M5 Digital Techniques Electronic Instrument Systems: Aviation Maintenance Training Centre

AVIATION MAINTENANCE TRAINING CENTRE
MT.147.02
M5 DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT

SYSTEMS
EASA PART-66
CAT B1
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EASA PART 66
M5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY!
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
HAM US/F4 KrA
11/2006
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DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
M5.1 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT
SYSTEMS
1.
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Electronic Instrument Systems
All modern aircraft use electronic display devices (Electronic Instrument

Display Systems: EIDS).
The names may vary between manufacturers but the advantages that make
them superior to analogue meters are the same:
S Variability and Variety
S Coloured Displays
All modern aircraft uses digital technology in a number of ways :
S Pilot operation of a push button on a cockpit control panel will be acted on
by the processor and transmitted via the data bus to the receiver systems.
S Calculations in the system are made by CPUs (central processing units).
S The interconnection between the electronic units is realized by digital data
busses.
S Necessary parameters are fed
via display data busses to CPUcontrolled CRT or LCD displays.
via digital data busses to a printer for a hardcopy printout.
in digital form to a radio transmitter, which sends data to ground.
S Data is transmitted digitally by the ARINC 429 bus.
S Error Messages or Maintainance Data can be retrieved via MCDU or as a
Print Report.
S Data is filtered: Important Data is accentuated, temporarily unimportant is
supressed.
S If one monitor fails its information can be transferred to an other monitor.
S Less Components needed: all Monitors for EIS are same type in an aircraft.
HAM US/F-4 KrA 05/2009
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Figure 1
Cockpit Layout
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1.1 Classification of the Indicators

Despite the massive amount of indicators in the cockpit the indicators could be
assigned to two groups:
S Flight surveillance and
S Aircraft surveillance
Flight surveillance is:
S Artificial Horizon
S Heading Indicator
S Altimeter
S Speed Indicator
S Machmeter
S Variometer
S Rate of Turn Indicator
S Magnetic Compass
The EFIS Indicators display the most important information for flying.
One may derive between:
S Informationen on the PFD, which in general represents the look ahead
S and Information on the ND, which is a look from above
Aircraft surveillance consists of

Surface Indicators like
S Position indication
S Pressure indication and
Engine surveillance like
S RPM indicators
S EGT indicators
S Fuel indicators
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Figure 2
Cockpit Layout Boeing 747100

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Figure 3
Cockpit Layout Boeing 737300 (Classic)

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Figure 4
Cockpit Layout Airbus A320

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1.2 EIS Display Control

Please note that indication is called EICAS (Boeing) or ECAM (Airbus).
The position of the brightness control knob usually is besides the displays in a
vertical position.
Brightness can be set by rotary knobs. In addition brightness is controlled
automatically by light sensors attached to the displays.
The brightness control for the Navigational Display consists of two knobs
A separate control is available for the basic indication on the ND and for the
weather radar indication, which is an overlay to the navigation information.
In bright sunlight it may be more difficult to read the indication on glass cockpit
sreens than on analogue indicators because of the limitation in brightness of
the screens.
On Airbus aircraft the control knobs have a dedicated OFF position, displays
are switched off if set to the extreme left.
On Boeing aircaft an OFF position is not available. If brightness control is set to
minimum the displays are still active as long as power supply is available.
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Figure 5
EIS Brightness Control

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1.3 Basic T
Indicators in the cockpit are arranged as a so called BASIC T.
1.3.1 Classic Layout

With the classic layout four different inducators from the BASIC T.
Central indicator is the artificial horizon (ADI; Attitude Director Indicatior). It
indicates the vertical situation of the aircraft. This comprises:
S Pitch (Nose up/down)
S Roll (Bank angle)
On the left the airspeed indicator is found. It displays the speed in Knots.
Limitations of the aircraft due to flaps as an example could be indicated by
markings that have to be set by hand.
On the right the altimeter is found. It doesnt always indicate the altitude over
ground but the flight level which is based on the air pressure (ambient
pressure) of the airport or on standard atmosphere.
Below the ADI the HSI is found (Horizontal Situation Indicator).
Besides indicating the heading also navigation information can be found like
direction to ADF (Automatic Directional Finder).
1.3.2 Glass Cockpit Layout

In the glass cockpit the PFD (Primary Flight Display) displays all the BASIC T.
The arrangement of the four analogue indicators is reproduced by computers
making it look very similar.
But additional information is incorporated in the PDF as well. As an example
right besides the altimeter the VSI (Vertical Speed Indicator) is located
indicating the change in altitude in feet/minute.
Limitations from the configuration of the aircraft are no longer displayed by
markers but are a part of the indication itself.
On the speed indication patterns will be displayed from the top/bottom
indication unsafe speeds. Safe flying is only possible between these markings.
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Speed
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Altitude
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Figure 6
Basic T Layout
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1.4 Navigational Displays

With the classic layout navigation data was indicated on the HSI, but also on
other instruments.
With the glass cockpit all that information is displayed on a common sreen. In
addition weather data could also be displayed.
The pilot can read information about the routing, aircraft traffic as well as
weather- or ground proximity information.
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Figure 7
Navigational Display
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1.5 ECAM/EICAS
The Central Warning System consists of an upper and a lower display located
in the middle of the instrument panel.
Its application is:
S displaying information from the Central Warning Computers
S displaying systems synoptics
S permanent display of some additional aircraft parameter
The upper display is called Engine and Warning Display on Airbus aircraft,
Primary EICAS Display on Boeing aircraft.
Below two examples of such a display can be found indicating the similarity of
Airbus and Boeing layout.
The Boeing 747 Primary EICAS Display is on the left as the Airbus 320 Engine
and Warning Display is on the right.
Every screen has an area for the Central Warning System Messages and
aircaft information to be displayed permanently.
These information comprise:
S main engine parameter
S Fuel on Board (FoB)
S Flap Position
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Figure 8
Upper Display
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The lower display of the CWS indicates the status of the aircraft systems.
Airbus calls it System Display while Boeing calls it Secondary or Auxiliary
Display.
A wide amount of different parameters may be displayed on the lower
EICAS/ECAM screen.
They are called Pages or Display Formats.
Also permanent data like temperature and weight are displayed here.
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Figure 9
Lower Display
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1.6 Indication in case of computer failure

If a computer fails the indication changes.
On Airbus aircraft a white line is displayed, on Boeing aircraft the screen turns
dark.
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Figure 10
Display Unit in case of computer failure

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1.7 On-Board-Maintainance
ACQUISITION
The acquisition of aircraft system data is performed by 4 major electronic
systems :
S the Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM) system:
which monitors the operational data in order to display warnings and system
information,
S the Flight Data Recording System (FDRS):
which is mandatory and records aircraft operational parameters for incident
investigation purposes
S the Central Maintenance System (CMS):
which monitors the BITE data in order to record the system failures,
S the Aircraft Condition Monitoring System (ACMS):
which records significant operational parameters in order to monitor the
engines, the aircraft performance and to analyze specific aircraft problems.
ANALYSIS
Maintenance operations can be divided into 3 groups :
S minor trouble shooting which is performed with the help of the ECAM and
the CMS through the MCDUs and the printed or ACARS downlinked
reports.
S indepth trouble shooting which is performed with the help of the CMS and
the ACMS through the MCDUs and printed reports.
S long term maintenance which is performed with the help of the ACMS and
the FDRS through printed, ACARS downlinked and downloaded reports
or recorded tapes.
CONSOLIDATION
In normal operation, the ECAM permanently displays normal aircraft
parameters and the ACMS and FDRS permanently record aircraft system
parameters. When an anomaly is detected by an aircraft system, the ECAM
displays the abnormal parameter or function and its associated warning and
the CMS records the failure information detected by the system BITE.
RETRIEVAL
All the information can be retrieved through:
S the cockpit Multipurpose Control Display Unit,
S the ECAM displays,
S the cockpit printer,
S the down loading system,
S a ground station via ACARS,
S and the recorders.
HAM US/F-4 KRA 10/2006
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Figure 11
HAM US/F-4 KRA 10/2006
On Board Maintenance Facilities Schematic

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M5.2 NUMBERING SYSTEMS
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2.
Numbering Systems
2.1 General
2.1.2 Positional Notation
A knowledge of numbering systems is essential for understanding computers

and their operation. All numbering systems are used to count objects or
perform mathematical calculations and each consists of a set of symbols and
characters, commonly referred to as digits.
The standard shorthand form of writing numbers is known as positional

notation. The value of a particular digit depends not only on the digit value, but
also on the position of the digit within the number. For example, the decimal
number 4738 is standard shorthand form for the quantity four thousand seven
hundred thirty-eight. Each position has a value or weight. Starting at the
right is the units position, next the tens, then hundreds, and at the left is the
thousands position.
The digit at the far right is called the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the digit
at the far left is called the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
For example, the decimal number 4738 is equal to
2.1.1 Base
Every numbering system has a base which describes the system and is equal
to the number of values a digit can have. A subscript is often added to a
number to indicate its base. An example of this is 1012, which indicates the
number 101 is a base 2 or binary number. The value of the largest digit of a
numbering system is one less than the base and the value of the smallest digit
of a numbering system is zero. Each digit is multiplied by the base raised to the
appropriate power for the digit position.
Base
Designation
Binary
Octal
Q (instead of O)
Decimal
10
Hexadecimal
16
10 3))(7
102))(3
101))(8
100)
4738 = 4@103 + 7@102 + 3@101 + 8@100
Numbering System
(4
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2.2 Decimal Number System

The decimal number system (base 10) is the most familiar, and is used for
everyday counting and mathematical calculations. This numbering system
contains ten digits from 0 to 9, with 9 beIong the largest digit.
105
104
103
102
101
100
101
102
Weighted Value
Number
600.000
50.000
8.000
900
10
0.3
0.03
The total result is 600.000 + 50.000 + 8.000 + 900 + 10 + 2 + 0.3 + 0.03 = 658912.33
Figure 12
Decimal Number System

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2.3 Binary Number System

The simplest number system employing positional notation is the binary
system. As the name implies, the system has a base of 2. The two Binary
digits (BITS) used are 0 and 1. In a digital computer, only two distinct states
exist. Therefore, all inputs to a digital computer must be converted to a series
of 1s and 0s (binary) before the computer can make use of the data.
Conversion from binary to decimal is straightforward and easily performed using
positional notation. In the example, the weighted value of each bit position
(20 , 21 ,22 ...)and the base 10 equivalent for each bit position is shown. To convert
10111 (base 2) to base 10 add together the base 10 value for each bit position
containing a 1. The bit at the far right is the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the
bit at the far left is the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Digit
5th
4rd
3rd
2nd
1st
Weighted Value
24
23
22
21
20
Base 10 Value
16
...
Figure 13
Binary Number System

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2.3.1 Binary Conversion

A mathematical method of conversion is to repeatedly divide the decimal
number by the base number, and by keeping track of the remainders, the new
numbering base equivalent is obtained.
In the case of decimal to binary conversions, the decimal number is
successively divided by the base number 2. The first remainder obtained is the
least significant digIt (LSD), and the last remainder is the most significant digit
(MSD).
Succsessive division by base number:
Decimal Number:
Equivalent Binary Number
LSB
1 0 5 : 2 = 52 Rem. 1
5 2 : 2 = 26 Rem. 0
2 6 : 2 = 13 Rem. 0
13 : 2 =
6 Rem. 1
6 : 2 =
3 Rem. 0
3 : 2 =
1 Rem. 1
1 : 2 =
0 Rem. 1
MSB
105D
1101001 B
MSB means:
Most Significant Bit
LSB means:
Least Significant Bit
This principle can be used for each and every numbering system. It can easily
be used for computer programs.
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2.4 Octal Number System

2.4.1 General
Numerical operations in microcomputers are performed In binary numbers,
when used to represent large quantities many 0s and 1s are needed. This is
cumbersome and timeconsuming; therefore, other systems are often used as
a shorthand notation for binary numbers. One popular system is the octal
system (base 8). As a result, frequent binarytooctal conversions are
necessary.
In the positional notation example, the weighted value of each BIT position (80,
81, 82...) and the base 10 equivalent are shown. To convert 4522 (base 8) to
base 10, multiply each octal digit by its corresponding base 10 value, then add
together the computed base 10 values.
Digit
5th
4rd
3rd
2nd
1st
Weighted Value
84
83
82
81
80
Base 10 Value
4096
512
64
...
Figure 14
Octal Number System

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2.4.2 Octal / Decimal Conversion

As in the case of decimal to binary conversions, decimal to octal conversions
can also be accomplished by successive division. The decimal number to be
converted to octal is repeatedly divided by the base 8 and again the
remainders are used for the decimal to octal equivalent number.
Succsessive Division by Base Number:
Example:
Convert 238610 to octal by using successive division.
2386
298
37
4
/8
/8
/8
/8
=
=
=
=
298R 2
37 R 2
4 R5
0 R4
238610 = 45228
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2.4.3 Binary / Octal Conversion

In binary, threebit positions represent exactly eight combinations (000 through
111). Therefore, octal numbers can be directly substituted for 3bit binary
numbers. The binary number is separated into groups of three bits beginning at
the right with the least significant digit (LSD) and proceeding to the most
significant digit (MSD) at the left. Each group of three bits is then replaced by
an octal equivalent.
In forming the 3bit groupings, 0s may need to be added to complete the most
significant digit (MSD).
Octaltobinary conversion is the reverse of the above procedure. This is
easily accomplished by replacing each octal digit by its 3bit binary equivalent.
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BINARY TO OCTAL
OCTAL TO BINARY
0111000012
011
100
0012
18
3418
Figure 15
Binary to Octal / Octal to Binary

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2.5 Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal number system is another system often used in microcomputers. It has a base of 16 which requires sixteen digits. The digits used
are 0 through 9 and A through F. The symbols A through F represent the
equivalent decimal numbers of 10 through 15, respectively. This system is
called an alphanumeric number system since numbers and letters are used to
represent its digits.
In the positional notation example, the weighted value of each digits position
(160,161,162...) and the base 10 equivalent is shown. To convert A8F5 (base
16) to base 10, multiply each hexadecimal digit by its corresponding base 10
value then add together the computed base 10 values.
The largest digit of a numbering system is one less than the base.
Often hexadecimal numbers are written with an H following the number to
denote they are hexadecimal numbers.
Hexadecimal Number
Decimal Equivalent
10
11
12
13
14
15
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Digit
...
5th
4rd
3rd
2nd
1st
Weighted Value
164
163
162
161
160
Base 10 Value
65536
4096
256
16
Number to be converted
Equivalent Base 10 Number
40960
2048
240
40960 + 2048 + 240 + 5 = 4325310
A8F516 = 4325310
Figure 16
Hexadecimal Number System

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2.5.1 Hexadecimal Conversions

Decimal to hexadecimal conversions may be done by successive division. In
this case, the decimal number is divided by the base number of 16. If the
remainder is greater than 9, it should be changed to the hexadecimal
equivalent of the remainder. For example, if the remainder is 10, It should be
changed to A; if the remainder is 11, it should be changed to B, and so on,
up to 15, which is F.
Succsessive Division by Base Number
Example:
Convert 4325810 to hexadecimal by using succsessive division.
43253/ 16
2703 / 16
168 / 16
10
/ 16
= 2703
= 168
= 10
=0
R5
R F (15)
R8
R A (10)
4325310 = A8F516
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2.5.2 Binary / Hexadecimal Conversion

The hexadecimal number system is used as a shorthand notation for binary
numbers. In binary, 4 bit positions are necessary to obtain sixteen
combinations (0000 to 1111). As a result of this, hexadecimal numbers can be
directly substituted for 4bit binary numbers.
The binary number is separated into groups of four bits beginning at the LSD
and preceding to the left. Each group of four bits is then replaced by
hexadecimal equivalent.
In forming the 4bit groupings, 0s may be required to complete the first (MSD)
group.
BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
Hexadecimaltobinary conversion is the inverse of the above procedure. This

is easily performed by replacing each hexadecimal digit by its 4bit binary
equivalent.
HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
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Figure 17
Binary to Hexadecimal / Hexadecimal to Binary

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2.6 Overview: Binary- Octal- Hexadecimal Numbering System

In case we count in the binary system a specific arrangement will be the result.
This arrangement shows the relation between the numbers from the different
numbering systems.
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Decimal
Binary
Octal
Hexadecimal
101
100
24
23
22
21
20
81
80
161
160
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2.7 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

2.7.1 BCD-Decimal Conversion
The binary number system is the most convenient system for computers;
however, people are more accustomed to decimal numbers. An ideal method is
to perform all computer functions on binary data and convert the results to
decimal for display to the operator. The conversion from binary to decimal and
vice versa, although straightforward, requires the use of complex calculations.
In many small computer systems the time spent in executing the conversions
may greatly exceed the time spent in data handling.
A method of representing decimal numbers in digital computers is known as
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD).
In this system the decimal weighting is maintained, but the digit is represented
by a combination of the binary digits 0 and 1. Since ten digits must be
represented, a minimum of four bits must be used to encode each digit.
In the BCD system, each decimal digit is represented with its own 4bit binary
equivalent number.
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BCD to Decimal
Decimal to BCD
Figure 18
Decimal to BCD / BCD to Decimal

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2.7.2 BCD Binary Comparison

In comparing the BCD and binary equivalents of the decimal number 479, the
BCD is the 4bit binary equivalent of each of the decimal digits. The binary
equivalent is the sum of the weighted bits totaling 479. Therefore, the BCD
0100 01111011 is not the same as the binary 111011111.
BCD - Binary Comparison
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EXAMPLE 1
Convert 70910 to BCD.
EXAMPLE 2
Convert 0111 0010 0100 (BCD) to decimal
Figure 19
Example: Decimal to BCD / BCD to Decimal

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3.
Logic Functions
3.1 General
Digital Computers and Central Processor Units must be able to realize
arithmetic processes and logical combinations, which are both made in a so
called ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), the heart of each CPU ( Central Processor
Unit ).
This ALU needs the inputs in digital form:
S logic 1 (also known as logic True),
S logic 0 (also known as logic False).
The single item of information (logic 1 or logic 0) is known as a bit (binary
digit).
3.2 Levels Assignment
Positive Logic
Negative Logic
1H
1L
0L
0H
Usually the H-Level is seen as 1, L-Level is to be seen as 0.

H means 1
L means 0
Individual assignments may be used. We call them mixed logic. This system
has the disadvantage that some inverted gates are not available.
Technical operations can be expressed with the so called Boolean Algebra by
using the binary 0 and 1. This is what we call switching function
(e.g. F = A v B L C, or A+B x C)
Also Truth Tables, Impulse Diagrams and Logic Symbols may be used to
describe a technical Operation.
A binary signal is a digital signal with only two different values. A special
meaning is assigned to these two values (voltages):
Example:
Voltage applied
V = 1.
No voltage applied
V = 0.
A fulfilled condition is considered to be logic 1, otherwise it is logical 0. This
is just a logic state, not a value or Voltage.
An assignment has to be made in accordance with the hardware requirements.
Usually we say: the voltage level that is more positive is seen as 1, the
voltage level that more negative is to be seen logic 0.
The assignment depends on the technology used, you can say it is at will.
This assignment gives us the so called positive Logic and negative Logic.
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+V
System A
System B
System C
H
L
H
L
Figure 20
Example: Level Assignment

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3.3 Definition of Function

With implementing the binary symbols 0 and 1 we can describe technical
processes by means of the so called Boolean Algebra. It only deals with
combinations of logic 0 and logic 1.
The 01 Decisions at Inputs (E1, E2, ..., En) are the independant variables,
the Output (A) is the so called dependant variable as it depends on the input
states.
A depends on the inputs (E1, E2 ..., En). This can be described with a switching
function A = f (E1, E2 En).
With n Variables on the input side there are 2n Variations on the output side
n
and 2 2 possible switching functions.
possible input variations
possible switching functions
16
256
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4.
Logic Circuits
The illustration with the logic symbols is completely independent from the
technology used. It just states the function but not the contents.
For logical combination there are only three basic functions:
S INVERTER Function,
S AND Function and
S OR Function.
Signal Diagramm
E1
4.1 Inverter
The Inverter (NOT-Function) inverts the input signal. It is also called a boolean
complement.
If the input signal is a logical 1, the output signal is a logical 0 and vice versa.
Contact Plan
Switching Function:
A=E
A is inverse to E
Truth Table
E
Symbol
DIN / IEC / ANSI
MIL / ANSI
Figure 21
INVERTER
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4.2 AND Gate

An AND-Gate may have two or more inputs ( E1 to En ) and one output ( A ).
The output has only a logical 1, if all inputs have a logic 1.
If one or more inputs have a logic 0, the output has a logic 0.
Signal Diagramm
E1
Switching Funktion
A = E1 x E2 x ..... x En or A = E1 E2 ..... En
A equals E1 and E2 and ..... and En
E2
Truth Table (for two Inputs)
E2
E1
Contact Plan
Symbol
DIN / IEC / ANSI
MIL / ANSI
Figure 22
AND Gate
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4.3 OR Gate
An OR-Gate may have two or more inputs ( E1 to En ) and one output ( A ).
The output has only a logical 1, if one or more inputs have a logic 1.
The out put has only a logic 0, if all inputs have a logic 0.
Signal Diagramm
E1
Switching Funktion
A = E1 + E2 + ... + En or A = E1 v E2 v ... v En
A equals E1 or E2 or...... or En
E2
Truth Table (for two Inputs)
E2
E1
Contact Plan
Symbol
DIN / IEC / ANSI
MIL / ANSI
Figure 23
OR Gate
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M5.5 LOGIC CIRCUITS
Figure 24
Example: Landing Gear Challenger 604

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4.4 Gates with several Basic Functions

4.4.1 NAND Gate
Logic Symbol
A NAND-Gate ( Not-AND-Gate ) may have two or more inputs ( E1 to En ) and

one output ( A ).
The output has only a logic 1, if one input (one of E1 to En ) has a logic 0.
The output has a logic 0, if all inputs ( E1 to En ) have a logic 1.
Switching Function
A = E1 x E2 x .... x En or A = E1 E2 .... En
To be read as:
A = E1 and E2 and....... and En not
A NOT spoken at the end of a term means that the complete term ist to be
inverted.
DIN / IEC / ANSI

Signal diagramm
MIL / ANSI
E1
Truth Table (two inputs)
E1
E2
E2
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Inverter with NANDGates

In case all inputs but one are connected to 1 an Inverter is formed.
OR-Function with NANDGate

If we invert all Inputs of a NAND-Gate the result will be an OR-Gate.
AND-Function with NANDGates

An Inverter connected to a NAND will result in an AND Gate.
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4.4.2 NOR Gate

A NOR-Gate ( Not-OR ) may have two or more inputs ( E1 to En ) and one
output ( A ).
The output has only a logic 1, if all inputs ( E1 to En ) have a logic 0.
The output has a logic 0, if one or more inputs have a logic 1
Switching Function
A = E1 + E2 + .... + En or A = E1 v E2 v .... v En
To be read as:
A = E1 or E2 or....... or En not
A NOT spoken at the end of a term means that the complete term ist to be
inverted.
Truth Table
Logic Symbol
1
DIN / IEC / ANSI

Signal diagramm
MIL / ANSI
E1
E2
E1
E2
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4.4.3 Exclusive OR
An Exclusive OR has two inputs ( E1 and E2 ) and one output A.
The output has a logic 1, if input E1 has a logic 1 and input E2 a logic 0 or vice
versa.
The output has a logic 0, if input E1 has a logic 1 and input E2 a logic 0 or vice
versa.
Logic Symbol
DIN / IEC / ANSI
Switching Funktion
A = E1 x E2 + E1 x E2
Signal diagramm
Truth table
E2
E1
E1
E2
MIL / ANSI
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4.4.4 Exclusive NOR

An Exclusive NOR has two inputs ( E1 and E2 ) and one output A.
The output has a logic 1, if inputs E1 and E2 have a logic 1, or E1 and E2 have
a logic 0.
The output has a logic 0, if both inputs ( E1 and E2 ) have a logic 1, or both
inputs have a logic 0.
Logic Symbol
Switching Funktion
A = E1 x E2 + E1 x E2
DIN / IEC / ANSI

Signal diagramm
Truth table
E2
E1
MIL / ANSI
E1
E2
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4.5 Possible Functions

Function
Nr
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
5.5 LOGIC CIRCUITS
Name of Function
Switch
Current
Diagram
The number of possible input combinations: Ic = 2n

with n being the number of input variables.
Number of possible switching functions: SF = 2 2
Not all possible functions are always sensible.
Null
AND
Not A AND B
Input Variable Qi
1. Identity
A AND Not B
2. Identity
EXCLUSIVE OR
OR
NOT OR
EXCLUSIVE NOR
Not A
Not A OR B
Not B
A OR Not B
A AND B Not
IDENTITY
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4.6 Summary of all Gates
1
ASB + ASB = X
Figure 25
Summary Gates
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4.7 Rules of Boolean Algebra

4.7.1 Priority
4.7.2 De Morgan Theorem
When realising equations, there is a rule for prioritising combinations of

operations (AND/OR).
A practical operational way to look at DeMorgans Theorem is that an AND may

be replaced by an OR with all inputs and the output inverted).
AND can replace an OR or vice versa.
It is: (A + B) C A + (B C) !
4.7.3 Shannon Theorem
(A + B) C
A + (B C)
In accordance with the Shannon Theorem, a NAND can be replaced by an OR

with inverted inputs.
A long inversion bar can be split into several smaller ones when replacing an
AND by an OR or vice versa.
The long inversion bar treats everything below it as if in brackets.

If there are several operations in one equation, the following sequence should
be kept:
1. Negation
2. AND
x,
3. OR
+,
In accordance with the operator precedence rules: AND operations preceed
OR operations.
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4.7.4 Calculation Rules

The following table shows the logical connection between input variants and
output in accordance to the boolean algebra using constants, variables and
combinations of them.
Name
Calculation Rule
Functions
with
Constants
(Postulates)
Functions
with one
Constant
and one
Variable
Commutativity
Associativity
Distributivity
Priority
Cancelling
de Morgans
Theorem
Shannon
Theorem
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5.
Data Conversion
5.1 General
5.1.1 Purpose
While digital computers process information faster and more efficiently than
analog computers. They do have somewhat of a disadvantage in that they only
understand 1s and 0s. The real world is analog in nature. Temperature, for
example, does not change in discrete steps. It is a continuously varying
quantity. In order for digital computers to use temperature information, the
analog quantity must be converted to a digital representation of temperature.
Airplane control surfaces do not move in discrete steps but rather in continuous
motion. A digital computer may be able to determine where a control surface
must be positioned, but the signal to the surface must be in analog form to
drive the surface. The circuits used to interface digital computers to the
analog world are referred to as Digital to analog (or D/A) Converters and
analog to Digital (or A/D) Converters.
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Figure 26
Digital to Analog Conversions

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5.2 Analog to Digital Converters

5.2.1 Purpose
Almost all real world applications are analog in nature. Therefore, analog to
digital (A/D) converters are quite common in computer systems, and especially
in those systems dedicated to monitoring or controlling real world events. An
A/D converter converts a continuous voltage signal, or analog signal into a
multi-bit digital word.
5.2.2 A/D Converter Principles

The schematics below shows the Sawtooth principle.
The Input voltage VM to be evaluated will be compared with a sawtooth voltage
Vv created inside the converter itself. The time the sawtooth requires to reach
the voltage level of the input voltage will be evaluated.
This time will be measured by pulses from the Pules Generator.
The anmount of pulses counted is a reference for the input voltage. The Time T
from ,,START (sawtooth voltage is 0) until ,,STOP (sawtooth voltage Vv =
VM) the gate is open so pulses from the pulse generator can pass it and
access the binary counter.
A Buffer stores that binary number and applies it to a data bus activated by a
signal on the ControlBus.
Digital LRUs have an A-D Converter attached at the input side, the so called
ADMs (Air Data Modules); Hybrid LRUs have these Converters incorporated,
so the could perform that task as well.
A/D-Conversion may use various principles:
S Sawtooth-principle
S Dual-Slope-principle
S Ramp Generation A/D
S Successive Ramp A/D
S ...
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VM
VV
Figure 27
A/D Converter
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5.2.3 How the Sawtooth Principle works

The sawtooth principle uses a sawtooth created by the converter and
compates it with the input voltage.
The input voltage must be less or equal to the sawtooth voltage. Higher input
voltages can not be converted propperly. In case the input voltage is higher
always the maximum (in this example: 10 Volts) would be indicated.
The analogue input voltage and the sawtooth will be applied to an
OpAmp acting as a comparator. As long as the sawtooth voltage is less than
the input voltage the comparator will provide 1 (equals 5 Volts) at its output.
As soon as the sawtooth voltage eaches the voltage level of the input voltage
the output will toggle to 0 (equals 0 Volts). It will remain in that state for the
rest of the sawtooth.
The output voltage from the comparator is applied to an AND gate as well
as a clock or pulse created by a pulse generator.
In case the output voltage of the comparator is 1, the pulses from the pulse
generator can pass the AND gate. In case the output voltage from the
comparator is 0 the pulses from the pulse generator will be blocked, they
cant pass the AND gate any more.
The pulses that passed the AND gate are applied to a binary counter which
will count them and the count will be applied to its output section.
The binary counter therefore provides a binary number that is proportional to
the analogue input voltage.
At the end of each count (sawtooth) the binary counter will be resetted and a
new count may start.
In order to create a continous indication on the display the count from the
binary counter will be buffered and handed over to the data bus only during the
falling flangue of the sawtooth (where the output voltage toggles from 10 Volts
to 0 Volts).
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Figure 28
Basic Principle of A/D Converters

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5.3
D/A Converter
Usually OpAms ate used to convert binary numbers into analogue output
voltages. The OpAmp will act as an addder. The output voltage of the
OpAmp is the sum of the input voltages where every input will have an
individual voltage amplification in accordance with its binary value. This
amplification is set by the ratio of the resistors on the input side.
The more Bit (switches) the higher the accuracy (resolution) of the output
voltage will be.
The schematics below indicate the basic principle: Data from a data bus is
applied to to a register (buffer) that controlls the (electronic) switches.
In case all four bits are 0 the analogue output voltage will be 0 Volts.
In case only the least significant bit (LSB) is 1 a voltage will be provided at the
output depending on the ratio of RL over R.
The bit with the next higher significance has a resistor wit half the resistance of
the input from the LSB. As the ratio of RL over R in this case has been doubled
the output voltage will be doubled as well.
The resistance of the input resistors will be inverse proportional to the
significance of the bits.
The output voltage will not be really analogue but can be altered in steps
depending on the voltage from the LSB.
Example: a binary input 0111 will be converted in an analogue output voltage of
7 Volts.
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Figure 29
D/A Converter
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6.
Basic Computer Structure
6.1 General
Automatic data processing deals with processing informations without errors.
This data could be numbers, letters or even complete sentences.
Processing is done by computers.
S COMPUTER:
is a machine that processes data by means of digital technologies. All
informations are reduced to simple Yes/No decisions. Electronic circuits
(Hardware) is controlled with specific instructions (Software).
Both, Hardware and Software, form a Computer.
S HARDWARE:
all devices and components that are required to process binary data in
digital systems.
S SOFTWARE:
a common word which is used to describe all kinds of programms.
This could be an application like Word or a device driver as well.
S PROGRAMM:
an order of instructions that tells how to process data. This could be logic
operations or arithmetic operations as well. Data could be changed, sorted
or decisions could be made. It also controlls where (if) information is stored,
displayed or printed.
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Figure 30
Example: ADC
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6.2 Detailed Components

6.2.1 Minimum Hardware Requirements
6.2.2 Basic Computer Structure
As with the purpose of a basic computer, the structure of a basic computer

does not vary between computers. Each computer is comprised of an input
section, output section, central processing unit, a memory section and a
bussystem.
The differences in the computers are in the characteristics of devices used to
make up each section of the computer, and the instruction steps used to
control the operation of the computer.
The minimum requirements for computer operation is:
1. CPU
2. Memory
3. Input-/Output Interfaces
4. Bus-System
These requirements do not meet our standards for comfort and convieniance
but they are sufficient for basic functioning.
Some devices could contain several components. A CPU for example contains
the ALU (Arithmentic-Logic Unit) in order to execute calculations, register as
temporary memory, instruction decoder and timing/logic control.
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Shapes of CPUs
RAM-Memory
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Figure 31
Example: CPU, Memory

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Conducting Wires/Busses
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Figure 32
Example Conducting Wires

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Figure 33
Example HSI
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6.3 Memory
Memory nowadays are high-integrated components that can store many
GigaBit and have a size of only few square-millimeters. In a processor of the
Intel Pentium IV Family in 0,065 mm Technologies, on a surface of only
120mm@, 125 millions (125.000.000) of transistors are installed! This is
equivalent to 1.000.000 transistors per square-millimeter. The scale of
integration of memory devices is quite similar.
Basicly Memory consists of a matrix of conducting wires. The lines could be
connected by semiconductors. Every crossing of two wires is a memory able to
store one Bit.
The semiconductors could be conductive in case a 0 is stored or
non-conductive if a 1 is stored. Depending on the technology used a memory
could consist of diodes or MOS-Transistors.
With specific control circuits (selectors/address decoder) the bits stored could
be retrieved one by one or in groups (data words). With two address lines four
data words are accessible. Every data word could consist of e.g. four or eight
bit (1 Byte).
Every single section of the memory could be accessed directly. This is called
random access. In earlier times memory had to be accessed in a sequence
until the desired information was found. This is no longer necessary.
With n Address Lines 2n Adresses could be selected.
Amount of Transistors in CPU over the Years
Figure 34
History of Processors
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6.3.1 Capacity of Memory
6.3.2 RAM
The smallest amount of information that is possible is a Bit. This is just a single
0 or 1-Information.
Usually bits are used in groups of eight. This is what we call Byte.
The capacity of memory devices is stated in the same format:
Capacity = Amount of Addresses x Amount of Bit/Address
Example: 2048 x 8
This means: The memory has 2048 Adresses. Every Adresse can store 8 Bit.
Usually one can see the letter K for Kilo. Here K doesnt mean 1.000 but
1.024 (this is a power of 2).
Example: 256K x 1
This memory has 256 times1024 Addresses. Every Address can store 1 Bit.
In Aircraft software sometimes is stored on socalled OBRMs. OBRMs (On
Board Replaceble Memory) are memory cards that can be replaced without
opening up the computer.
Read / Write-Memory (Random Access Memory, RAM) usually consists of 4 6 MOS-Transistors per bit. This memory can store information provided via a
bus-system and data can be retrieved as well.
Static RAMs keep the information stored as long as the power supply is not
switched off. Dynamic RAMs have to be refreshed within a few milliseconds by
reading the information and writing it back (Refresh cycle). This is because
they use very small capacitors that have quite high leakage currents.
The advantage of dynamic RAM is that they are smaller so that their interation
scale can be larger than the static ones. But static RAM is faster as it doesnt
need a refresh.
Both types have in common that the information stored is lost as soon as the
power supply is switched off. When switching on the power supply the contents
of the memory is unknown, the state is accidental.
6.3.3 ROM
Fixed Memory (Read-Only-Memory, ROM) dont have the option of writing

information into it. Usually they are produced in large amounts. The
programming is a part of the production process (Gameboy Software) and can
not be changed.
All ROM keep their information even if the power supply is switched off.
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6.3.4 PROM
Programable ROM (PROM) is programmed by short bursts of current. This will
cause a gap in the current paths which then could mean 1 or 0. They are
programmed with a specific device called programmer. This programming is
irreversible! They are used for small series.
Basic Principle of a PROM
Fuseable Links.
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6.3.5 EPROM
6.3.6 EEPROM, EAPROM
Erasable and Programable ROM (EPROM) can be programmed with a specific

device, a programmer just like PROM. They have a small transparent
window. Below lies the silicon memory which can be erased when exposed to
UV light. As daylight also contains a small amount of UV the window is covered
by a label that has to be removed in order to erase the memory.
So EPROM can be erased, the programming is reversible.
Typical application is experimental programming. In aircrafts is had been used
for software (e.g. FMS) and nav data base.
EEPROM is eraseble memory that can be erased electrical and then be

reprogrammed (computer BIOS).
EAPROM is eraseble memory where information also can be altered. So no
erasing is required.
Both, EAPROM and EEPROM, nowadays replace PROM and EPROM
because they can be reprogrammed in a running system, no components have
to be exchanged, no opening of LRU is required.
Overview: Types of Memory
Type
Volatile
Programmable
RAM
Yes
YES
ROM
NO
NO
PROM
NO
Once
EPROM (UV-PROM)
NO
Numerous times, but not

in system
EEPROM
EAPROM
NO
Numerous times in the

system
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6.4 Computer Technology

6.4.1 Reference Computer
Although computers can be classified by hardware as analog, digital, or hybrid,
they are more often classified by their tasks or application.
A computer which may be used for a source of information or data can be
called a reference computer. Reference signals from this computer may be
selfcontained and only provides outputs.
An Inertial Reference System (IRS) is one example of a reference computer.
This system is a laser gyro and accelerometer based reference system used to
generate such outputs as airplane attitude, heading, acceleration and angular
information. Other than for initialization purposes, the IRS needs no inputs to
perform its task.
Some of the units utilizing this information as a reference are the Autothrottle
Computer, the flight Control Computers, the pilots Horizontal Situation
Indicators, and the Flight Management Computer.
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Figure 35
Reference Computers
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6.4.2 Informational Computers

A computer that collects data from various places, processes it, and formats it
for display can be called an informational computer. The main task of an
informational computer is to collect data and display it in a central place.
During the different phases of a flight, from power up through touchdown, the
flight crew is often in need of information concerning a certain airplane system.
Information needed may include total air temperature, engine oil levels,
hydraulic pressures, and engine vibration levels. On the ground, the
maintenance personnel often need to recall certain events that occurred during
the flight, such as out of normal parameters on an engine (overspeed), or
Auxiliary Power Unit voltage information.
An Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (ElCAS) is one type of
informational computer. The flight crew has various types of information
available to them before, during and after a flight. Parameters used to set and
monitor engine thrust are displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) full time and
the remaining engine parameters may be selected for display by the crew.
Maintenance information can be displayed when required by maintenance
personnel. Airplane configuration, equipment cooling and status, electrical /
hydraulic parameters, performance data and engine exceedance are some of
the types of maintenance information available.
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Figure 36
Informational Computers
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6.4.3 Storage / Monitor Computers

Storage/monitor computers retain information provided to them by other
systems, by other computers or by monitoring other systems or sections of the
storage/ monitor computer unit. The information stored may be used by other
computers, by the flight crew or by the maintenance crew. Typically
storage/monitor computers do very little signal processing. Their main task is to
monitor and store data for later retrieval.
An Electronic Engine Control Monitor (EECM) is a type of storage computer
which stores fault data from the Electronic Engine Control (EEC) system.
When an abnormality occurs on an engine during flight, the data pertaining to
that fault is stored within the EECM. When the EEC systems indicate a failure
has occurred, the maintenance personnel can recall the faults from the EECM
to determine what maintenance action needs to be completed.
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Figure 37
Storage/Monitor Computers
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6.4.4 Controlling Computers

A computer with the primary task of controlling something can be called a
controlling computer or controller. this is one of the largest categories of
computers. In industry today nearly anything that can be controlled can be
controlled by a computer. Computerized controllers range from simple
temperature controllers to entire systems for controlling a complete factory.
Airplanes have a myriad of systems, surfaces, and devices needing control
during operation, both in the air and on the ground. It is impractical to have the
flight crew manually control all of the necessary systems, so computers are
used to lighten the crews workload by providing automatic control.
The Flap/Slat Electronic Unit (FSEU) computer provides a means to monitor
the flap lever position and to control the flap position on the wings. The FSEU
can control the flaps automatically during takeoff and landing by utilizing
information from other systems such as the Flap / Slat position Module, the
Proximity Switch Electronics Unit, and Flap Lever.
If the flight crew elects to extend the flaps at an unsafe air speed, the FSEU
will monitor the air speed and control the flap extension when airspeed is within
allowable parameters.
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FLAP LEVER
FLAP/SLAT POSITION
MODULE
FLAP/SLAT
ELECTRONIC
UNIT
PROX: SWITCH
ELECTRONICS UNIT
FLAP
DRIVE
UNIT
FLAP
Figure 38
Controlling Computers
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6.4.5 Interactive Computers

Some computers can perform several different tasks depending on operator
inputs. Such a computer is called an interactive computer. Interactive
computers typically display information to the operator and then manipulate the
data based on the interaction between the operator and the computer.
The Flight Management Computer (FMC) is an example of an interactive
computer. The flight crew interfaces with the computer by means of the
Control Display Unit (CDU) to input performance data, initialization data and
route structure.
The computer calculates optimum cost profiles for climb, cruise and descent
used by the autopilot and autothrottle for automatic flight control. All computed
values are also automatically displayed allowing the crew to fly an optimum
profile using manual control.
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Figure 39
Interactive Computers
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6.4.6 Aircraft Digital Systems Summary

Airplanes typically have many computers to control, monitor, provide
references, and make available information. These computers can be either
analog, digital or hybrid. It can also be noted that computers are typically
different combinations of the five types of computers as categorized by
application.
Those are interactive, reference, storage / monitor, controlling, and information
computers.
As in the example of the interactive computer, the flight management computer
is also used as a control computer by controlling the autopilot and other
systems. It can be an Informational computer by providing the flight crew with
route Information.
The flight management computer also acts as a storage computer by storing
information to be used by other airplane systems. It also acts as a storage /
monitor computer, in that it monitors many of its inputs and stores this
information for further reference. Computer types and applications are as
varied as their tasks.
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INTERACTIVE
COMMANDS,
DATA
ENQUIRIES,
TESTS
STORAGE
DATA:
PERFORMANCE
NAVIGATION
GUIDANCE
REPLIES
RESPONSES
INFORMATIONAL
CONTROL
AUTOMATIC
PILOT
CONTROL
COMMANDS
AIRCRAFT
SENSORS
FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
MONITOR
Figure 40
Airplane Digital Systems

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M5.13 SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT
CONTROL
7.
M5
Software Management Control
7.1 General
Each digital LRU (Line Replaceable Unit) consists of the
S Hardware, the electronic devices and the
S Software, the program of the arithmetic and logic process in the computer.
The specification of an electronic unit does not detail the hardware the system
should/does employ. The designer/engineer will decide which hardware, cpu
memory ICs etc, will best meet the requirements of the unit. As long as the
hardware chosen must meets requirements in terms of interfacing,
environmental resistance and relevant international standards, then the
specification of a unit will be guaranteed by the software of the system .
The software specifies the
S input and outputparameters,
S their tolerances,
S refreshmentrates,
S fault detections and so on.
It is up to the manufacturer to realize all of the demands. It is usual for the
hardware and the software to be developed together.
7.2 History
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Nowadays different manufacturers computers can run the same software. In

the past devices such as CPU, Address register, RAM, ROM, decoder,
compiler etc. came onto the market separately. A computer would be built from
these and given specific/unique instruction sets and programs, stored in the
ROM
By storing the whole program in a ROM, the computer will not be flexible. If, for
example, a parameter value must be changed for a modification, the whole
ROM must be changed. This means a new ROM chip must be programmed by
a specialist, then the system must be put through the test procedure,
The invention of the EPROM/UVROM increased system flexibility. These
memory devices allows program and parameter changes. But the process is
still involved.
The memorychip has to be erased first. This is done by shining a UVlight
onto the lightsensitive substrate of the chip for about 20 to 30 minutes. After
this procedure the EPROM can be reprogrammed electrically. Programs stored

in ROM are often referred to as firmware (rather than software).
Because of the high complexity of this procedure, UVROMs are only used,
when parameter changes are infrequent, for example the change of magnetic
variation in an Inertial Reference System (IRS).
A huge increase in flexibility was brought about by the development of
electrically eraseable ROMs, EEPROM, also known as electrically alterable
ROMs, EAPROM. This technique allows to change the program with the
equipment in situ.
The technique of EAPROM/ EEPROM is used for
S Faultrecording,
S Parametersaving and
S Programchange (partly)
7.3 Program Change

Reprogramming may be done in different ways, each with different costs.
Beginning with the easiest way, a program change in an aircraftLRU can be
done
S by an ADL (Airborn Data Loader), a drive found in the cockpit. The software
is loaded from a diskette or diskettes followed by the startcommand.
S by a Portable Data Loader, which must be connected direct to the
LRUFrontPlug or to a transfer plug, which can be located in the cockpit.
In both cases, a disc or a magnetic tape may be the data transfer medium.
S by changing of OBRMs (On Board Replaceable Modules), which are
implemented into the front face of the LRU.
S by using a special Programing Menu on the MCDU, located in the cockpit,
usually accessed by the input of a security code.
S in the workshop.
The easier it is to reprogram a device, the more quality controls have to be
applied to ensure that the reprogramming is done correctly in a controlled
manner.
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7.4 Software Definition

Modern LRUs contain their software in different packages, called:
S Core Software,
S Operational Software or Application Software and
S Data Base.
The Core Software defines the individual system. It will interface one LRU,
such as the air data computer, to another, such as the flight control system. In
defining each system it defines the function of the whole aircraft.
The Operational Software, also known as Application Software, defines for
example the kind of display in the cockpit.
By implementing a new Data Base Software, only parameter values will be
changed, not strictly a program change. For example the maximum aircraft
take off weight can be increased because of the higher pressure in the tyres.
In the RTCA (Requirement and Technical Concepts for Aviation), Document
DO 178B or EUROCAE Doc. ED 12B (Software Considerations in Airborne
Systems and Equipment Certiication) software levels are defined as:
S Level A, which can result in catastrophic failure, to
S Level E, which will not effect the safety of the aircraft.
A change of the Operational/ApplicationSoftware also needs the

agreement and documentation of both manufactures. However, the
LRUManufacture can be bypassed, if the airline engineering guarantees an
equivalentlevelofsafety, this is a complicated process.
A Data Base Software change can normally be done without involvement of
the manufacturers if it is guaranteed that the software is classified in level E.
Kinds of Software Separations:
7.5 Software Handling

Depending on the Software Level, different levels of care must be taken in
documentation and handling of the software. Only authorized personal may
modify the software which is classified in level A. Software which is classified in
level E can be done by maintenance personnel, but only if respective
documentation is available .
In any case it must be guaranteed that
S only the authorized software will be influenced by reloading,
S successful loading must be acknowledged,
S no other systems will be affected.
The CoreSoftware should normally never be touched, because it is a part of
the control loop of the aircraft. An uncontrolled change could be disasterous. A
change of this software can only be made with the agreement of the aircraft
manufacturer and the LRUmanufacturer. This is documented in authorized
Service Bulletins (CoverS/B) of the two manufacturers.
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8.
ARINC
8.1 General
8.1.1 ARINC Standards
ARINC, Aeronautical Radio Incorporated is a corporation that was founded

1929 in the United States in order to simplfy radio commumication and find
common standards. Nowadays some boards also deal with aviation.
From time to time there is an ARINC Meeting where representives from
manufactureres, owners and avionics suppliers meet to redefine the standards
if necessary.
Some ARINC-Specifications deal with digital data transmissions. Standard is
ARINC 429 still, even in Boeings 777 and in Airbus A380. But tendency goes to
more reliable, fast databusses which can deal the enormous amount of digital
data modern aircraft provide.
400 Series
400 Series ARINC Specifications and Reports provide a design foundation for
equipment specified per the ARINC 700 and 500 Series. They include
guidelines for installation, wiring, data buses, databases, and general guidance.
500 Series
500 Series ARINC Characteristics define older analog avionics equipment still
used widely on the B727, DC9, and DC10, as well as on early models of
B737, B747, and A300 aircraft.
600 Series
600 Series ARINC Specifications and Reports define enabling technologies
that provide a design foundation for equipment specified per the ARINC 700
Series of digital avionics systems. Among the topics covered by Specifications
are data link protocols.
700 Series
700 Series ARINC Characteristics define digital avionics systems and
equipment installed on currentmodel production aircraft. They include detailed
definitions of form, fit, function, and interface.
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80ies
ARINC 429
90ies
ARINC 629
2000ers
ARINC 664/AFDX
(A380)
70ies
ARINC 419
Figure 41
History of ARINC Standards

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8.2 ARINC 429

8.2.1 General
System data transfers in and out of an aircraft system and within the system
occur in digital formats as defined by ARINC specification 429 Mark 33 Digital
Information Transfer System (DITS). This specification therefore defines
encoding data of signals to be transmitted.
The digital computers of the different aircraft systems, process results in the
form of messages or parallel binary words, i. e., information comprising several
bits (0,1) available simultaneously. However, to transmit digital information
towards external receivers, it is preferable, for weight control and reliability
reasons, to use a serial transmission system. Therefore, the parallel message
is converted into a serial message. Then a line transmitter adapts this serial
logic message into voltage levels which are compatible with the transmission
standard. The message is thus sent in the form of a string of pulses.
8.2.2 Interconnection
8.2.2.1
Data Exchange
ARINC 429 defines Simplex-Operations as a standard.

One transmitter can supply data to up to 20 receivers.
S Simplex: One Transmitter, one Receiver. One Way only.
S Half-Duplex: One Transmitter, one Receiver. both directions, but only one
at a time.
S Full Duplex: One Transmitter, one Receiver. both directions at the same
time.
8.2.2.2
Data Cables
Serial transmission of information in digital format as defined by ARlNC

specification 429.
The hardware support providing serial transmission of information is a
monodirectional bus composed of a pair of twisted and shielded wires (see
figure below). This shielding is connected to ground, in particular at each
branch.
Advantages of serial transmission:
S only a single line is required for transmission.
S only one set of digital circuitry is needed to process the data.
This is slower than parallel transmission but sufficient for ARINC 429
requirements.
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Serial Transfer
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Figure 42
ARINC 429 Interconnection

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8.2.2.3
8.2.2.4
Transmission Speed
ARINC 429 defines two different transmission speeds:

S Low Speed ( 12 - 14 kBit )
S High Speed ( 100 kBit )
Low Speed and High Speed-Transmission may never occur on the same data
bus it is either a low speed or high speed bus.
Voltage Ranges
The Voltage ranges for transmitter and receiver differ a little bit. The receiver
accepts a wider voltage range so it could read the data even if there are some
minor disturbances on the bus.
U
10V
HIGH SPEED
LOW SPEED
TRANSMISSION
SIGNAL SPEED
100 kBit
12,5 kBit
BIT TIME T
10 ms
80 ms
+ 13
+11
+9
+ 6,5
+ 2,5
+0,5
0,5
-10V
11
HIGH
NULL
LOW
6,5
HIGH
NULL
LOW
13
Receiver Input States
Transmitter Output States
2,5
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8.2.3 Data Synchronisation

8.2.3.1
Bit - Synchronisation
ARINC 429 uses a bipolar RZ (Return to Zero)-Signal, which contains data and
clock. Therefore three different voltage levels are required:
S + 10 Volts for the logic 1
S 0 Volts for the clock
S - 10 Volts for the logic 0
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8.2.3.2
Word Synchronisation
The data words are separated by a gap of 4 bit time minimum. Usually it is
from 4 to 8 bit.
The Receiver recognises the first bit of a new data word by the change in
voltage (from 0 V to +10V or -10V).
Gap
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8.2.4 Information-Rate
Important data is transmitted quite often, less important data is transmitted less
often. This is what we call Information Rate. As BCD-Data (Binary Coded
Decimal) is used for displays only it is transmitted every 500 ms (average),
BNR (Binary) is to be processed by other LRUs and therefore transmitted 6 to
20 times a second.
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Information-Rate
TAS
TAS
BCD
BNR
MACH
PS
TAS
TAS
MACH
BNR
MACH
BNR
62,5 ms
PS
TAS
TAS
BCD
BNR
MACH
PS
62,5 ms
125 ms
500 ms
Figure 43
Information Rate
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8.2.5 Data Word

8.2.5.1
General
A Data Word is always composed of 32 Bits, even if not all of them are
required for the information transferred.
These 32 Bits are split up in areas with a dedicated purpose:
S Bit 1-8:
Label / Adress
S Bit 9-10:
Source / Destination Identifier
S Bit 11-28 (29): Data
S Bit (29) 30-31: Sign/Status Matrix
S Bit 32:
Parity Bit
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LABEL / ADRESS
10
SOURCE / DESTIN.
IDENTIFIER
(4 2 1 ) (8 4 2 1 ) (8 4 2 1 ) (8 4 2 1 ) (8 4 2 1 )
MSB
LSB
BINARY CODED DECIMAL DATA
SOURCE / DESTIN.
IDENTIFIER
11
12
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
13
LSB
BINARY DATA
26
27
28
29
30
SIGN / STATUS
MATRIX
MSB
( 1 2 4 ) (1 2 4 ) ( 1 2 )
LABEL / ADRESS
ODD PARITY
31
ODD PARITY
SIGN / STATUS
MATRIX
M5
32
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Figure 44
ARINC 429 Data Word Composition

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8.2.5.2
Parity Check
8.2.5.3
To check transmission validity, the last bit (bit 32) of each word is used. It is
called the parity bit. It is generated constructed by the transmitter when the
word is emitted and it is checked by the receiver upon arrival.
By means of this parity bit, the receiver can check that the different bits forming
the word have all been integrally and correctly transmitted. It is used to
increase transmission security.
The parity bit is defined, constructed, in such a way that all ARlNC words
have an odd number of binary zeros (therefore an odd number of binary 1s).
D
P odd
Label / Address
This label takes up the first 8 bits (1 to 8) of a word. It is octal coded (based 8
number system) the following Figure gives some examples of application to
illustrate the selected coding system.
Each word is identified by a label which defines its function: A word may
represent aerodynamic information, a radio frequency, or a series of binary
data, each one of which controls the illumination of an inscription or controls a
function, etc.
As nowadays the total amount of labels (256) available is no longer sufficient
they may be used for different parameters. To determine the correct parameter
the equipment identifier is also needed.
Example1: Label: 213

LABEL / ADRESS
32
(1 2
1
4) (1 2
4)
(1 2 )
Example 2: Label: 270

LABEL / ADRESS
32
(1 2
0
0
0
4) (1 2
4)
(1 2 )
1
7
1
2
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Guideline for Label Assignment

This guideline gives the assignment of the labels to certain types of
information. In addition to that a list is available. From time to time there might
be a change in that guideline.
The issue of that guideline can be read from the number of the ARINC:
e.g. ARINC 42914.
0
00
01
02
03
BCD
04
05
06
07
10
11
BNR
12
BCD
13
14
Discrete
15
Maint. Discr.
16
Maint. Data
M Data
BCD
17
20
BCD
21
22
23
BCD
24
25
26
BNR
Mix
Test
27
Discrete
30
Application Dependent
Test
31
32
BNR
33
34
35
36
Maint. Data
Ack
37
Figure 45
M ISO
ISO 5
BNR
EQ ID
Guideline for Label Assignment

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Figure 46
BCD List
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Figure 47
BNR List
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8.2.5.4
Equipment Identifier
The ARlNC specification 429 defines the label 377 to recognize the
transmitting LRU on the bus by means of the so called EQUIPMENT
IDENTIFIERS. This is an information like altitude, temperature, speed, ...
So this is not a part of every data word but only in that label 377 word.
They are defined by their code in the hexadecimal system.
Because of the restricted amount of labels (001 to 376 in octal) one specific
label may be used for different parameters:
S Label 315 is defined for Stabilizer Position if the EQ ID is A1 (or 0A1 in
ARINC-Specs with heigher Dash-No.) for FCC-Controller.
S Label 315 is defined for Wind Speed if the EQID is 04 (or 004) for IRS.
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Figure 48
Equipment Identifier
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Figure 49
Equipment Identifier List

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8.2.5.5
Bits 9 and 10 comprise the source/destination identifier, or SDl. The SDI

function is used when it is necessary to indicate the source of information, or
when the information is directed to a specific location (which has a minor
function). As an example, when specific words need to be directed to a specific
system of a multi system installation, and when the source system of a multi
system installation needs to be recognizable from the word content.
For example, if the ARINC word is to be sent to be recognized by system No 2
only, 10 is transmitted on bits 9 and 10. If 00 is transmitted on bits 9 and 10,
the data is sent to be recognized by all receivers (ALL CALL). This is the most
frequent case.
For another example: If there are several identical systems which transmit
data, the transmitter sends its installed position on bit 9 and 10 (IRS No. 2 will
transmit SDIbits 10 on its output bus).
If 4 identical systems are installed, system 4 is identified by SD code 00.
The same bit combination (00) is also used, if the receiver is not specified by
its SDl (e.g. single system installed only).
The respective system is mostly informed about its installed position by pin
programming at the shelf receptacle or by an identification plug as it is used for
example at the engine PMC (Power Management Computer).
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not used / 4
1
2
Figure 50

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8.2.5.6
Sign / Status Matrix
Validity and complementary information accompanying the signal carried by the

word: Each word includes status or validity indicators. As far as validity
information is concerned, there is no need for a wire carrying the discrete
validity, failure /warning or flag signal to the various receivers.
BNR
BNR Data have a SSM that consists of Bits 29 for Sign and 30 und 31 for
Status.
In case of a defect a failure warning is transmitted.
BCD
BCD as well as Discretes, AIM Data and File Transfer Data have a SSM from
Bits 30 and 31.
In case of a failure the data word is supressed (not transmitted any more).
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BNR
BCD
Figure 51
Sign Status Matrix

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8.2.6 Data-Information
The ARINC specification No 429 considers 6 type of
transmissible data:
S Numeric Data BCD
S Numeric Data BNR
S Discretes
S Maintenance data
S Alphanumeric data
S Data file
8.2.6.1
Numeric Data (BCD)
A transmission of numeric data in BCD format consists of the Bits 11 to 29.

The Bits 29 to 27 form the MSC (Most significant Character) and has a range
from 0 to 7.
The other digits are formed from four bit groups.
As not all the digits available are required for some specific information, ARINC
gives the range and the resolution of the information contained in the data
word.
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Figure 52
Example BCD
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8.2.6.2
Exercises BCD
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Example 2
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Figure 53
Example BCD Exemptions

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8.2.6.3
Numeric Data (BNR)
Numeric Data (e.g. Temperature, Speed ...), that is encoded as a binary uses
the bits 11 to 28. Bit 28 is always the MSB (most significant bit).
As not all the digits available are required for some specific information ARINC
gives the range and the resolution of the information contained in the data
word.
The RANGE is defined which gives the maximum value that can be
represented (e.g., 1024 kts for a calibrated airspeed CAS).
The most significant bit (MSB) will therefore represent half of this maximum
value.
S The following bit, a 1/4 th
S The following bit, an 1/8 th
S The following bit a 1/16 th etc...
The resolution is quite close to the LSB but not necessarily exact the same
value.
Negative values are transmitted in the so called twos complement. To read the
value this complement has to be reversed by inverting the binary word string
and then add 1.
PAD-Bits are all the bits that are not a part of the information. They are filled
with logic 0.
Sometimes they are used to transmit discrete data.
The Figure gives some examples of coding of numerical data.
For instance, here are the characteristics defined in ARINC Specification No
429 regarding total air temperature:
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Parity
DATA
PAD-Bits
SSM
DATA
PAD-Bits
Parity
SSM
SDI
SDI
LABEL
LABEL
= 16 + 4 + 2 + 1 + 0,25 = - 23.25 C
Figure 54
Example BNR Dataword

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8.2.6.4
Exercises BNR
Binaries must be seen as a string of bits, no grouping is allowed. All bits

together form the number transmitted. The value of the most significant bit
(MSB), Bit 28, is always Range/2. This doesnt necessarily mean it is a power
of 2. Any number can occur.
A decimal point is never transmitted. The value of the less significant bits
comes from dividing the MSB by 2 again and again.
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8.2.6.5
Discrete Data
The ARlNC specification No 429 defines two methods of transmitting discrete

items of Information:
S Inside a word assigned to a specific data item, use of one or several bits not
used for encoding such item.
S Use of words fully dedicated to transmission of discretes. The ARlNC
specification No 429 assigns 7 possible labels (octal 270 to 276) to those
words. These words should be used in ascending label order.
The system receiving the data must be capable of identifying its source by
reference to the port at which it arrives.
There are two groups of discretes:
S General Purpose Discretes
They can be found in many (any) aircraft like TAT, A/S, Altitude, ...
S Dedicated Discretes
Specific dedicated words with assigned labels are used when the data is
intended for AIDS. They might also be used on aircraft with special (unique)
equipment.
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Figure 55
Example Discretes from ADC

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8.2.6.6
Maintenance Data
The general purpose maintenance words are assigned 5 labels in sequential

order (350 to 354) as are the labels for general purpose discrete words.
General purpose maintenance words must contain only discrete or numeric
data BNR or BCD coded.
They are used for maintainance purposes in shops as the information stored is
kept even if power supply is shut off.
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Figure 56
Example Maintenance Data from IRS

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8.2.6.7
AIM Data
Alphanumeric data is encoded in ISO alphabet No 5 as called for in ARlNC

specification No 429. That specification uses the term AIM in referring to the
three possible types of data:
S Label 355 Acknowledgement: not applicable
S Label 356 Maintenance: Transmission of alphanumeric characters
intended for maintenance
S Label 357 ISO alphabet No 5: Transmission of alphanumeric characters.
The ISO alphabet No 5 is a sevenbit code set which implies that an ARINC
specification No 429 word can include a maximum of three characters:
bit No.9 to 15, 16 to 22, 23 to 29.
Several words must be used to transmit information which exceeds three
characters. Therefore, ARlNC specification No 429 lays down a procedure to
cover this as outlined below.
The following words include the characters of the actual information. They are
assigned the same label as the initial word and the SSM (status/sign Matrix):
intermediate word, or final word whenever there are no more characters to be
transmitted.
A control word may be in use following the initial word. It is used to set the
character size, colour and brightness as well as flashing of the text.
NOTE:
S The most significant character is the initial character transmitted (bits No. 9
to 15 of the first word containing information).
S As regards transmission of data known as Acknowledgement, the ARlNC
specification 429 does not lay down a format since an application does not
yet exist.
In the future AIM Data will be used to transmit non-timecritical information e.g.
comms frequencies in order to reduce traffic from ATC to the cockpit on voice
communication channels. An attention getter and a three-tone chime will come
on in case a message arrives at the cockpit.
Bit No:
Usage
31
30
Alphanumeric
Intermediate Word
Initial Word
Last Word
Control Word
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Alphanumeric Signs from ISO Alphabet No 5

MSC
0
LSC
NUL
DLE
SP
SOH
DC1
STX
DC2
ETX
DC3
EOT
DC4
ENQ
NAK
ACK
SYN
&
BEL
ETB
BS
CAN
HT
EM
LF
SUB
VT
ESC
FF
FS
<
CR
GS
SO
RS
>
SI
US
DEL
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Figure 57
Alphanumeric List
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Figure 58
Example AIM Data Transmission

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Figure 59
Example AIM Data

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8.2.6.8
Data File
ARlNC specification No 429 lays down certain characteristics for specific

applications with file data transfer:
S file capacity: 1 to 127 records
S record capacity: 1 to 126 words of 32 bits
S data encoding: numeric data: BNR coded; characters: ISO Alphabet No 5
transmission protocol
All words in a file are assigned the same label as the file label. In this type of
transmission, ARlNC specification No 429 defines the words containing
instructions permitting dialogue between the transmitter and receiver.
These words are always assigned a label associated with the file involved
which is going to be transmitted or which has just been received and the SSM
(status Sign Matrix): initial word.
Normal protocol is as follow:
S Transmitter to receiver: Label Request to Send Initial word
S Receiver to transmitter : Label Clear to Send Initial word
S Transmitter to receiver : Label Data follows Initial word
LabeI Information Intermediate word
Label Check sum of all words in file Final word
S Receiver to transmitter : (after check upon reception of final word)
ARINC specification No 429 furthermore defines use of the following
instructions in initial words:
S Receiver to transmitter: Data Receiver Not OK
S or Synchronization Lost in the case of error or loss of synchronization
detected by the receiver.
S Transmitter to Receiver: Header Information in the case of error or loss of
synchronization detected by the receiver.
S Transmitter to Receiver: Header Information in the case where the
transmitter informs the receiver of the file size, without awaiting the
instruction to transmit.
S Bidirectional: Poll This instruction denotes that the line is clear.
For other data regarding the radionavigation systems:
ARINC specification No 429 furthermore defines other applications concerning
ILS, DME, ADF, HF systems etc... which will be defined in the respective ATA
specification No 100 chapters.
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5.4 DATA BUSSES
Figure 60
File Data Transfer Protocol

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M5.4 DATA BUSES
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8.3 ARINC 629

8.3.1 General
The new ARINC 629 communication system is a high-integrity, high-reliability,
multi-user data bus, which was first deployed on the Boeing 777 aircraft.
Boeing began working on a concept of a multi-transmitter data bus in 1977.
The ARINC 629 specification was adopted by Airlines Electronic Engineering
Committee (AEEC) in 1989.
ARINC 629 supports a multi-transmitter and bidirectional approach to digital
data communications. The primary advantages of this multiple access data
bus include the ability to move more data between LRUs at higher rates
using fewer wires.
Another advantage of this concept is: it does not need a central bus controller,
which could be a potential source of total data bus failure.
ARINC Specifications 429 and 629 may both be applied on the same airplane
in order to obtain the best technical and economic solution (which both are
implemented in the 777).
8.3.2 Components
Physically the ARINC 629 system consists of the following components:
S Data Bus Cable,
S Couplers,
S Stub Cables and
S Terminals, which are implemented in each LRU.
Data Bus Cable
Three transmission modes and media are specified for the implementation of
ARINC 629 networks:
S Current Mode Bus,
S Voltage Mode Bus,
S Fiber Optic Mode Bus.
Couplers
According to the Data Bus Cable there are associated Couplers implemented,
Current Mode Couplers (CMC) or Fiber Optic Input/Output Ports.
(A Voltage Mode Coupler is as yet not specified.)
Stub Cables
The Stub Cable Assembly, consisting of four conductors, carries the differential
voltage doublet from the Terminal to the Coupler and back.
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M5.4 DATA BUSES
Figure 61
ARINC 629 Principle

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M5.10 FIBRE OPTICS
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9.
Fibre Optics
9.1 General
9.2 Fibre Optic Structure
In recent years fibre optic systems have found increased application in the
transmission of digital data. Its most prolific use has been in the area of
ground-based communications. Because of its many benefits, however, fibre
optics are being seriously considered as a medium for the transfer of digital
data between systems on aircraft.
In fibre optic cables data is transmitted in the form of light. Consequently, large
electric and magnetic fields do not affect the transmission. Any light leakage
from the fibres is eliminated by surrounding the fibre with an opaque jacket. As
such, fibres cannot interfere with each other. In most communication
applications the power levels used are safe to personnel and electrically
dangerous environments. In addition, jacketed fibre optic cables are
significantly smaller and lighter and can tolerate more mechanical abuse than
comparable electrical cable.
One of the greatest advantages of fibre optics is its bandwidth. In parallel and
coax cables the bandwidth varies inversely as the square of the cable length,
while in fibre optic cable it varies inversely with length. For example, the 3dB
frequency for a 100-meter length of RG-59 coax is 22.5 MHz. For the same
length of a typical fibre optic cable the 3dB frequency is 200 MHz.
Limitations of fibre optics arise mainly from the need for optical/electrical
conversion and the implementation and maintenance of the physical
connections. At each terminal point an optical/electrical converter is required
for each fibre being utilized by a system. This could result in a multiplicity of
these converters being required by a system. At present, multiple connections
on a fibre optic cable are economically impractical. In addition, the special
methods required for repair of these cables are more involved than that for wire
cables. Terminations also require special care to prevent damage to the fibre
end.
A typical fibre optic cable structure is shown. The core is the light carrying
component of the cable. It is through this core that the digital data is
transmitted. The surface of this core is coated with a cladding that acts to
reflect the light rays which would otherwise pass out of the core and be lost.
The silicone coating prevents scuffing of the thin cladding layer with the buffer
jacket providing additional protection. fibreous tensile strength members
running the length of the cable allow it to be pulled through a long conduit. The
outer jacket provides protection from crushing and impact damage.
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M5.10 FIBRE OPTICS
Figure 62
Fibre Optics
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9.3 Wave Length
9.4 Optical Fibre Types
Several wave lengths have prooved to be most useful for transmission because
of the low damping / signal losses.
One derives between three different types of optical fibres:

S Multimode Fibre
S Gradient Index Fibre
S Monomode Fibre
For transmission a single light beam may be in use as well as several beams
with the same wave lenght.
Usually the light is infrared and therefore invisible.
An individual light beam is called mode.
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M5.10 FIBRE OPTICS
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M5.10 FIBRE OPTICS
2nd Window
1300nm
1st Window
850 nm
Figure 63
3rd Window
1550nm
Optical Windows
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9.5 Optical/Electrical Converters

Conversion of electrical signals into light signals is accomplished by an optical
transmitter. This transmitter is electrically connected to the sending system.
Digital signals applied to the transmitter cause the internal light source (usually
an LED or similar device) to operate between two distinct output levels. This
light output is then applied to the end of the fibre optic cable.
At the receiving end an optical receiver converts the light signals back into
electrical signals. A photosensitive device responds to the light at the end of
the fibre optic cable by providing a signal level input to a receiving amplifier.
This amplifier then provides the driving levels required by the output transistor.
Couplers
It is possible, by using optical couplers, to attach more than one set of transmit
and receive terminals to a single fibre rather than run a separate fibre or cable
for each transmitreceive pair.
The most common application for this technology is with Local Area
Networking, (LAN), whereby a common fibre carries the multiplexed signals
from multiple terminals placed at various locations served by the LAN. Access
to the LAN is made through optical couplers that divert part of the signal power
on the LAN fibre to each receiver and couple power from each terminal
transmitter onto the fibre.
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M5.10 FIBRE OPTICS
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OPTICAL RECEIVER
OPTICAL TRANSMITTER
Figure 64
Optical/Electrical Converters
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9.6 Properties
In comparison to copper cables the following advantages and disadvantages
are obvious:
Advantages:
S Optical signals unaffected by EMI/EMP.
S No cross talk between fibres.
S Energy levels harmless to maintenance personnel.
S More tolerant of mechanical and environmental abuse than comparable
electrical cables.
S Less weight than comparable electrical cable.
S Bandwidth inversely proportional to length as opposed to electrical cable
which is inversely proportional to the square of the length.
Disadvantages:
S Requires optical/electrical converters.
S Multiple connections are economically impractical.
S Repair requires special methods.
S Terminations require special care.
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M5.11 ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
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10. Electronic Displays

10.1 General
Displays may be constructed in several ways. Incandescent displays use thin
filaments for each segment, similar to regular lamps. Another type of display
uses the gas-discharge tube . This older type of unit operates at high voltages
and emits an orange glow.
Electronic Displays in modern aircraft are realized in the following technologies:
S LED ( Light Emitting Diode),
S LCD ( Liquid Crystal Display),
S CRT ( Cathode Ray Tube),
S OLED (Organic LED).
10.2 Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

10.2.1
Simple Visual Displays
A display produces light output to show information in visual form. Displays

can be divided into two categories. Character displays give visual indications of
numbers and letters. Graphic displays are more complex and can give pictorial
as well as alphanumeric information.
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7Segment
Two types of character display formats are common -the 7 segment and dot
matrix displays. Typical fonts for both a 7segment and a dot matrix display are
shown in the Figure. The 7-segment display is used where numbers and a
limited amount of other symbols are required.
Typical packages for character displays is shown .The 7-segment display fits a
standard 14-pin DIP socket.
A multi-digit display is common in digital clocks and other equipment.
5x7 dot matrix
The 5 x 7 dot matrix display can represent most alphanumeric characters.
Note the five columns of seven dots in the matrix for each character.
The 5 x 7 dot matrix display also can be inserted in a 14-pin DIP socket.
Lens
Advantages:
S small dimensions
S robust
S long lifetime
Disadvantages:
S high current consumption (compared with LCD)
S limited flexibility
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Figure 65
LED
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5 Collums
7 Lines
Figure 66
LED Dot Matrix

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Figure 67
LED Cockpit Display

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5.11 ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS
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10.3 CRT
The old but widely used Catode Ray Tube still is standard in many aircraft.
It is the same principle as used in Oscilloscopes: in order to prevent magnetic
fields the deflection is done by electrostatic means. As the force allied to the
electrons is lower then the deflection angle is lower too. This is the cause to
that longer shape in comparison with TV-Tubes.
Burn-In is prevented by slowly shifting the picture.
CRTs are used in:
S CDUs,
S EIS or IDS
S Weather-Radar Displays.
Advantage:
coloured multifunctional displays
Disadvantages:
long shape, resoires lots of space
heavy weight,
Worming up requires (approx. 10 sec.),
limited lifespan,
high power consumption,
thermal sensitive,
tends to burn-in.
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CRT with Burn-In
Figure 68
CRT
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10.4 Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD)

10.4.1
General
While LEDs give off light, liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) are not light sources
but control light.
Liquid-crystal is an organic (carbon based) compound that may influence light.
It forms twisted strings which the light will follow.
First light is applied to a polarizer. This filter allows only light with a selected
polarisation to pass. All the remaining will be blocked. The light that passed the
polarizer will then pass the liquid crystal while following the crystals twist.
Depending on the state of the crystal the polarisation of the light may be
altered.
A secondary polarizer in a 90_ arrangement to the first one allows light to pass
if the polarisation matches.
If a voltage is applied to the liquid crystal it adjusts in a straight line, no twist of
light is performed. If no voltage is applied the crystal twists and the light will
follow this twist.
Since LCDs radiate no light, they must be used in lighted areas with a mirror
installed on the back side, or they must use an active backlight.
The figure on the next page show how the light passes the
Polarizer
Liquid Crystal Cell
Color Filters and
Second Polarizer.
The application of LCD depends on the complexity of the arrangement itself:

S Watches
S Meters
S CDUs
S EIS or IDS, flat screens within the cockpit
S TV screens (entertainment) for the passengers
Advantages:
flat,
high-quality picture,
good illuminated,
multifunctional displays
low energy consumption,
long lifespan,
virtually no maintainance required.
Disadvantages:
temperature sensitive, the fluid might freeze.
If used for EFIS-, ECAM- or EICAS-Displays they must be operated in a
certain temperature range in order to ensure high-quality pictures and fast
reaction.
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Backlight Assy Glass Plate

Polarizer
Glass Plate
Color Filter
Polarizer
Liquid Crystal
DIRECTION
OF LIGHT
Light
Green Light
No Voltage applied
Subpixel
Driver
Backlight Assy
Glass Plate
Polarizer
Glass Plate
Liquid Crystal
Color Filter
Polarizer
Display
Backlight
Symbol Generator
Light
Voltage applied
Subpixel
Figure 69
LCD
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10.4.2
Technology
Liquid crystal displays are either the dynamic-scattering or the field effect type.
The older dynamic-scattering type of LCD produces frosty white letters on a
dark background. The field-effect LCD produces black letters on a silvery
background. As an example, the display used on a Digital Multi Meter is
normally a field-effect type of LCD.
The display consists of two glass plates with a special liquid crystal or nematic
fluid filling the space between. The under surface of the top plate has nearly
invisible metallized shapes where the segments and symbols are to appear.
The glass back plate is also metallized. A polarizer forms the top and bottom of
the sandwich. Contacts are attached to the back plate and to each segment of
the display.
Direct current must not be used to drive LCDs, as it will damage them. LCDs
are widely used in battery power applications such as calculators because of
their extremely low power consumption. They are easy to read in sunlight and
other areas of high light intensity. For this reason, they are widely used on
service station pumps. The field- effect LCD is the most widely used because it
consumes the least power and is easy to read. A steady back-light can be used
for the LCD in applications where the light level is too low.
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
COLOR LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

Color is added to an LCD by the incorporation of filters under the liquid crystal
layer- Segmenting of the lower electrode allows selection of the color desired.
Further segmenting of the upper electrode 90_ with relation to the lower
electrode produces a display in which individual picture elements, or pixels, can
be addressed. The activation of one X electrode along with selected Y
electrodes results in a column of color elements. By continuously activating
successive X electrodes with corresponding Y electrodes pictures and graphics
can be formed on the display.
TFT-Displays
TFT-Displays are active displays, they contain the control circuitry but still are
dependant on backlights or other illumination. As it is impossible to produce
millions of dots without any faulty dot they are classified depending on the kind
and amount of faulty dots:
Type I
Type II
Type III
240 x 320
230.000 Sub-Pixel
1024 x 768
2.360.000 Sub-Pixel
1280 x 1024
3.930.000 Sub-Pixel
1600 x 1200
5.760.000 Sub-Pixel
4
7
10
Type I means: Pixel are always lit,

Type II means:Pixel never shine,
Type III means some Pixel might always be on, always off or are flashing
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Color Liquid Crystal Display
Figure 70
Technology
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10.4.3
Cockpit Display
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Figure 71
LCD Cockpit Display

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Airbus begins flight tests of A340 digital headup display

Manufacturer aims for parallel certification of new technology on all types next
year
Airbus has started flight testing the Thalesdeveloped liquidcrystalbased
digital headup display (HUD) in a bid to gain certification by the second half of
next year.
Thales has installed the system, known as DHUDS, on board an Airbus
A340600 widebody. It will also fit the display to an Airbus narrowbody and the
ultralarge A380 to achieve parallel certification across the manufacturers
entire family.
This follows Airbus s selection of Thales two years ago to design and produce
the equipment. Headup displays have previously been based on cathoderay
tube technology.
Rival HUD firm Rockwell Collins Flight Dynamics, which was beaten to the
Airbus contract by Thales, performed the first test flights of its own
liquidcrystal headup display with an Embraer 170 on 7 April - six days ahead
of the first A340600 flight with the Thales system.
Thales says that, in comparison with cathoderay tubes, the liquidcrystal
display provides greater reliability and increased luminosity. The HUD provides
a 35 x 26 field of view and the equipment weighs 23kg (51lb).
The display shipset comprises three linereplaceable units: the headup
display computer, which receives and processes the data and generates the
graphics; the projector unit; and the folddown optical combiner, which aligns
the graphic overlay and the realworld view.
Airbus will be able to offer the digital headup display as a single or dual
installation.
Carriers including Air France and FedEx have already opted for the system on
the A380 and it will also be fitted in the cockpit of the Airbus Military A400M
transport aircraft.
From Flight International, 05 - 11. July 2005
Usage of HUD in Aircraft

HUD are succsessively installed in many aircraft to improve landing abilities
under bad weather conditions. Freighters and VIP Jets already use this
technology and it will become quite common in the future.
The picture below shows a HUD installed in an Embraer 190 where it was fitted
in for (succsessful) Cat III Certification.
Picture from Flight International, 29. Aug - 04 Sep 2006
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Figure 72
Usage of HUD in Aircraft

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10.5 OLED
Organic LED (OLED) is available since 2003 and on the way to replace old
LCD displays.
OLEDTechnology has several advantages over LCDTechnology. The colours
are brighter, the screen can also be read from a side view and is thinner and
even flexible. Its power consumption is also much lower as no backlight is
required.
Nowadays only very small displays with low resolution can be assembled as
there are still some difficulties in producing the driver-matrix.
Production of OLED can be done with inkjet printers as the polymer ink is just
printed on a transparent slide.
The lifespan is limited but will hopefully be extended within the next few years.
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Light
Passive Matrix OLED

Cathode
transparent Anode
Active Matrix OLED
Figure 73
OLED
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Production with Inkjet-Technology
Lifespan of OLED
Figure 74
Lifespan and Production of organic LED

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Figure 75
Example: Displays with organic LED

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5.12 ESD
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11. Electrostatic Discharge

11.1 General
History
With the advent of a new generation of devices replacing the former digital
AVIONIC devices round about 1979 it became apparent that there were
problems with ESD (Electrostatic Sensitive Devices). Because many of these
devices were identical to the old ones it was possible to compare the failure
statistics objectively.
An increase in the number of minor errors and data differences ranging up to 3
or 4 fold were observed. Further fault analysis revealed that more than 1/3 of
these minor errors were attributed to ESD -related changes in the specification
of the components.
In addition, it was also noticed that 8090% of these failures were not
total-failures but only changes in their properties. These wounded components
were able to pass quality tests without showing any faults. However, further
analysis revealed that when compared to fully functioning components they
had an increased amount of leakage current and also a change in the
switching behaviour.
There was also the additional problem in practice that, depending on the
working temperature a gliding shifting of the defective parameters occurred.
Device-internal CHECK SUM- and BlTE-Tests often were not capable of
detecting these errors.
A BITE-Test (Built In Test Equipment) is a test that runs when the equipment is
switched on and checks the hardware (Power-Up Test).
Die Check Sum is the sum of digits retrieved via the software and which can
detect faults in the memory.
What is ESD?
Electrostatic discharge is always present in our environment, consequently also
at our place of work. An example is when we walk over a carpet to open a door
we get a slight shock shortly before touching the door handle and perhaps
even see a spark or hear crackling.
These are typical forms of appearance of static discharge.
Static electricity is created as soon as two materials are rubbed together, are
separated or are in moving in some kind of fluid or gaseous form.
The static load is then stored in those material which are non-conductive and
tend to look for the nearest way to discharge. This discharge can be extremely
fast and full of energy. It can also be very destructive.
11.2 ESD-Effects
If there are semiconductors, thick film- or integrated circuits along the
discharge path of the static electricity then these discharges will flow through
the components in an uncontrolled fashion or will even be completely
penetrated.
Local overheating, gasifications, distortions, separation or reduction of strip
conductors as well as pitting can be the result of ESD in the micro structure of
a component.
Shortcircuiting between tow strip conductors is seldom the case.
The damage is always irreparable! As a result of the progress in technology
the integration density has increased which causes the ESD problems also to
increase rapidly!
Voltages from well below 100 volts can be absolutely fatal for components!
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5.12 ESD
Figure 76
ESD
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11.3 ESD-Guidelines
Personnel performing work on ESD components and devices must have a
good knowledge of the procedural guidelines pertaining to ESD. These
include:
S identifying components sensitive to ESD. These are usually labelled as
such.
S assuring that suitable grounding techniques are applied to set both
personnel and the device with the same potential.
S application of static neutralizers, to prevent any charging of personnel, tools
and workbench.
S opening an LRU or removal of an SRU (Shop Replaceable Unit) only on a
work area prepared for such a purpose.
S fitting protective caps on the electrical terminals of LRUs as soon as they
are no longer installed.
Conductive protective caps are preferred.
S handling defective equipment as carefully as if handling new equipment.
Otherwise this would make it difficult to find the actual cause of the fault.
S using conductive material for transport and dispatch
S storing parts away from sources of high energy like radar, x-rays and laser
beams.
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5.12 ESD
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ESD-Symbols and Labels
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5.12 ESD
Figure 77
ESD Symbols
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12. Electromagnetic Environment

12.1 General
12.2 Aircraft Components
All electric/electronic equipments influence the environment by electromagnetic

radiation.
Radio communication and navigation systems operate by transmitting
controlled EM radiation. All other electronic devices radiate to some degree,
but this radiation should be reduced as far as possible. Also electronic devices
should be able to operate normally in the presence of EM radiation.
Following terms are used for Electromagnetic Environment :
S EMC, electromagnetic compability, meaning units will not adversely affect
one another.
S EMI, electromagnetic interference is the maximum interference allowable for
a particular transmission. To keep within limits it can be necessary to install
so called EMI-filter on the receiver and transmitter side of the unit.
S HIRF, high intensity radiated field is the zone of high radiation which is
caused by equipment such as weather radar.
S Lightning / lightning protection. High voltage electric discharges can
produce high currents.The nature of these currents can produce intense
bursts of EM radiation. Both the radio transmitter/receivers and non radio
equipment can be influenced by this disturbace.
We distinguish between units that are:
S permanent installations within the aircraft and
S transportable units like mobile phones, electronic note books , CD-Players
etc.
The components installed in aircraft are subject to build regulations.

In the identification sheet for the aircraft, the status of the build regulations is
fixed (under licence).
The specification of the appliance describes its Technical Standard Order
(TSO) for the American area, or Joint TSO for the European area.
The TSO, or the JTSO, are the authorised industrial standards of the
authorities (FAA or JAA). As a rule, they describe the fulfilling functionality of a
component (MOPS = Minimum Operating and Performance Standards) and
define the environmental conditions under which the components are operated
(Environmental Conditions).
By the testing of components, it ensures that they do not exceed their fixed
tolerance values.
These test procedures and the limitations are fixed in RTCA Document
DO160C, or in Eurocae document ED14C.
As well as the specification for a component, the integration of it into the
aircraft is important. The chance of disturbing neighbouring components must
also be taken into account, as well as the chance of the unit being influenced
by other units.
The Advisory Circular 2510 details regulations on this subject.
Herein is described, amongst other matters, the procedures for checking the
electromagnetic compatibility. In carrying out an EMIsurvey in an aircraft, all
electrically operated systems in the aircraft are checked for disturbances which
could originate from newly installed components.
If the new component is critical to flight safety, the examination is repeated in
reverse.
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Radio frequency transmitters are a seperate case, because they are

designed to radiate electro-magnetic waves.
Because of this, the national rules for the issue of a certificate of airworthiness
are specifically detailed:
S UK CAA:
The approval of an aircraft radio installation is based on a survey by the
CAA followed by such ground and flight tests as are required in respect of a
particular installation, to prove the satisfactory functioning of the installation.
(BCAR Sect A Chapter A3 -11).
S German LBA:
A ruling by the German Aviation Authorities (7/91) states that Before the
sampling inspection, there is a test for freedom from interference ....
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12.3 Portable Components

General
No electronic device may be switched on during take-off and landing. The use
of mobile phones is not permitted at any time, since they can interfere with an
aircrafts electronic systems.
Tests by airlines have shown, that some devices do not have an impact on
flight safety, so passengers may be permitted to use them at the descretion of
the operator. This decision has been endorsed by the Federal Aviation
Authority (FAA).
Here are the rules governing usage of electronic devices on Lufthansa aircraft:
May be permitted to be operated during certain phases of flight:
S Laptops /note books (incuding those with CD ROM drives),
S Cassette players (Walkman),
S CD players, Minidisk players,
S Computer games (game boy),
S Video cameras,
S Video recorders,
S Displays with liquid crystal technology (LCD).
Prohibited from use on aircraft at anytime :
S Mobile phones (also satellite support),
S Walkie talkies
S Remote controlled devices,
S Cordless computer mice,
S Computer printers,
S CD ROM writers,
S CD ROM recorders,
S Mini disk recorders,
S Displays using cathode ray tube technology (CRT).
Use of Mobile Phones during Flight

On Sep 30 2006 Ryanair anounced the installation of OnAir mobile phone
equipment on the Boeing 737 fleet starting in the 2nd half of 2007 (subject to
relevant regulatory approval).
Passengers then may use their mobiles during flight at rates with mirror
international roaming charges.
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New Hardware found!

Device: A310
Install?
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M5.15 TYPICAL ELECTRONIC / DIGITAL
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
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13. Typical Aircraft Systems

13.1 ACARS
13.1.1
Introduction
The Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting system or ACARS, is a

datalink communication system which can transfer messages and data
between the aircraft and the ground.
It uses the VHF Communication system #3 or the Satellite Communication
system dependent on the aircraft location.
The data sent by ACARS is received by the ground station of a network
provider which transports the data via its network to the users. The data
transfer in this direction is called the downlink. Consequently the data transfer
from the ground to the aircraft is called the uplink.
ACARS transmits and receives either automatic reports, which usually depend
on the flight profile, and manual reports which are independent of the flight
profile.
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AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Figure 78
ACARS COMPONENTS
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M5
13.2 FlyByWire
The Airbus 320 and Boeing 777 are examples of commercial aircraft which
have full Flight Guidance Systems. These differ from other modern aircraft
such as Airbus 310, Boeing 757 and 747, because the automatic control of the
control surfaces is by a fly by wire system. A fly by wire system will provide
electrical signals from the computers to control surface actuators. The
actuators will then move the control surfaces under hydraulic power.
The advantage of a fly by wire is the reduction in mechanical connections
between the cockpit and control surfaces. This simplifies aircraft construction
and reduces weight.
Basic Principles (Airbus 320)
The fly by wire system has been designed and certified to make the new
generation of aircraft more cost effective, safer and nicer to fly or ride in than
earlier generation aircraft.
The flight control surfaces are all:
Electrically Controlled.
Hydraulically Activated.
The stabiliser and rudder can be mechanically controlled.

Side sticks which replace the more conventional handwheels are used to fly the
aircraft in pitch and roll. The pilot inputs are interpreted by computers and
move the flying controls as necessary to achieve the desired flight path.
However, regardless of the pilots input the computers will prevent excessive
manoeuvres or exceedance of the safe flight envelope.
Page 174
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
EASA PART 66
M5
AERODYNAMIC FEEDBACK
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
FLIGHT
CONTROL
COMPUTER
FEEDBACK
SIDE STICK
CONTROLLER
COMPUTER
DEMAND
CONTROL
SURFACE
Figure 79
Simplified FlyByWire Schematic

Page 175
AIRBUS 320 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

The Airbus 320 flight controls are electrically or mechanically controlled as
follows:
Pitch Axis:
Elevator control =
Electrical
Stabiliser control =
Electrical for normal or alternate control.
Mechanical for manual trim control.
Roll Axis:
Ailerons control =
Electrical
Spoilers control =
Electrical
Yaw Axis:
Rudder Control =
Mechanical, however control for yaw
damping, turn coordination and trim is
electrical.
All surfaces are hydraulically actuated. Two side stick controllers are used for
pitch and roll manual control, one on the captains left hand side and the other
on the F/O right hand side. The two side sticks are not mechanically coupled.
Each controller sends independent electrical signals to the Flight Control
Computers. Two pairs of pedals which are rigidly interconnected ensure
mechanical control to the rudder.
A speed brake control lever is provided on the centre pedestal. Two hand
wheels on the centre pedestal are used to mechanically control the trim of the
horizontal stabiliser.
A switch installed on the centre pedestal operates the rudder trim control.
EASA PART 66
M5
Computers
Seven Flight Control Computers process pilot and autopilot inputs according to
normal, alternate or direct flight control laws. All surfaces are electrically
controlled through a computer arrangement which includes:
2 ELACs Elevator Aileron Computer.
These provide normal elevator, aileron and stabiliser control.
3SECs Spoilers Elevator Computer.
These provide normal spoiler control and standby elevator and stabiliser
control.
2 FACs Flight Augmentation Computers
These provide normal electrical rudder control.
In addition two Flight Control Concentrators acquire data from the Elevator
Aileron Computer and the Spoiler Elevator Computer to send to the Electronic
Instrument System and the Centralised Fault Display System.
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Page 176
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
EASA PART 66
M5
MECHANICAL LINK
ADIRU
RUDDER TRIM
RUDDER
FLIGHT AUGMENTATION COMPUTER
YAW RATE
DEMAND
RAD
FMGC
ALT
ACCEL
FMG
LGCIU
FMGC Flight Management

Guidance Computer
LGCIU Landing Gear Control
Interface
AILERON
SIDE STICK
EIS Electronic Instrument

System
ELEVATOR & AILERON COMPUTER
ROLL
DEMANDS
PEDALS
EIS
FCD
SPEED
BRAKE
ABNORMAL
AL
LAW
SPOILER ELEVATOR COMPUTER

SIDE STICK
ADIRU Air Data Inertial

Reference Unit
SFCC
ACCEL
ELEVATORS
SFCC Slat Flap Control

Computer
STABILISER
HYDRAULIC
JACKS
RAD ALT
TRIM
MECHANICAL LINK
Figure 80
Schematic of a Flight Control System

Page 177
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
EASA PART 66
M5
13.3 Flight Management System (FMS)

13.3.1
General
The Flight Management System is used for automatical control of the aircraft,
navigation and performance management.
It comprises the following components
S Flight Management Computer
S MCDU
S Sensors
13.3.2
13.3.4
FMC Data Receivers
Besides MCDU data is also transmitted to:

1. Nav Display (via SGU or DMC)
2. Autopilot in LNav Mode (Lateral Navigation)
3. Autopilot in VNav Mode (Vertical Navigation)
4. Auto Throttle System
System Layout
Prior to flight the FMS receives the Present Position that has to be entered
manually into the MCDU. This information will be forwardded to the IRS
system. It compares the entry with its calculated latitude and reports
discrepancies.
The FMC contains a NAV data base from which it calculates the route by using
start point an aim. Also waypoints are found in the NAV data base.
Modern FMC are also capable of controlling the NAV receiver, setting them to
the frequencies required.
Communication with data sources and receivers usually is done by using
ARINC 429 data busses.
13.3.3
FMS Data Sources
Besides the NAV data base, which has to be updated every 28 days, the
following data sources are connected to the FMC:
1. IRS
2. GPS (if installed)
3. NAV radios
4. Fuel Quantity System
5. MCDU
These data sources are used for lateral and vertical navigation. Also it will be
calculated if the Fuel On Board is sufficient for the remaining flight.
Page 178
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
EASA PART 66
M5
MCDU
Display
DMC
Autopilot
FMC
Auto
Throttle
Fuel
Quantity
System
Nav
Radios
IRS
Figure 81
GPS
Overview FMC
Page 179

DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
EASA PART 66
M5
13.4 Inertial Stabilised Systems

13.4.1
Inertial Reference System (IRS)
The inertial reference system is the standard system in todays generation of

aircraft.
It consists of an inertial reference unit (IRU) which contains all the necessary
system components.
The gyros used are normally laser gyros.
The IRS system has a mode select unit, msu in short. On this unit can be
found the ON Off switches. Usually either 2 or 3 independent systems are
installed in an aircraft.
Some systems also need an inertial sensor display unit (ISDU) in short for data
entry and monitoring. Modern systems dont have an ISDU because all
functions are controlled from the MCDU.
The IRU primarily provides output signals for attitude, heading, ground speed,
wind and inertial vertical speed.
It also receives inputs from the air data computer.
The IRU has a very powerful computer which is able to calculate the present
position of the aircraft. For this calculation it needs a 10 minute align phase on
the ground. During that time the aircraft may not be moved.
The computer also knows the magnetic variation. This is stored in its memory
for all positions on earth. Therefore, it does not require a flux valve to calculate
the magnetic heading.
The present position calculation is updated during the whole flight using the
acceleration signals, so it can be used by the lateral navigation of the flight
management system.
These calculations must never be interrupted during flight, therefore the IRS
requires a backup electrical supply directly from the aircraft battery or from its
own battery unit.
Page 180
EASA PART 66
M5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Figure 82
IRS ARCHITECTURE
Page 181
EASA PART 66
M5
13.5 Global Navigation

13.5.1
Global Positioning System (GPS)
The Global Positioning System, or GPS in short, is a satellitebased navigation

system that calculates aircraft position with high accuracy.
It uses 21 primary and 3 spare satellites which orbit about 10900 Nm above the
earth. Each satellite completes an orbit once every 12 hours and permanently
sends signals which include the time of the transmission.
The GPS unit in the aircraft calculates the travel time of the signal by
comparing the time of the signal reception with the transmission time.
The travel time gives the distance to the satellite, because radio signals travel
at the speed of light.
GPS can calculate the aircraft latitude, longitude and altitude, when the
distance to at least four satellites is available.
Usually two GPS.s are installed.
Each GPS has one topmounted antenna which receives the satellite signals.
The satellite signals are routed to a GPS unit which is, for example, in a
dedicated component near the antennas or inside the multimode receiver.
The GPS unit processes the signals and sends them primarily to the flight
management system for position calculation.
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Page 182
EASA PART 66
M5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Figure 83
GPS ARCHITECTURE
Page 183
EASA PART 66
M5
13.6 TCAS - Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System

13.6.1
TCAS ARCHITECTURE
A typical TCAS system has the following main components.

S A TCAS Computer which is located in the Avionics compartment
S Two antennas which are used for transmission and reception, one at the top
and one at the bottom of the aircraft.
S Finally a combined ATC and TCAS control panel.
The TCAS computer communicates via the antennas with the ATC
transponders of other aircraft, therefore it uses the same two frequencies as
the ATC transponder.
It transmits interrogations on one frequency (1030 Mhz) and receives the
replys on another frequency (1090 Mhz).
The two TCAS antennas consist of four electronically controlled elements. This
gives the antenna a directional characteristic so that the computer can
calculate the direction to an intruder.
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Page 184
EASA PART 66
M5
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
Figure 84
TCAS COMPONENTS
Page 185
P66 B1 M5 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.5.2
Binary / Hexadecimal Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.6
Overview: Binary- Octal- Hexadecimal

Numbering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.7
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.7.1
BCD-Decimal Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.7.2
BCD Binary Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.
Logic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.2
Levels Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
3.3
Definition of Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
20
4.
Logic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
Numbering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
4.1
Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
4.2
AND Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
2.1.1
Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
4.3
OR Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
2.1.2
Positional Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
4.4
Gates with several Basic Functions . . . . . . . . .
48
2.2
Decimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.4.1
NAND Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
2.3
Binary Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
4.4.2
NOR Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
2.3.1
Binary Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.4.3
Exclusive OR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.4
Octal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
4.4.4
Exclusive NOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
2.4.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
4.5
Possible Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.4.2
Octal / Decimal Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
4.6
Summary of all Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.4.3
Binary / Octal Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
4.7
Rules of Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.5
Hexadecimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
4.7.1
Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.5.1
Hexadecimal Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
4.7.2
De Morgan Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
DIGITAL TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.
Electronic Instrument Systems . . . . . . . .
1.1
Classification of the Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
EIS Display Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Basic T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.3.1
Classic Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.3.2
Glass Cockpit Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.4
Navigational Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.5
ECAM/EICAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.6
Indication in case of computer failure . . . . . . .
18
1.7
On-Board-Maintainance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.
Page i
P66 B1 M5 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.7.3
Shannon Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
6.4.3
Storage / Monitor Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
4.7.4
Calculation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.4.4
Controlling Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
5.
Data Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
6.4.5
Interactive Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
6.4.6
Aircraft Digital Systems Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
5.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
5.1.1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
7.
Software Management Control . . . . . . . .
88
5.2
Analog to Digital Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
5.2.1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
5.2.2
A/D Converter Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
7.3
Program Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
5.2.3
How the Sawtooth Principle works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.4
Software Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
5.3
D/A Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
7.5
Software Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
6.
Basic Computer Structure . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
8.
ARINC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
6.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
8.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
6.2
Detailed Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.1.1
ARINC Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
6.2.1
Minimum Hardware Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
6.2.2
Basic Computer Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.2
ARINC 429 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
8.2.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
6.3
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
6.3.1
Capacity of Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.3.2
RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.3.3
ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
6.3.4
PROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
8.2.2
8.2.2.1
8.2.2.2
8.2.2.3
8.2.2.4
Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transmission Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
92
92
94
94
6.3.5
EPROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
6.3.6
EEPROM, EAPROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
8.2.3
8.2.3.1
8.2.3.2
Data Synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bit - Synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Word Synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
95
95
6.4
Computer Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
8.2.4
Information-Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
6.4.1
Reference Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
6.4.2
Informational Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
8.2.5
8.2.5.1
Data Word . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
98
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.2.5.2
8.2.5.3
8.2.5.4
8.2.5.5
8.2.5.6
Parity Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Label / Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Source / Destination Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sign / Status Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100
100
104
106
108
8.2.6
8.2.6.1
8.2.6.2
8.2.6.3
8.2.6.4
8.2.6.5
8.2.6.6
8.2.6.7
8.2.6.8
Data-Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numeric Data (BCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises BCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Numeric Data (BNR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises BNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discrete Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maintenance Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AIM Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
110
110
112
118
120
126
128
130
134
8.3
ARINC 629 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136
8.3.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136
8.3.2
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136
9.
Fibre Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
9.2
Fibre Optic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
9.3
Wave Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
140
9.4
Optical Fibre Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
140
9.5
Optical/Electrical Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
9.6
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
144
10.
Electronic Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
146
10.2
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
146
10.2.1
Simple Visual Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
146
10.3
CRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
150
10.4
Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
152
10.4.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
152
10.4.2
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
154
10.4.3
Cockpit Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
156
10.5
OLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
160
11.
Electrostatic Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
11.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
164
11.2
ESD-Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
164
11.3
ESD-Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
166
12.
Electromagnetic Environment . . . . . . . . . 168
12.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
168
12.2
Aircraft Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
168
12.3
Portable Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
170
13.
Typical Aircraft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
13.1
ACARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
172
13.1.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
172
13.2
FlyByWire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
174
13.3
Flight Management System (FMS) . . . . . . . . . .
178
13.3.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178
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P66 B1 M5 E
TABLE OF CONTENTS
13.3.2
System Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178
13.3.3
FMS Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178
13.3.4
FMC Data Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178
13.4
Inertial Stabilised Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
180
13.4.1
Inertial Reference System (IRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
180
13.5
Global Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
182
13.5.1
Global Positioning System (GPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
182
13.6
TCAS - Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance

System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
184
TCAS ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
184
13.6.1
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P66 B1 M5 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Cockpit Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cockpit Layout Boeing 747100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cockpit Layout Boeing 737300 (Classic) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cockpit Layout Airbus A320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EIS Brightness Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic T Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Navigational Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Upper Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lower Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Display Unit in case of computer failure . . . . . . . . . . . . .
On Board Maintenance Facilities Schematic . . . . . . . .
Decimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Binary Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Octal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Binary to Octal / Octal to Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hexadecimal Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Binary to Hexadecimal / Hexadecimal to Binary . . . . . .
Decimal to BCD / BCD to Decimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example: Decimal to BCD / BCD to Decimal . . . . . . . .
Example: Level Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INVERTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AND Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OR Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example: Landing Gear Challenger 604 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Digital to Analog Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A/D Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Principle of A/D Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D/A Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example: ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example: CPU, Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example Conducting Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example HSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History of Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reference Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
5
6
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
24
26
29
31
33
37
39
41
44
45
46
47
55
59
61
63
65
67
69
70
71
72
77
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Figure
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Informational Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Storage/Monitor Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Controlling Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interactive Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Airplane Digital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History of ARINC Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ARINC 429 Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Information Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ARINC 429 Data Word Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Guideline for Label Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BCD List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BNR List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment Identifier List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Source / Destination Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sign Status Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example BCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example BCD Exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example BNR Dataword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example Discretes from ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example Maintenance Data from IRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alphanumeric List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example AIM Data Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example AIM Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
File Data Transfer Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ARINC 629 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fibre Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Optical Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Optical/Electrical Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LED Dot Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LED Cockpit Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LCD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
81
83
85
87
91
93
97
99
101
102
103
104
105
107
109
111
117
119
127
129
131
132
133
135
137
139
141
143
147
148
149
151
153
155
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76
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78
79
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81
82
83
84
LCD Cockpit Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Usage of HUD in Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lifespan and Production of organic LED . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example: Displays with organic LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ESD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ESD Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACARS COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simplified FlyByWire Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Schematic of a Flight Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overview FMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IRS ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GPS ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TCAS COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
157
159
161
162
163
165
167
173
175
177
179
181
183
185
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P66 B1 M5 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
Page iii
P66 B1 M5 E
TABLE OF FIGURES
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M5 DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT

Operational Programme II Cohesion Policy 2007-2013

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Electronic Instrument Systems

All modern aircraft use electronic display devices (Electronic Instrument

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1.1 Classification of the Indicators

Aircraft surveillance consists of

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Cockpit Layout Boeing 747100

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Cockpit Layout Airbus A320

1.2 EIS Display Control

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EIS Brightness Control

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1.3.1 Classic Layout

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1.3.2 Glass Cockpit Layout

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