneurs confuse innate characteristics with personality traits. This study focuses
on four related aspects of social entrepreneurship,
namely the social vision, sustainability, social networking, innovativeness and financial returns. Social
vision encompasses the sense of destiny. Sustainability and financial return inclination covers the
aspects of social value creation. Achievement orientation, independence, risk aversion and ambiguity
tolerance relates to personality traits dimensions of
conscientiousness and extroversion which are discussed in the next section.
Social entrepreneurship transcends philanthropic
and/or charitable giving as it promotes a more
enduring and engaging solution to social problems.
Charitable giving is often one-off to appease the
conscience or seeks to promote a favourable corporate image. However, it may not be effective in perpetuating social problems such as poverty as recipients
often lag by shrugging off initiative and responsibility
for progress (Dees, 2007). Social entrepreneurs promote their mission for social change by supporting the
beneficiaries to realize their potential and undertake
ownership in improving their quality of life (Elkington and Hartigan, 2008, p. 33). As such, social
entrepreneurs adopt the enduring synergistic view of
263
value creation by uncovering innovative ways where

social, environmental and economic issues can be
integrated and enhanced (Kurucz et al., 2008).
The social entrepreneurship process involves
envisioning, engaging, enacting and enabling transformational change to promote social, economic and
environmental or triple bottom line performance
(Thompson, 2002; Thompson et al., 2000). Envisioning involves identifying a real social need that
presents both a gap and opportunity. The social
entrepreneur is committed to their social vision and
will find pragmatic, innovative solutions to social
problems regardless of ideological or resource constraints. The social entrepreneur is often unreasonably ostentatious in fulfilling their mission to create/
enhance social value (Elkington and Hartigan, 2008,
p. 5). The engaging process involves demonstrating
commitment through social networks to harness
trust, transparency and credibility. Strategic partnerships are crucial in the not-for-profit sector to
garner grass root support, participation and legitimization of the social mission (Gliedt and Parker,
2007). Social networks are also an avenue for
emotional, financial and human resources. The
enacting process involves leading, directing and
assigning purpose to the vision from inception to
fruition. The enabling process includes the acquiring
of finance and training of human resources to sustain
the social vision.
This study streamlines the characteristics of social
entrepreneurs into five dimensions, namely social
vision, sustainability, social networking, innovativeness and financial returns. The following subsections details these further.
Social vision (SV). The social entrepreneur is driven
by a compelling social vision that encapsulates a
strong sense of obligation and destiny towards fulfilling a basic human need (Barendsen and Gardner,
2004; Brooks, 2009). The social vision drives the
ability to see opportunities beyond the present with
the objective of extending the stewardship arm to be
an agent of social change (Barendsen and Gardner,
2004; Dees, 2001; Keogh and Polonsky, 1998).
Commitment for social issues is usually borne with a
sense of emotional affection and sense of responsibility to sustain an environmental and/or social cause
(Keogh and Polonsky, 1998). As such, social entrepreneurs often act as advocates in voicing and
264
meeting gaps in social needs where governments and

private enterprises lag (London, 2008). Traumatic
events experienced in early childhood often act as
catalysts in the development of beliefs of social
entrepreneurs (Barendsen and Gardner, 2004).
Combined with an enduring commitment, social
entrepreneurs are not easily swayed by the pendulum
of market forces in the quest towards social value
creation.
Sustainability (STB). Sustainability is often triggered
by an engaged state of social and moral critical consciousness that businesses and individuals exist as part
of an interconnected inter-generational, enduring
global ecosystem (Cartwright and Craig, 2006;
Mustakova-Possardt, 1998; Savitz and Weber, 2006).
Businesses can no longer elude that they are the
major contributors towards social and environmental
degradations. As such, they need to lead change
through restorative economic practices (Hawken,
1992). Since biological resources are not substitutable
as capital and labour are, businesses need to embrace
natural capitalism whereby value is assessed by the
integrated ecological and economical impacts (Lovins
et al., 2007). This study advances the view that sustainable development via natural capitalism practices
enhances the quality of life of society.
Sustainability complements the conventional economic wisdom with the commitment to do the right
thing in improving the quality of human life by
including the Earth and society as legitimate stakeholders (Shrivasta, 2000 in Cartwright and Craig,
2006; Hawken, 1992). As such, strategies towards
sustainability are deeply entrenched within the value,
culture and vision of the entrepreneur and/or organization as they are affectively and normatively
grounded (Anderson, 1998; Keogh and Polonsky,
1998). By embracing sustainability, social entrepreneurs are determined to drive social change by
serving the needs of greater numbers of people(s)
including the bottom of the pyramid market which
may not be feasible for commercial entrepreneurs and
governments (Hart, 2005). Social value creation
becomes an essential, integral component of shareholder wealth maximization to social entrepreneurs.
The quest towards sustainability requires congruency in the strategic management of the environment,
values and resources (Thompson, 1998). The dexterity of the entrepreneur in properly aligning
opportunities, vision and culture within the social

networks and actual available capabilities/competencies resources promotes organizational learning
that stimulates desire for social change. They then
orchestrate further transformational change through
stewardship in harmonizing the legitimate economic, social and environmental concerns (Molteni,
2006; Robins, 2006). Sustainability practices adopt
entrenched responsibility and unity of purpose in
judgements aimed at promoting stakeholder accountability aimed at deriving triple bottom line performance (Mort et al., 2003).
In contrast with corporate philanthropy which
often involves targeted shorter term giving linked to
firms commercial interests, reciprocal strategic economic returns and reputational benefits, social
entrepreneurship strives at providing solutions that
enhances social value through long-term sustenance
of quality of life and ecological balance (Leisinger,
2007; Machan, 1999). Social entrepreneurs emphasize human life as part of an interdependent, living
ecosystem. As such, any action undertaken needs to
be guided by authentic values, principles and commitment to preserve and protect the long-term survival and rights of the community and environment.
By doing so, social entrepreneurs seek to create
enduring social value and to promote the betterment
of humankind through the dedication towards continuous, responsible innovations (Machan, 1999).
Social networks (SN). Social capital theory suggests
that social capital exist in three dimensions, namely
structural, relational and cognitive (Nahapiet and
Ghoshal, 1998). This study holds that social networks (formal and/or informal) form an invaluable
resource to social entrepreneurs for advice, human
resources, innovative ideas/capabilities, financial and
emotional support (Greve and Salaff, 2003; Nahapiet
and Ghoshal, 1998).
From the structural perspective, social networks
provide a system whereby the mission of the
entrepreneur is embedded and disseminated. Network ties enable a rich sharing of information and
knowledge to create more innovative and relevant
solutions to service the benefit of the wider community (Chen and Wang, 2008; Nahapiet and
Ghoshal, 1998; Shaw and Carter, 2007; Thompson
and Doherty, 2006). Personal social network ties
established also bridges the information asymmetry

between the entrepreneur and the potential investors
(Shane and Cable, 2002).
The relational perspective posits that active participation in networks induces collective learning
and fosters better understanding of social community
norms. Trust is developed through a dynamic process of open communication and renegotiations
between stakeholders. Hence, credibility of social
endeavours is enhanced through the identification of
fit between opportunities and the social need (Shaw
and Carter, 2007). Trust has been found to moderate
the relationship between social networking and
innovation (Chen and Wang, 2008). Social networks evolve through the motivation, planning and
contracting stages (Greve and Salaff, 2003). The
highest level of communication occurs at the planning phase. At the initial stages, networking is mostly
associated with parties closest to the entrepreneur.
This sets the momentum for longer term working
relationships that allows time for mutual assessment
of personal motivations and commitments of participants resulting in the development of social reputational capital. Social entrepreneurs often rely on
personal contacts and past experience to build support for their mission and risk losing their credibility
if their venture fails (Shaw and Carter, 2007).
Reputation plays an important mediating role and
constitutes a non-substitutable social resource in
contracting, networking and the survival of the
social enterprise (Schaper and Volery, 2004, pp. 64
65; Shane and Cable, 2002).
Finally, the cognitive dimension concerns the
derivation of shared meanings in particular contexts
(London, 2008; Nahapiet and Ghoshal, 1998). Trust
and credibility deepens as the shared meanings are
entrenched within tacit personal values and beliefs
further strengthening bonds of the network participants (De Carolis and Saparito, 2006). The unity
towards a common purpose achieved through local
enterprise networks comprising entrepreneurs, investors, community, NGOs and governments in
developing countries has been found to facilitate the
generation of sustainable outcomes (Wheeler et al.,
2005). The proximity to the context also allows
these networks to develop native capabilities, coordinate resources and share knowledge thereby
maximizing their long-term impact in enhancing the
quality of life and economic development. Native
capabilities also promote practical local solutions to
265
real problems further developing trust and social

capital. This forms an important aspect of competitive advantage for social entrepreneurs (Hart and
London, 2005).
Innovation (INV). Encumbered by uncertainty, endowed with limited resources and driven by an
unwavering passion to be an agent of social change,
social entrepreneurs need to be agile and creative in
shaping collective social solutions (Dees, 2001;
Elkington and Hartigan, 2008, pp. 85133; Shaw
and Carter, 2007). Social innovation unlocks value
by creating a platform for sustainable solutions
through a synergistic combination of capabilities,
products, processes and technology (Auersweld,
2009; Phills et al., 2008). The motivation to be an
agent of social change may go against the grain of
rational and traditional economic thoughts and pose
as a force for creative destruction to unlock value
(Hart, 2005; Jayasinghe et al., 2008; Schumpeter,
1971 cited in Pittaway, 2005).
Innovative capabilities are enhanced as individuals
develop personal mastery throughout the networking
process involving combination and exchange of
intellectual and social capital (Littunen, 2000;
Nahapiet and Ghoshal. 1998). From the social
entrepreneurs perspective, this includes exploring
ways to penetrate unconventional bottom of the
pyramid markets. These markets have been neglected
by commercial entrepreneurs due to the perceived
high risk that do not justify economic returns (Hart,
2005). Innovative processes and technologies are
employed by social entrepreneurs to create a social and
strategic fit for products and services to tap into these
underdeveloped, unchartered markets (Hart and
Christensen, 1992; Pralahad 2006, pp. 2527). A
more sustainable socio-economic development is
achieved as these innovative initiatives gradually
empower these underprivileged markets to participate
in the activities of mainstream markets.
Financial returns (FR). The financial perspective
originates from the demand side view which holds
that entrepreneurs need to seize opportunities and
compete for scarce resources to generate economic
returns. The economic perspective upholds the
shareholder primacy viewpoint whereby the role of
the entrepreneur as an agent to the principal is
limited to the maximization of financial wealth.
266
Outcomes are quantifiable in terms of profitability

metrics. The invisible hand of free markets is assumed to be able to produce an efficient outcome
and absolves the responsibility of the entrepreneur
from addressing social outcomes (Friedman, 2004 in
Schaefer, 2008). In a less than perfect reality, the
public good problem is not efficiently addressed by a
single firm and often left to governments for resolution.
Proponents of the economic view adopt the view
that human nature is rational and self-interested.
They discount the individual ability to initiate free
will and exercise choice (Baumol, 1968; Machan,
1999). The assumption of a perfectly laissez-faire
economy capable of producing a morally justifiable
outcome is far reaching. The rationale of mechanistic individuals devoid of morals, emotions and
practical reasoning is a fallacy. As such, a purely
economic view would exclude emphasis on subjective, intangible non-financial (for example social
and environmental) and moral outcomes of social
responsibility (Schaefer, 2008).
In practice, social entrepreneurship inclines towards stakeholder theory that seeks to bridge the gap
in the provision of the public good where governments are unable to and/or where the commercial
viability defies capabilities of corporations (Haughton, 2008). Social entrepreneurship manifests in a
continuum of business models ranging from leveraged non-profit ventures, hybrid ventures to social
businesses (Elkington and Hartigan, 2008; Haughton, 2008). Leveraged non-profits often rely on
availability of private funding in serving a basic
human need driven by an enlightened social vision.
Hybrid ventures partially recover their costs through
profits generated from goods and services (Pralahad,
2006). Hybrid ventures may also rely on grants from
governments and corporations. The pricing mechanism adopted may be based on an equitable pay as
you can afford system, for example, in the case of
Aravind Eye Hospital, India. In contrast, social
businesses are set up as for profit ventures. However,
they differ from commercial ventures in that they
emphasize social returns as well as financial returns.
Shareholders may receive a return of their initial
investment but are not paid dividends (Yunus, 2007,
pp. 2140). Profits are reinvested in the business to
serve social policy initiatives (Gunn et al., 2008), for
example, micro-financing by Grameen Bank.
Social entrepreneurs pursue a variety of social

causes requiring high levels of willpower, innovativeness, social interaction and sanctioning (Goss,
2005, 2008; Rhee and White, 2007). This study
adopts the stand that personality traits play an
important role in moulding the individuals perceptions and behaviours which are instrumental in
driving the social mission and legitimacy of the
enterprise. The following section discusses the Big
Five personality traits factors that entrepreneurs are
likely to possess.
Personality traits
Personality traits are enduring, predictable characteristics of individual behaviour that explain differences in individual actions in similar situations
(Llewellyn and Wilson, 2003). Personality traits may
be influenced by the unique, tacit, subjective personal knowledge, values/beliefs, perception and
experiences of the individual that are not easily
replicated (Kor et al., 2007). Personality traits of an
individual may serve as a catalyst which influences
the risk perception of entrepreneurs in decision
making (Chaucin et al., 2007; Naffziger et al., 1994;
Rauch and Frese, 2007). Proactive personality have
been found to be a significant predictor especially of
entrepreneurial start-up intentions, but the influence
reduces in time as the venture maturates (Crant,
1996; Frank et al., 2007). Entrepreneurs have been
found to possess higher scores of tolerance for
ambiguity, internal locus of control, proactive personality, self-efficacy and need for achievement
compared with non-entrepreneurs in explaining
business success (Cools and Van Den Broeck, 2008;
Crant, 1996; DIntino et al., 2007; Ong and Ismail,
2008; Rauch and Frese, 2007). Most studies
involving the relationship between personality traits
on entrepreneurship and in organizational settings
yielded inconclusive findings (Abu Elanain, 2008;
Ong and Ismail, 2008). This study attempts to fill the
lacuna in studies investigating the influence of the
Big Five personality trait dimensions on social
entrepreneurship (Costa and McCrae, 1992 cited in
Llewellyn and Wilson, 2003). The following section
discusses the Big Five traits, namely openness,
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and
neuroticism.

Openness (OPEN)
Openness is manifested in a liberal value system
where individual intellectual curiosity and affinity
towards novelty of new experiences are welcomed
(McCrae and Costa, 1986 cited in Abu Elanain,
2008). Individuals who are high on the openness
dimension are not afraid of new challenges, versatile,
imaginative and often display high degree of creativity (Yong, 2007, pp. 2930; Llewellyn and Wilson, 2003). However, they may appear to be
impulsive, overly inquisitive and may be easily bored
with status quo. As such, they are often misunderstood by others for their individualistic nature.
Entrepreneurs have been found to have greater
openness compared to administrative personnel due
to their need to be creative in the utilization of
scarce resources (Nordvik and Brovold, 1998).
Openness has also been found to positively influence
citizenship behaviour (Abu Elanain, 2008). However, openness is found to be negatively related
to the long-term sustainability of a business venture
(Ciavarella et al., 2004). As social entrepreneurship
is a relatively new field that may require individuals
to go against conventional economic wisdom to
create social value, the following hypotheses are
posited:
H1(a): OPEN have a positive influence on the SV
dimension of social entrepreneurship
(SOC_ENT).
H1(b): OPEN have a positive influence on the INV
dimension of SOC_ENT.
H1(c): OPEN have an influence on the FR dimension
of SOC_ENT.
Extroversion (EXTROV)
Extroverted individuals are exemplified by sociable,
outgoing, positive attitude and assertive characteristics (Ciavarella et al., 2004; Llewellyn and Wilson,
2003; Moon et al., 2008; Yong, 2007, p. 8). Extroversion contributes towards the proactive personality
required in fuelling the instinct and driving the
charismatic vision of the social entrepreneur (Crant,
1996). Social entrepreneurs are expected to possess
extroversion as they have to be willing and able to
communicate well with a myriad of stakeholders.
Extroversion also creates a positive perceived locus of
control as they are driven to fulfil their risk-taking
propensity and need for achievement (McCarthy,
267
2003). Entrepreneurs have been found to possess

higher extroversion than administrative workers
(Nordvik and Brovold, 1998), and this assertiveness
positively influences entrepreneurial success (Caliendo and Kritikos, 2008). However, a detailed
analysis of extroversion characteristics comprising
reward sensitivity, sociability and positive emotions
was found to off-set one another (Ciavarella et al.,
2004; Moon et al., 2008; Zhao and Seibert, 2006).
This may explain why many studies investigating the
overall effect of extroversion on citizenship behaviour and entrepreneurship remain inconclusive. As
social entrepreneurs are perceived to be led by their
strong, albeit unreasonable drive to achieve social
mission through social businesses, the following
hypotheses are posited:
H2(a): EXTROV has a positive influence on the SV
H2(b): EXTROV has an influence on the STB
H2(c): EXTROV has an influence on FR dimension of
SOC_ENT.
Agreeableness (AGREE)
Agreeableness concerns the ability to foster social
consensus while upholding mutual understanding
and trust (Llewellyn and Wilson, 2003; Yong, 2007,
p. 30). Agreeableness in interpersonal relationships
includes the ability to be good listeners, patient,
empathize and promoting harmony in social interactions (Caliendo and Kritikos, 2008). Trusting and
co-operative environments establish good rapport in
alliances which facilitates exchange of technologies
and raising capital for growth (Ciavarella et al., 2004).
Nonetheless, overly agreeable individual characteristics may lead to compromise to gain acceptance of
others and lower risk-taking propensity for unpopular ventures. The following hypotheses are posited.
H3(a): AGREE has a positive influence on the SV
H3(b): AGREE has an influence on the INV dimension
of SOC_ENT.
H3(c): AGREE has an influence on the SN dimension
of SOC_ENT.
H3(d): AGREE has an influence on the STB dimension
of SOC_ENT.;
H3(e): AGREE has an influence on FR dimension of
SOC_ENT.
268
Conscientiousness (CONSC)
The conscientious trait relates to an individuals
meticulousness, conformance with rules/procedures
and the incessant obsession in maintaining high
standards of performance (Llewellyn and Wilson,
2003; Yong, 2007, p. 32). Conscientious individuals
are driven by a strong sense of responsibility,
industriousness and need for achievement which
promotes their dependability at work (Ciavarella
et al., 2004). Need for achievement has been found
to positively related to competitive advantage of the
firm (Ong and Ismail, 2008). Conscientiousness has
also been positively linked to long-term survival of a
business venture (Ciavarella et al., 2004). As such the
following hypotheses are posited.
H4(a): CONSC has an influence on the STB dimension
of SOC_ENT.
H4(b): CONSC has an influence on FR dimension of
SOC_ENT.
Neuroticism (NEURO)
Neuroticism is the degree of emotional stability of
the individual (Yong, 2007, p. 9; Llewellyn and
Wilson, 2003). Individuals who are highly neurotic
often display mood swings, impulsiveness, self-consciousness, low self-esteem and depression (Costa
and McCrae, 1992 cited in Zhao and Seibert, 2006).
In contrast, entrepreneurs who are constantly challenged by diversity of complex situations involving
management of scarce resources in tandem with
pressures of illuminating legitimacy in the face of
pressures from stakeholders need to exhibit high
degree of optimism and emotional intelligence
(Crane and Crane, 2007; DIntino et al., 2007). As
such, low neuroticism scores are expected. Thus, the
following hypotheses are posited:
H5(a): NEURO has an influence on the STB dimension of SOC_ENT.
H5(b): NEURO has an influence on the SN dimension
of SOC_ENT.
H5(c): NEURO has an influence on the INV dimension of SOC_ENT.
H5(d): NEURO has an influence on FR dimension of
SOC_ENT.
Social desirability bias

Social desirability bias (SDB) concerns the tendency of
individuals to over-claim or present themselves in a
favourable manner (King and Brunner, 2000). SDB is

especially prevalent in self-report measures tapping
into values and perceptions that are considered socially
sensitive and/or undesirable research. While eliminating SDB in total is not possible, there are methods
to reduce the occurrence (Randall and Fernandes,
1991). Measures include phrasing questions in a nonthreatening manner using familiar terms, obtaining
prior informed consent and through assurance of
anonymity (Andanda, 2005; Homan, 2001; Vinten,
1997). In addition, wording of questions seeking a
third party view may encourage individuals to
divulge their view more freely behind the facade of
impersonality. Nonetheless, SDB in desirable values
increase rather than contaminate the validity of responses (Sarros et al., 2006). This is because individuals
may feel greater ease and less threatened to accentuate
positive traits or aspects of actions. This study has addressed and taken the necessary precautions to reduce
SDB. The StrahanGerbasi Social Desirability Scale
(1972 cited in Thompson and Phua, 2005) has been
included to assess SDB.
The conceptual framework of this study to
investigate the influence of the Big Five personality
factors on social entrepreneurship dimensions is
illustrated in Figure 1.
Methodology
The authors adopt a technical and situational paradigm stance which recognizes that quantitative and
qualitative methods are interconnected but have
distinctive epistemological and ontological assumptions (Bryman and Bell, 2007). As such quantitative
and qualitative methods are not compatible within
the same phase of this study. However, qualitative
methods can complement quantitative findings by
drawing of theoretical inferences and/or applied
within different study situations and contexts in
future studies (Flick, 2009; Miles and Huberman,
1994).
This section describes the methodology used in the
main study which adopts the quantitative survey
method as part of an initial empirical investigation to
obtain the macro view concerning the influence
between personality traits and social entrepreneurship.
The hypotheses within the conceptual framework
developed for this study (Figure 1) were derived from

review of extant literature in the previous section.
Similar studies on commercial entrepreneurship have
also often adopted the quantitative methodology to test
hypotheses triangulated from extant literature and/or
previous qualitative study propositions (Table I).
The following section also describes the sampling
design, measurement assessment and methods used
for data analysis. The section starts by elucidating why
a sample of students is selected as well as elaborates on
the scales used for the quantitative survey conducted.
It then elaborates on the empirical tests used to test the
hypotheses developed for this study based on the
conceptual framework in Figure 1 above. The statistical package used for this study was SPSS 16.
Sampling design
As the purpose of the study is to investigate the
theoretical rather than population generalizability of
the conceptual model posited in Figure 1, a purposive judgemental sampling design is utilized (Cavana
et al., 2000, p. 263). The sample comprised college
students and undergraduates from private HEI as
they form the future human capital and leaders in
nation development. Although there is no prior
specific study relating to social entrepreneurship in
Malaysia, student samples have often been utilized in
entrepreneurship studies as shown in Table I. Of a
total of 200 survey questionnaires were administered
on individual students, 181 were returned/completed and used for data analysis.
Measurement assessment
The questionnaire for social entrepreneurship
dimensions was developed based on the concepts
derived from extant literature forming a methodological contribution of this study. As for personality
traits, the Big Five personality measures advanced by
Schmit et al. (2000) are adopted and adapted for the
context of this study. A five-point Likert scale is
employed for the abovementioned constructs.
Reliability
Reliability or internal consistency of the items
within each construct of this study is assessed by
269
observing the Cronbach a (Cavana et al., 2000,

p. 211). As this study forms a preliminary research
into social entrepreneurship, the Cronbach a of 0.60
and above will be considered to be reliable (Hair
et al., 2006, pp. 137139; Nunnally, 1967 p. 226
cited in Peterson, 1994).
Validity
There is many genres of validity, namely, face,
content and construct validities (Cavana et al., 2000,
pp. 212215). Face and content validities are assessed
by an extant review and verification from literature
as well as obtaining independent expert review.
Construct validity comprising convergent and discriminant validities of the measurements for social
entrepreneurship and personality traits constructs is
evaluated via EFA using the Principal Components
Method. As the items making up the constructs of
this study are likely to be correlated, the Direct
Oblimin factor rotation method is employed. In line
with the sample size of between 150 and 200, factor
loadings of 0.45 and above is considered significant
(Hair et al., 2006, p. 128).
Data analysis
Hypotheses H1 to H5 series are tested by engaging
the Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) method.
The relevant social entrepreneurship (SOC_ENT)
dimensions are the dependent variables (SV, STB,
SN and INV respectively) and the personality trait
variables (OPEN, EXTROV, AGREE, CONC
and NEURO) as the independent variables. In
adopting the 95% confidence interval, the hypothesis will be considered significant if the p-value is
below 0.05.
Findings
Descriptive statistics
The sample of this study comprise a total of 181
respondents comprising students from private HEI in
Klang Valley, Malaysia. Table II displays the sample
demographic characteristics of the respondents. In
terms of age, the respondents have been found to be
270

TABLE II
Descriptive statistics
Age
20 and below
2123
2426
Total
Missing system
Total
Race
Malay
Chinese
Indian
Others
Total
Missing system
Total
EDUC_LVL
Foundation studies
Diploma
Undergraduate degree
Others
Total
Missing system
Total
Frequency
Percent
Valid percent
Cumulative percent
92
86
2
180
1
181
50.8
47.5
1.1
99.4
0.6
100
51.1
47.8
1.1
100
51.1
98.9
100
3
170
3
4
180
1
181
1.7
93.9
1.7
2.2
99.4
0.6
100
1.7
94.4
1.7
2.2
100
1.7
96.1
97.8
100
86
6
82
4
178
3
181
47.6
3.3
45.3
2.2
98.3
1.7
100
48.3
3.4
46.1
2.2
100
48.3
51.7
97.8
100
almost evenly distributed between the categories of

below 20 (51.1%) and between 21 and 23 (47.8%).
The majority race is Chinese and mostly pursuing
foundation studies (47.6%) or undergraduate degrees
(45.3%).
Measurement assessment
Tables III and IV represent the final pattern matrix
results of the EFA for the Big Five personality factors
and social entrepreneurship dimensions, respectively.
Based on Table III, the final pattern matrix for the
Big Five personality factors was 0.77 for agreeableness and extroversion, 0.69 for neuroticism, 0.73 for
openness and 0.75 for conscientiousness. Since the
Cronbach a values were between 0.60 and 0.70 with
less than 10 items constituting each of the constructs,
the reliability of the scale has been established (Hair
et al., 2006, pp. 137139). The KaiserMeyerOlkin test (KMO) shows a figure of 0.77 and the
Bartletts test returns a chi-squared value of 1,364
(df = 253; p = 0.01) indicating that good sampling
100
adequacy and the assumption of non-identity matrix

have not been violated. The Eigenvalues for each of
the five personality trait components were also
greater than one (1) indicating that they constitute
valid and important explanatory variables (Field,
2009, p. 660). The cumulative percentage of
explained variance is 56.69%.
Based on Table IV, the social entrepreneurship
components, the Cronbach a values for social
entrepreneurship dimensions of social vision and
innovation are 0.89, sustainability and social networks is 0.87 while financial returns is 0.82. The
Cronbach a values of above 0.7 indicates that the
constructed scales have high reliability. The KMO
test shows a value of 0.89, and the Bartletts test of
sphericity has a chi-squared value of 3,584
(df = 528; p value = 0.01) indicating that sample is
adequate and suitable for conducting EFA. The
Eigenvalues of above one (1) also indicates that the 5
five-dimensions of social entrepreneurship extracted
are valid factors. As such, the accompanying findings
KMO measure of sampling adequacy 0.77.

Bartletts test of sphericity chi-square = 1,364; df = 253; p = 0.01.
agree09 I believe in establishing good rapport with my peers

agree10 I believe in maintaining harmonious relationships with my peers
agree08 I believe in fostering a trusting working relationship
agree06 I believe in the importance of achieving agreement with my peers before
forming a conclusion
extro24 I would like to attain the highest position in an organization someday
extro27 I am always looking for opportunities to start new projects
extro22 I like to win, even if the activity is not very important
extro25 When most people are exhausted from work, I still have energy to keep going
extro23 I prefer to set challenging goals, rather than aim for goals that I am likely to reach
extro21 For me, change is exciting
neuro40a My peers would say that I am a confident person
neuro39a My peers would say that I am an optimistic person
neuro38a My peers would say that I make decisions wisely
open42 I work best in an environment that allows me to be creative
open43 I work well in environments that allow me to create new things
open44 I know what is expected of me in different social situations
open49 My peers would say that I am an innovative person
open48 My peers would say that am an open-minded person
consc11- I like to complete every detail of tasks according to the work plans
consc19 My peers would say that I am a responsible person
consc17 I prioritize my work effectively so the most important things get done first
consc12 I conduct my business according to strict set of ethical principles
consc15 I am motivated to meet targets in jobs assigned to me
Eigenvalue
Percentage of explained variance
Cumulative percentage of explained variance
Cronbach a
Scale mean
Scale standard deviation
5.38
23.40
23.40
0.77
15.45
2.23
0.79
0.77
0.73
0.62
AGREE
Pattern matrix Big Five personality trait components
TABLE III
2.58
11.23
34.63
0.77
21.46
3.58
-0.72
-0.70
-0.70
-0.61
-0.54
-0.49
EXTRO
1.96
8.53
43.15
0.69
7.75
1.78
0.72
0.67
0.66
NEURO
Components
1.72
7.49
50.65
0.73
18.22
2.67
0.79
0.78
0.65
0.61
0.53
OPEN
0.80
0.68
0.66
0.50
0.48
1.39
6.04
56.69
0.75
18.36
2.71
CONSC

271
sv04 Take a focussed stand on social issues

sv03 Are strongly committed to a social
vision
sv07 Are not easily distracted to pursue
other non-social issues
sv01 Are clearly able to identify a social
need
sv02 Are able to create a clear social vision
sv08 Have strong motivation to defend a
social need
sv06 Are determined to be agents of social
change
sv05 Are determined to meet a social need
fr02 Making profit is the main reason for
their existence
fr05 Selling goods and services for a profit
fr03- Maximizing financial wealth
fr01 Maximizing the wealth of their
investors
fr07 Survival through profits
fr08 Making profits a means to achieve a
social goal
inv02 They are able to see risks as opportunities to create social value
inv07 They are flexible individuals
inv08 They are innovative individuals
inv01 They are proactive in identifying
social opportunities
inv05 They are able to create better social
value compared to normal entrepreneurs
0.50
0.60
0.63
0.60
0.66
0.66
0.84
0.75
Social vision
(SV)
0.70
0.62
0.82
0.76
0.75
0.87
Financial
return (FR)
-0.70
-0.77
-0.74
-0.71
-0.79
Innovation
(INV)
Components
Pattern matrix social entrepreneurship components
TABLE IV
Sustainability (STB)
Social
networks (SN)
272
11.68
35.39
35.39
0.89
21.83
4.67
KMO measure of sampling adequacy 0.891.

Bartletts test of sphericity chi-square = 3,584; df = 528; p = 0.01.
inv04 They are able to deliver sustainable

advantage through innovative goods and
services
inv06 They are pragmatic individuals
inv03 They are able to create social value
through goods/services
stb02 Improve quality of life in the long run
stb01 Environmentally friendly
stb03 Improves a long term social need
stb08 Promotes a balance of economic,
social and environmental concerns
stb07 Promotes a balance between social
mission and social value
stb06 Promotes solutions that are ethical
sn08 Provide mutual understanding for
emotional support
sn06 Promote credibility of the business
sn05 Promote trust in the business
sn07 Provide a platform for mutually
beneficial social efforts
sn04 Promote knowledge sharing
Eigenvalue
Percentage of explained variance
Cumulative percentage of explained variance
Cronbach a
Scale mean
Scale standard deviation
Social vision
(SV)
Components
3.48
10.54
45.93
0.82
18.32
3.34
Financial
return (FR)
continued
TABLE IV
2.18
6.60
52.53
0.89
30.36
4.62
-0.66
-0.64
-0.67
Innovation
(INV)
1.72
5.20
57.73
0.87
24.23
3.47
0.53
0.53
0.79
0.74
0.66
0.60
-0.54
1.24
3.76
61.49
0.87
19.56
3.10
-0.70
-0.59
-0.56
-0.75
Social
networks (SN)

273
The findings of this study suggest that certain personality traits such as agreeableness, openness and
H1(c)
0.278 0.021*
H2(c) -0.095 0.313
H3(e)
0.289 0.044*
H5(d)
0.159 0.410
H4(b)
0.258 0.044*
0.213 0.012
0.122
H1(b)
0.422 0.001*
0.663
0.004* H3(c)
0.222 0.017* H3(d)
0.723 0.000*
0.717 H5(b) -0.379 0.002* H5(c) -0.116 0.547
0.000*
0.708
0.084 0.149
-0.120 0.892
0.096
0.225
0.033
0.343
0.057
0.507
0.026
0.031*
0.604 H2(b)
0.000* H3(b)
H5(a)
H4(a)
0.279
0.262
b
Ref
p-Value
b
Ref
p-Value
b
Ref
b
Ref
p-Value
Ref
b
p-Value
Innovation (INV)
Social networks (SN)
Results of hypothesis testing
OPEN
H1(a)
0.297
EXTRO
H2(a)
0.054
AGREE
H3(a)
0.562
NEURO
CONSC
Social desirability bias (SDB)
-0.104
Adjusted R2
0.124
Discussion and implications
TABLE V
Hypothesis testing
The 17 hypotheses (denoted by the H1 to H5 series)
have been tested by employing multiple linear
regression (MLR) method. The social entrepreneurship dimensions of social vision (SV), sustainability (STB), social networks (SN), innovation
(INV) and financial returns (FR) are treated as
dependent variables. The independent variables are
represented by the Big Five personality factors. SDB
has been included as an independent control variable. Table V below tabulates the results of the
hypothesis testing. Assumptions of normality of the
residuals of the dependent variables have been satisfied for all the hypotheses.
Based on Table V, hypotheses H1(a) to H1(c) are
supported at the 0.05 significance level. As such,
openness (OPEN) exerts an influence on SV, STB
and FR. Similarly, for agreeableness (AGREE),
hypotheses H3(a) to H3(e) are supported. Thus,
AGREE exerts a significant influence on all four
dimensions of social entrepreneurship. The relevant
hypotheses related to conscientiousness (CONSC),
H4(a) and H4(b) are also supported indicating that
CONSC has a significant influence on STB and FR.
As for neuroticism (NEURO), only H5(b) is supported implying that NEURO exerts a negative
relationship on the fostering of social networks.
Table V also shows that the control variable SDB
did not exert any statistically significant influence on
the responses in this study except for FR. The adjusted R2 in all the regression models range from
0.096 to 0.262 indicating that the population effect
size is medium to large (Cohen, 1992).
Financial returns (FR)
support the establishment of the social entrepreneurship scale as a valid and reliable scale.
The final StrahanGerbasi Social Desirability
Scale (1972 cited in Thompson and Phua, 2005)
comprising seven (7) items recorded a Cronbach a
reliability of 0.63 with a scale mean of 22.80 and
standard deviation of 3.57. As the Cronbach a lies
between the range of 0.60 and 0.70, reliability can
also be assumed (Hair et al., 2006, pp. 137139).
p-Value
Social vision (SV)
274

conscientiousness exert an influence on social
entrepreneurship dimensions. The following section discusses how we can develop the business
and management education curriculum further to
enhance awareness, understanding and development
of social responsibility and the requisite personality
traits above through character education. The
implication of how the development of character and
social entrepreneurship can be inculcated through
student-centred learning and life-long learning is also
further discussed below.
Social responsibility
The study findings reveal that agreeableness is the
only personality trait that exerts significant influence
across all dimensions of social entrepreneurship. As
such in a multi-racial nation such as Malaysia, the
education curriculum needs to promote constructive
dialogue to encourage better understanding on
multicultural values and perspectives. Students have
to appreciate their role as future leaders within an
ecosystem comprising businesses, society and the
environment. Internalization of the interconnectedness of economic, social and environmental
concerns requires continual reflective learning reinforcements across different disciplines of academia to
promote holistic grasps of the principles of sustainability (Warburton, 2003). Within this context,
collaborative efforts between academic institutions,
corporations and society are required to provide
input towards a more comprehensive education
system that addresses the relevant modus operandi
for sustainable development (Springett and Kearins,
2001). Agreeableness through social consensus between the Education Ministry, NGOs and the private sector may foster healthy appreciation for
differing stakeholder views and in deriving a more
holistic, dynamic and relevant business education
curriculum (Rae, 2009).
The study also found that openness exerted significant positive influence on financial returns and
social vision. Conscientiousness was found to exert a
positive influence on sustainability and financial
returns. The findings imply that social entrepreneurship upholds the compelling values within the
social mission in the quest towards long-term social
value. In many instances, the personal and corporate/
275
mutual goals of the entrepreneur are inseparable

(London, 2008; Rae, 2009). Thus, the education
curriculum needs to be robust in nourishing the
desire to create a more sustainable, just and compassionate world (Johnson, 2005). Engagement of
students in social issues can be encouraged to enhance
motivation, increase critical awareness (Warbuton,
2003) and relevance of social entrepreneurship.
Fostering awareness and nurturing them in recognizing their place as global citizens are necessary to
equip them to cope with global pressures for sustainable development (Newport et al., 2003). The
role of students as empowered future catalyst for
social change has to be continually reinforced
throughout the curricula (Henle, 2006; Johnson,
2005).
Higher education institutions in Malaysia need to
lead in developing cogent global sustainability
practices and principles giving a balanced emphasis
to the economic, environmental and social concerns
(Newport et al., 2003). The appreciation and stance
of the academia towards doing its part alleviating
global issues such as global warming, security,
human rights, poverty and other sustainability concerns are crucial in bridging the gap in academic
content and extracting global relevance.
Student centred learning

This study also found that personality traits of
openness and agreeableness exerted a positive
influence on social vision construction. Agreeableness and conscientiousness also had a significant and
positive influence on the sustainability dimension.
Development of sustainability and entrepreneurial
traits are driven by personal values/beliefs, experiences and interest beliefs (Barendsen and Gardner,
2004; Krueger Jr., 2007; Warbuton, 2003). Thus,
the competence of students to learn how to learn
and identify their potential role and contribution
towards society (Krueger Jr., 2007) is both a personal
and corporate journey. The social entrepreneurial
mindset invokes the need for openness in the construction of meaning within the complex business
environment involving the internal deliberation of
personal values/beliefs and social concerns while
making business sense. As such, entrepreneurship
education curriculum in HEI need to nurture
276
independent learners who are able to develop the

competence to construct meaning through concepts,
discovery and reflection. Personality traits of openness and agreeableness can also be inculcated via
active, problem-based and cooperative learning as
students grapple with real-life examples within different social context (Richardson and Hynes, 2008).
engagement staring from parents, educators and

organizational leaders are necessary (Packer and
Sharrar, 2003). Citizenship within the context of
social entrepreneurship, the individual may, as a
response to life-long learning, consider social
responsibility as a good opportunity to ameliorate
ones intrinsic social vision within other personal
goals.
Life-long learning
Character education
An individuals aspirations and values/beliefs may
evolve through socialization and personal experience
gained in the journey of ones career. Thus, personality traits may also be transformed over time
(Mezirow, 2008). Life-long learning involves a
combination of tacit and explicit knowledge and
recognizes the individual as an active creator of
meaning in bridging theory and practice (Jrgensen,
2004). Continuous learning takes place as one constantly applies acquired skills, social networks and
experience as practical reinforcements to create and/
or capitalize on opportunities in a competitive business environment. Older individuals have been
found to have a greater propensity to embark on
entrepreneurship compared to younger individuals (Arenius and Minniti, 2005; Beugelsdijk and
Noorderhaven, 2005; Walker and Webster, 2007;
Weber and Schaper, 2004). Entrepreneurial tendencies are higher among older individuals as they are
financially stable in terms of resources, and have
greater experience but may be less educated and have
less choice of employment. Thus, they may be pushed into self-employment due to lack of alternatives. However, younger individuals are often
pulled or lured by greater choices of employment
due to their higher financial, family commitments
and educational qualifications. As such, there may be
a place for adult entrepreneurship education to buttress the knowledge competence in bridging the gap
between the current employment status and identity
with long-term personal aspiration in making midlife self-employment transitions (Rae, 2005).
Besides technical know-how, life-long learning
also incorporates active citizenship which includes
the reflection on how an individual sees ones role
within the larger society (Leader, 2003). Thus, for
life-long business curricula to be relevant in developing responsible citizens, a closely knit chain of
Character education may have a bearing in the

development of conscientiousness which has been
found to positively influence sustainability and
financial returns in this study. The twofold thrust of
character education relates to the development of
personal and relationship virtues (Benninga, et al.,
2006). Personal virtues include development of
conscientiousness, self-resolve, courage to exert
ones intellectual voice, exercise of responsibility,
honesty, hope and humility (Rivers, 2004). On the
other hand, relationship virtues relate to issues surrounding social interaction and integration, for
instance, respect, tolerance, equitable practices and
tolerance. As such, relationship virtues may promote
practical agreement through reasonable compromise
within legal and moral confines.
Character education may also mitigate the resistance to change arising from false social perceptions
between different groups of peoples. Students are
continually challenged to evaluate and deliberate on
the essence of a decision or situation on its own
merits rather than passing simple right or wrong
judgement. In so doing, students learn to develop
openness via tolerate a diversity of views and learn to
act responsibly despite the contingencies in the situation (Benninga et al., 2006; Polan, 1991). As such,
character education provides the foundations for
citizenship education which attempts to develop a
sense of moral and social/civic convictions through
critical reflection and engagement (Gilness, 2003;
Joseph and Efron, 2005; Polan, 1991). Character
education may indirectly contribute towards the
inculcation of ones moral and social intelligence
(Landy, 2005; Lennick and Kiel, 2005, p. 7;
Silberman, 2001; Strang, 1930). In certain instances,
character education has also been found to improve
academic achievement (Benninga et al., 2006). As

moral and social virtues permeate human interaction
in all areas of business, character education promulgation requires interdisciplinary reinforcements
(Joseph and Efron, 2005; Polan, 1991; Rivers,
2004).
277
business executives need moral courage to be leaders

of transformation by embracing sustainability into the
soul of the business by committing to be global citizens (Birch, 2008).
Limitations and further research

Entrepreneurship education
Social and commercial entrepreneurs share certain
similar characteristics such as affinity towards risktaking, creativity and opportunism (Kirby, 2004;
Mort et al., 2003). As such, entrepreneurship education needs to promote a proper balance of rational
thought rooted in technical knowledge base and
intuitive thinking (Kirby, 2004). Student-centred
learning approaches such as cooperative and problem-based learning can be employed to increase the
relevance of the curriculum and to encourage students to take ownership of their learning. The
experience gained by involving students working in
teams in solving simulations of real-life issues will
develop the ability to endure the uncertainty in a
business environment enveloped by constant change.
Teamwork also establishes potential social and business networking opportunities (Collins et al., 2004).
Sustainability education
Social entrepreneurship education needs to include a
firm grounding on ethics and sustainable practices.
A sustainability education curriculum needs to
encourage greater research, deep reflection and discussions on ways to better achieve equitable balance
of economic, social and environmental development
(Campbell and Dealtry, 2003). Human exploitation
of the environmental resources needs to be carefully
weighed against the regenerative capability of the
ecosystem (Birch, 2008). Future leaders need to
consciously consider the pivotal role corporations
play in preserving the equilibrium of the socioeconomic and environmental ecosystem. Sustainability needs to be treated as an interdisciplinary
discipline which is required integrated emphasis
across all core business courses taught at institutions of
higher learning to reinforce its multi-faceted meaning
and applications (Stubbs and Cocklin, 2008; Thomas,
2004; Velazquez et al., 2005). In addition, future
This study is an initial study on personality traits and

social entrepreneurship based on concepts derived
from literature. The study was undertaken with an
understanding that undergraduate students can be
skilfully trained and motivated to engage in socially
entrepreneurial activities (Bull, 2008). The objective
aim is to highlight areas where social entrepreneurship and associated personality traits could be
incorporated in business and management education
curriculum.
However, the scope of this study is limited to
undergraduate students. The quantitative survey
method may also lack the depth in explanation of the
dilemmas and challenges that social entrepreneurs
face in reality. As such, separate qualitative research
on the practitioners viewpoint using case study
methods to understand is suggested. Qualitative
findings may also complement and deepen our
understanding of how personalities cum character of
social entrepreneurs are moulded. The insight gained
can then be used to refine the conceptual framework
that applies to working adults as well as further
reinforce relevance of business and management
education curricula.
Future studies may also need to control the effect
of socio-economic factors and demographics beyond
personality traits on the intention to pursue social
entrepreneurship.
Conclusion
Social entrepreneurship is emerging as a sustainable
solution in integrating financial/economic interest
and social value. This unity of purpose is upheld by
the overarching vision that commits to a social
dimension to business decisions. This study has found
that personality traits such as agreeableness, openness
and conscientiousness have generally a positive
influence on social entrepreneurship dimensions. In
particular, agreeableness has been found to have a
278
positive influence across all social entrepreneurship

dimensions investigated, namely social vision, innovation, sustainability, social networking and financial
returns. As such, there is a need to inculcate these
personality traits among business students to promote
greater social entrepreneurial spirit through engagement, awareness of social responsibility, creativity
reflective learning and good character development.
Social entrepreneurship requires the combination of
head knowledge and heart virtues that fosters the
courage to become catalysts of change while undertaking opportunities that offer an enhanced blend of
economic, social cum environmental value.
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Joyce Koe Hwee Nga

School of Business,
Sunway University College,
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
E-mail: joycen88@gmail.com
Gomathi Shamuganathan
Taylors University College,
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
E-mail: shgomathi@gmail.com
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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Springer 2010

Journal of Business Ethics (2010) 95:259282

The Influence of Personality Traits

ABSTRACT. The sheer impact of the recent global

Joyce Koe Hwee Nga

Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

returns. Their reliance on the invisible hand of the

education curriculum. The quantitative survey

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

We maintain that if social entrepreneurship is to

psychology, sociology and strategic management

Frank et al. (2007)

Wilson et al. (2007)

Abd Moen et al. (2004)

417 (18 year olds)

320 College and non-college

Study conducted over 10 years to investigate the propensity of undergraduates

Previous studies on entrepreneurship employing student samples

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

value creation by uncovering innovative ways where

Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

meeting gaps in social needs where governments and

opportunities, vision and culture within the social

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

real problems further developing trust and social

Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

Outcomes are quantifiable in terms of profitability

Social entrepreneurs pursue a variety of social

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

2003). Entrepreneurs have been found to possess

Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

Social desirability bias

favourable manner (King and Brunner, 2000). SDB is

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

observing the Cronbach a (Cavana et al., 2000,

Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

almost evenly distributed between the categories of

adequacy and the assumption of non-identity matrix

KMO measure of sampling adequacy 0.77.

agree09 I believe in establishing good rapport with my peers

Pattern matrix Big Five personality trait components

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

sv04 Take a focussed stand on social issues

Pattern matrix social entrepreneurship components

KMO measure of sampling adequacy 0.891.

inv04 They are able to deliver sustainable

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

Results of hypothesis testing

Discussion and implications

Financial returns (FR)

Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

Social vision (SV)

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

mutual goals of the entrepreneur are inseparable

Student centred learning

Joyce Koe Hwee Nga and Gomathi Shamuganathan

independent learners who are able to develop the

engagement staring from parents, educators and

Character education may have a bearing in the

The Influence of Personality Traits and Demographic Factors

business executives need moral courage to be leaders

Limitations and further research