Web Version PDF

Peter Radgen
Edgar Blaustein
(Eds.)
Compressed Air Systems

in the European Union
Energy, Emissions,
Savings Potential and Policy Actions
ISBN
3-932298-16-0
Das Werk einschlielich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschtzt.
Jede Verwertung ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlags unzulssig.
Das gilt insbesondere fr Vervielfltigungen, bersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen
und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen.
Copyright 2001 LOG_X Verlag GmbH, Stuttgart.
Projektmanagement: Dr.-Ing. Peter Radgen, Fraunhofer ISI
Umschlaggestaltung: Jrgen G. Rothfu, Neckarwestheim
Druck: Rondo Druck, Ebersbach-Rowlden
Bindung: Waidner GmbH, Fellbach
Printed in Germany
Preface
According to the Kyoto Protocol from 1997, the EU has to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions by 8 % below their 1990 levels until the period of 2008-2012. To
achieve these reduction targets substantial efforts will be required by all sectors.
Two main strategies have been identified, which allow significant emission reductions without harming economic growth. The first is the wider adoption of
energy efficient technologies. Energy efficiency has been a key element in the
energy policy of the European Union since it reduces the emissions related to
energy consumption and, at the same time, saves energy costs and contributes
to extending the remaining lifetime of our natural resources.
Among the cross cutting energy savings technologies, electric motor systems
are by far the most important type of electric load. They are used in all sectors
in a wide range of applications, such as fans, compressors, pumps, or conveyors. Since electricity consumption in electric motor systems account for abut 70
% of all electricity use in the industry sector and since energy costs make up
more than 70 % of the life cycle costs of a motor system, even small improvements in the energy efficiency of motor systems will produce large energy savings across the EU.
Therefore, the EU has supported a number of studies, analysing the market for
energy efficient electric motor applications. This book summarises the findings
of the study on compressed air systems in the EU, while other studies such as a
study on the use of pumps have recently been completed and studies on fans
and on air conditioning systems are in preparation.
As energy savings measures in compressed air systems are highly profitable,
we hope that our propositions on how to stimulate further applications of energy
savings techniques in compressed air systems will be adopted by the European
Com-mission and the national Government of each Member State.
Karlsruhe, February, 5th, 2001.
Peter Radgen
Edgar Blaustein
Compressed Air Systems in the European Union

Energy, Emissions, Savings Potential and Policy Actions
Final Report, October 2000
The project was carried out with support from the European Commission, under the
SAVE Programme, project XVII/4.1031/Z/98-266.
Project Officer: Paolo Bertoldi, <Paolo.BERTOLDI@BXL.DG17.cec.be>
Study team participants

ADEME, Project co-ordinator
Agence de l'Environnement et de la
Matrise de l'Energie
27 rue Louis Vicat
75015 Paris, France
Bruno Chrtien, <bruno.chretien@ademe.fr>
Edgar Blaustein, <edgar.blaustein@wanadoo.fr>
Anne Rialhe, <a.rialhe@voila.fr>
Fraunhofer ISI
Fraunhofer Institute
Systems and Innovation Research
Breslauer Strasse 48
76139 Karlsruhe, Germany
Peter Radgen, <Peter.Radgen@isi.fhg.de>
Christiane Schmid, <Christiane.Schmid@isi.fhg.de>
DoE
Department of Energetics University of L'Aquila
Localit Monteluco di Roio
67040 L'Aquila, Italy
Roberto Cipollone, <robcip@ing.univaq.it>
Roberto Carapellucci, <robcar@ing.univaq.it>
ECE
ECE International VOF
De Spinhoek 8
7772 PX Hardenberg, Netherlands
Gerard Hurink, <ece_international_vof@hetnet.nl>
Industry representatives
The study team would like to thank Pneurop (the European association of manufacturers and
distributors of compressed air equipment) for their participation in the study. While the many
members of the association who participated are too numerous to list, we would like to make
particular mention of the participation of Henri Ysewijn (President of Pneurop), Guy Van
Doorslaer (SG of Pneurop), Harry Craig and Desmond Wall.

Table of Contents
Executive Summary ......................................................................................... 1

Zusammenfassung........................................................................................... 5
Rsume ......................................................................................................... 11
Rapporto Conclusivo ..................................................................................... 15
Samenvatting.................................................................................................. 19
Introduction .................................................................................................... 25
1. Characterisation of Compressed Air Systems in the EU..................... 27

1.1
Data Collection Methods ........................................................... 27
1.2
Numeric Data ............................................................................ 28
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
Qualitative Data on CAS Decision Processes ........................... 31

CAS Users ................................................................................ 32
Compressed Air Service Providers ........................................... 33
2. Model Energy Consumption and Growth............................................... 37

2.1
Aim of Model Development ....................................................... 37
2.2
Description of the Model............................................................ 37
2.3
The Simplified Model, the Data Used, and the Results ............. 38
3. Technical and Economic Energy Savings Potential ............................. 43

3.1
Improvement of Drives .............................................................. 44
3.2
Optimal Choice of the Type of Compressor .............................. 45
3.3
Improvement of Compressor Technology ................................. 46
3.4
Use of Sophisticated Control Systems ...................................... 46
3.5
Recuperating Waste Heat ......................................................... 46
3.6
Improved Air Treatment ............................................................ 47
3.7
Overall System Design.............................................................. 47
3.8
Optimising End Use Devices..................................................... 48
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

II
3.9
Reducing Frictional Pressure Losses in Networks..................... 48
3.10
Reducing Air Leaks ................................................................... 49
3.11
Measuring and Tracking System Performance.......................... 49
3.12
Synthesis of Technical Measures .............................................. 50
4. Organisational Aspects of Energy Savings ........................................... 55

4.1
Organisational Barriers to Improving CAS Energy

Efficiency ................................................................................... 55
4.2
Outsourcing of the Compressed Air Function ............................ 56
4.3
Analytical Accounting Methods.................................................. 57
5. Analysis of Impacts.................................................................................. 61
5.1
CAS Final Users ........................................................................ 63
5.2
Manufacturers of Compressors and CAS Equipment ................ 71
5.3
Electric Utilities .......................................................................... 73
5.4
Engineering Consultants and Compressed Air Suppliers .......... 76
5.5
Environmental Impact ................................................................ 77
6. Actions to Promote Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems .......... 81

6.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.7
6.1.8
6.1.9
6.1.10
6.1.11
Actions....................................................................................... 82
Advertising Campaign................................................................ 82
Technology Demonstration........................................................ 83
Measuring Campaign................................................................. 84
Contests and Awards................................................................. 84
Dissemination of Information, Training, and Education ............. 86
Life Cycle Costing...................................................................... 88
Labelling and Certification ......................................................... 90
Voluntary Agreements ............................................................... 95
Development of Guidelines for Outsourcing .............................. 98
Economic and Regulatory Actions............................................. 99
Other Possible Actions ............................................................ 102
6.2
Classification of Actions and Development of a

Concerted Programme ............................................................ 103
6.3
Proposition to the Commission on How to Act......................... 108
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
III

7. Evaluation of the Impact of Measures.................................................. 113

7.1
The Energy Scenarios............................................................. 113
7.2
Future Energy Consumption of CAS ....................................... 114
Bibliography ................................................................................................. 119
APPENDIX 1: Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data .......................... 121

APPENDIX 2: Market Characterisation: Numeric Data .............................. 127
APPENDIX 3: ADEME Data Collection Guide for Compressed Air
Outsourcing........................................................................... 131
APPENDIX 4: Data Collection Guide for Compressed Air Users.............. 145
APPENDIX 5: Qualitative Data Collection Guide for Equipment
Manufacturers ....................................................................... 157
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

IV
List of Figures
Figure 1:
CAS electricity consumption .......................................................... 29
Figure 2:
Number of air compressors by power range .................................. 30
Figure 3:
Number of new and upgraded CAS until 2015............................... 41
Figure 4:
Process chain for CAS................................................................... 43
Figure 5:
Major families of compressors ....................................................... 45
Figure 6:
An example of a CA network ......................................................... 49
Figure 7:
Major energy savings measures .................................................... 53
Figure 8:
Industry Electricity Factor for EU countries, US and Japan

in 1996 ........................................................................................... 65
Figure 9:
Electricity Consumption for EU countries in 1996 .......................... 66
Figure 10: LCC for two different sizes of compressors, indicating the
significance of energy consumption ............................................... 89
Figure 11: LCC of a compressor with variation of electricity prices................. 90
Figure 12: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (covered potential
and implementation time)............................................................. 107
Figure 13: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (costs and covered
potential) ...................................................................................... 108
Figure 14: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (Implementation
time and costs) ............................................................................ 109
Figure 15: Construction of the Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)......... 110
Figure 16: CAS electricity consumption according to scenario ..................... 115
Figure 17: CAS electricity consumption by country, BAU scenario ............... 116
Figure 18: CAS electricity consumption by country, ARP scenario ............... 116
Figure 19: CAS electricity consumption by country, ERP scenario ............... 117
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

List of Tables
Table 1:
Electricity consumption in compressed air systems ...................... 29
Table 2:
Number of air compressors installed ............................................. 30
Table 3:
Number of air compressors installed in 1999 ................................ 39
Table 4:
Electricity consumption for CAS in 1999........................................ 39
Table 5:
Growth rates for CAS in the EU..................................................... 40
Table 6:
Compressed air system life cycle .................................................. 51
Table 7:
Energy savings measures ............................................................. 52
Table 8:
Types of measuring systems......................................................... 58
Table 9:
Energy savings measures ............................................................. 61
Table 10:
Some acronyms for energetic and economic parameters ............. 63
Table 11:
Market Penetration Factor and Efficiency Gain Factor .................. 64
Table 12:
Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for each

proposed measure ........................................................................ 67
Table 13:
Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for the

actions globally considered ........................................................... 68
Table 14: Reduction of energy costs for the actions globally

considered..................................................................................... 68
Table 15:
Reduction of operating costs for each proposed measure ............ 70
Table 16: Increment of Investment costs for each proposed measure .......... 70
Table 17:
Payback Time, full realisation of techno-economic potential ......... 71
Table 18:
Payback Time, moderate ARP scenario........................................ 71
Table 19:
Number of company-level measures for each proposed

energy savings measure ............................................................... 72
Table 20:
Estimated annual sales of new / upgraded components ............... 73
Table 21:
Reduction of energy sales for electric utilities due to each of

the proposed actions (medium price scenario).............................. 74
Table 22:
Reduction of energy sales for electric utilities due to the

actions globally considered (medium price scenario) .................... 74
Table 23:
Fuel savings .................................................................................. 74
Table 24:
Global Energy Savings Ratio for each proposed measure ............ 75
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

VI
Table 25:
Global Energy Savings Ratio for the action globally

considered ..................................................................................... 75
Table 26:
Energy and Fuel Savings for the moderate scenario ..................... 76
Table 27:
Electricity production in 1997 for various countries........................ 78
Table 28: Specific CO2 emissions.................................................................. 79

Table 29:
Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction for each of the

proposed actions ........................................................................... 80
Table 30:
Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction in the

moderate scenario ......................................................................... 80
Table 31:
Target groups of proposed actions .............................................. 104
Table 32:
Affected components of proposed actions ................................... 104
Table 33:
Estimate of gained energy savings by the two programmes........ 106
Table 34:
Actions and action levels ............................................................. 111
Table 35:
Total CAS electricity consumption in TWh, per country ............... 114
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Introduction
Using compressed air in the industrial and service sectors is a common practice, since production, handling and use are safe and easy. Compressed air
accounts for as much as 10 % of industrial consumption of electricity, or over 80
TWh per year in the European Union.
Nonetheless, the energy efficiency of many compressed air systems is low:
case studies show that savings in the range from 5 to 50 % are possible. A
large technical and economic potential for energy savings is not being realised
under current market and decision mechanisms. The study "Compressed Air
Systems in the European Union" has developed recommendations for actions
that could bring about market transformation, in order to realise this potential for
energy and cost savings.
Market characterisation, technical energy savings measures
Compressors are relatively long lived capital goods, with an average lifetime of
13 years for compressors between 10 and 90 kW, and 16 years between 90
and 300 kW. They operate on the average 3500 hours per year. The current
stock of compressors is as follows.
Country
Total
France
43 765
28 885
14 880
Germany
62 000
43 400
18 600
Greece + Spain + Portugal
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italy
43 800
30 660
13 140
United Kingdom
55 000
46 750
8 250
Rest of the EU
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Total
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
The market for compressed air systems (CAS) is stable in Europe, with 1 % to
2 % growth in Italy, Greece and Spain, and 0 % growth in the other European
countries.
Performance of CAS depends on the performance of each element, but even
more on overall system design and operation. The economically and technically
feasible energy savings amount to 32.9 %, achievable over a 15 year period. All the technical measures examined are cost effective (payback time of
less than 36 months) in some applications. The most important energy savings
measures are:
reducing air leaks

better system design
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Executive Summary

use of adjustable speed drives (ASD)

recovery of waste heat.
The following table resumes the potential contribution to energy savings of the
technical measures examined.
Energy savings measure
% applicability (1) % gains (2)
potential
contribution (3)
System installation or renewal

Improvement of drives (high efficiency
motors, HEM)
25 %
2%
0.5 %
Improvement of drives: (Adjustable speed

drives, ASD)
25 %
15 %
3.8 %
Upgrading of compressor
30 %
7%
2.1 %
Use of sophisticated control systems
20 %
12 %
2.4 %
Recovering waste heat for use in other

functions
20 %
20 %
4.0 %
Improved cooling, drying and filtering
10 %
5%
0.5 %
Overall system design, including multipressure systems
50 %
9%
4.5 %
Reducing frictional pressure losses
50 %
3%
1.5 %
Optimising certain end use devices
5%
40 %
2.0 %
Reducing air leaks
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
More frequent filter replacement
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTAL
32.9 %
System operation and maintenance
Table legend: (1) % of CAS where this measure is applicable and cost effective
(2) % reduction in annual energy consumption
(3) Potential contribution = Applicability * Reduction
Energy savings can best be achieved at the time when a new system is built
from scratch. Nevertheless, much can be done at the time of replacement of
major components of an existing system. Furthermore, actions which are related to maintenance and operations, in particular regular filter maintenance and
air leak detection, can be introduced at any moment in the life cycle of a CAS.
Market transformation for greater energy efficiency would impact different actors:
users of CAS would have to increase capital investments and maintenance

costs, in order to benefit from reduced energy costs;
manufacturers of CAS equipment could benefit from expansion of the market for higher quality, better performing equipment, and would have to adjust
their product line accordingly;
electric utilities would have slightly decreased sales;
engineering consultants and compressed air suppliers could benefit from

expanded opportunities to counsel users on energy efficiency.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Executive Summary
While the technical measures needed for increased energy efficiency are considered to be more profitable than many other industrial investments, these
measures are not carried out by private enterprises, for reasons which are essentially organisational:
No compressed air cost accounting. CAS electricity consumption is "invisible" to top management, since it is most often a relatively small cost item
for any company. Electricity consumption in general is usually treated as a
general overhead item in company analytical accounting schemes: reducing
this cost item is often not the responsibility of any particular manager.
Lack of awareness of possible savings. Top management, responsible for

purchasing policy and investment decisions, is not aware of possible energy
savings. Measures to optimise the cost of equipment purchases, such as
competitive bidding procedures, rarely take into account electricity consumption.
Complex management structure. Responsibility for potential optimisation

measures is largely diffused among several management functions: Production, Maintenance, Purchasing, Finance. It is difficult to get high level management agreement, cutting across departmental responsibilities, on a low
priority item such as electricity consumption.
Actions to promote energy efficient compressed air systems

Since the barriers to the implementation of energy efficiency measures stem
essentially from organisational factors in CAS user companies, the solutions
must be user oriented, and aimed at organisational change. The objective must
be to convince high level management to make the decisions necessary to
carry out energy efficiency programmes. The study evaluates the following actions.
Advertising campaign, to raise awareness of CAS energy consumption;
Technology Demonstration, for innovative concepts such as gas turbine

driven compressors, new tube connections for reducing losses, new concepts for air drying, gas expansion driven compressors, or automatic leak
detection systems;
Measuring campaign to give CAS users an idea of their savings potential;
Contests and awards for superior system design;
Dissemination of information, training and education on CAS energy savings
Life Cycle Costing, which can demonstrate that environmentally optimal

decisions are also economically optimal;
Labelling and Certification of both system components and entire systems;
Voluntary Agreements with manufacturers and with users;
Development of guidelines to improve contracts for outsourcing CAS

services;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Executive Summary

Taxes on energy or on carbon emissions;
Subsidies, particularly for upstream aid in decision making and for audits;
Regulations to impose standards for system design and operation.
Recommended actions have been grouped into 2 programmes.
The Awareness Raising Programme (ARP), (similar to the existing EU

GreenLights programme) includes the information and decision aid measures, and could stimulate the saving of 16.5 % of current CAS electricity consumption.
The Economic and Regulatory Programme (ERP) (including subsidies,

taxes, and regulatory measures), could, in combination with the ARP, stimulate savings of 24.7 %. (Note that the study team believes that the ERP
would be ineffective without the ARP.)
In the view of the study team, these levels of savings constitute very ambitious
targets, which nevertheless could be achieved over a 15 year period. To be
successful, the programmes would have to meet the following conditions:
optimal co-ordination between EU and member state action;
sufficient financial resources;
sufficient human resources;
high level political support, in order to favour participation of the private

sector;
strong commitment from business leaders and organisations.
Proposition to the Commission on how to act

The study proposes that the Commission implement all or part of the "Awareness Raising Programme", including in particular the three key actions: advertising campaign; information and training; measuring campaign. It is estimated that such a programme could incite the saving of 11 TWh/year by 2015,
equivalent to over 5 million tons of CO2.
This programme would work best in the context of co-ordinated efforts between
national and European actions, integrated into a "Motor Driven Systems Challenge" programme.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Zusammenfassung
Zusammenfassung
Einleitung
Der Einsatz von Druckluft in den Industrie- und Dienstleistungsbranchen ist verbreitet, da Erzeugung, Umgang und Nutzung sicher und einfach sind. Auf die
Drucklufterzeugung entfallen in der Europischen Union ca. 10 % des industriellen Stromverbrauchs oder ber 80 TWh pro Jahr.
Trotz dieses hohen Energieverbrauchs ist die Energieeffizienz vieler Druckluftanlagen (DLA) niedrig: Fallstudien zeigen, dass Einsparungen im Bereich zwischen 5 und 50 % mglich sind. Ein groes technisches und wirtschaftliches
Energieeinsparpotenzial wird unter aktuellen Markt- und Entscheidungsmechanismen nicht realisiert. Im Rahmen der vorgelegten Studie wurden Handlungsempfehlungen erarbeitet, bei deren Umsetzung die bestehenden Hemmnisse
abgebaut und berwunden werden knnen, damit dieses Potenzial fr Energieund Kosteneinsparungen in Druckluftanlagen realisiert werden kann.
Marktanalyse und technische Energieeinsparmanahmen
Kompressoren sind relativ langlebige Investitionsgter mit einer durchschnittlichen Lebensdauer von ca. 13 Jahren fr Kompressoren zwischen 10 und
90 kW bzw. 16 Jahren fr Kompressoren zwischen 90 und 300 kW. Sie sind im
Durchschnitt 3 500 Stunden pro Jahr in Betrieb. Nach den Auswertungen der
Arbeitsgruppe sind derzeit in der Europischen Union ca. 321 265 Kompressoren im Einsatz. In der folgenden Tabelle ist die Gesamtzahl der Kompressoren
nach Lndern und Grenklassen zusammengefasst:
Land
Summe
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
Frankreich
43 765
28 885
14 880
Deutschland
62 000
43 400
18 600
Griechenland + Spanien + Portugal
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italien
43 800
30 660
13 140
Grobritannien
55 000
46 750
8 250
brige Lnder der EU
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Summe
Der Markt fr Druckluftanlagen ist europaweit stabil, mit 1 bis 2 % Wachstum in

Italien, Griechenland und Spanien und einer Stagnation der Bestandszahlen
(0 % Wachstum) in den brigen EU-Lndern.
Die Gesamteffizienz einer Druckluftanlage hngt sowohl von der Effizienz der
einzelnen Komponenten der Anlage aber auch von der Auslegung des Gesamtanlage und dessen Betrieb ab. Die wirtschaftlich und technisch umsetzbaren Energieeinsparungen belaufen sich auf mehr als 30 %, die im Laufe ei-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Zusammenfassung

ner Zeitspanne von 15 Jahren erzielbar sind. Alle untersuchten technischen

Manahmen sind in vielen Anwendungsfllen rentabel (Amortisationszeit von
unter 3 Jahren). Die wichtigsten Energieeinsparmanahmen sind:
Verminderung von Leckageverlusten

verbesserte Anlagenauslegung
Einsatz von drehzahlvariablen Antrieben
Wrmerckgewinnung.
Die nachfolgende Tabelle fasst das Energieeinsparpotenzial der untersuchten

technischen Manahmen zusammen.
%
Anwendbarkeit
(1)
%
Effizienzgewinn (2)
Gesamtpotenzial (3)
Verbesserte Antriebe (hocheffiziente Motoren, HEM)
25 %
2%
0,5 %
Verbesserte Antriebe (drehzahlvariable

Antriebe, ASD)
25 %
15 %
3,8 %
Technische Optimierung des Kompressors
30 %
7%
2,1 %
Einsatz effizienter und bergeordneter

Steuerungen
20 %
12 %
2,4 %
Wrmerckgewinnung fr Nutzung in anderen Anwendungen
20 %
20 %
4,0 %
Verbesserte Druckluftaufbereitung (Khlung, Trocknung und Filterung)
10 %
5%
0,5 %
Gesamtanlagenauslegung inkl. Mehrdruckanlagen
50 %
9%
4,5 %
Verminderung der Druckverluste im Verteilsystem
50 %
3%
1,5 %
5%
40 %
2,0 %
Verminderung der Leckageverluste
80 %
20 %
16,0 %
Hufigerer Filterwechsel
40 %
2%
0,8 %
SUMME
32,9 %
Energieeinsparmanahme
Neuanlagen oder Ersatzinvestitionen
Optimierung von Druckluftgerten

Anlagenbetrieb und Instandhaltung
Legende:
(1) % DLA, in denen diese Manahme anwendbar und rentabel ist

(2) % Energieeinsparung des jhrlichen Energieverbrauchs
(3) Einsparpotenzial = Anwendbarkeit * Effizienzgewinn
Energieeinsparungen lassen sich am effizientesten und kostengnstigsten bei

der Installation einer neuen Druckluftanlage realisieren. Groe Energieeinsparungen lassen sich jedoch auch realisieren, wenn Hauptkomponenten einer bestehenden Anlage ersetzt werden. Darber hinaus knnen Manahmen, die mit
der Instandhaltung und dem Betrieb der Druckluftanlage in Verbindung stehen,
insbesondere die regelmige Filterwartung und das Aufspren und Beseitigen
von Leckageverlusten, zu jedem Zeitpunkt whrend der Lebensdauer einer
Druckluftanlage durchgefhrt werden.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Zusammenfassung
Eine verstrkte Umsetzung von Manahmen zur Steigerung der Energieeffizienz auf Grund der Marktbeeinflussung durch politische Manahmen htte
Auswirkungen auf verschiedene Akteure:
Druckluftanwender mssten gestiegene Kapitalinvestitionen und Wartungskosten in Kauf nehmen, um von reduzierten Energiekosten zu profitieren;
Hersteller von Druckluftanlagen knnten aus einer Ausweitung des Markts

fr hochwertige, leistungsfhige Gerte Nutzen ziehen und mssten ihr Produktangebot entsprechend modifizieren und optimieren;
der Stromabsatz der Energieversorger wrde leicht sinken;
Ingenieurbros, Berater und Contractoren im Bereich Druckluft knnten

von den erweiterten Mglichkeiten profitieren, Anwender ber Energieeffizienzaspekte zu beraten.
Obwohl die zur Steigerung der Energieeffizienz in Druckluftanlagen notwendigen technischen Manahmen profitabler als viele andere Investitionen in der
Industrie sind, werden diese aus organisatorischen Grnden hufig nicht von
Unternehmen umgesetzt. Diese lassen sich im Wesentlichen in drei Problemgruppen zusammenfassen:
Es gibt keine Kostenstelle fr die Drucklufterzeugung und -nutzung. Der

Stromverbrauch zur Drucklufterzeugung bleibt der Geschftsfhrung "unsichtbar", da es sich in vielen Fllen um relativ kleine Betrge handelt. Der
Stromverbrauch zur Drucklufterzeugung wird in der Regel als Bestandteil der
Gemeinkosten verbucht. Die Verantwortung fr die Senkung dieser Kosten
gehrt meistens nicht zu dem Verantwortungsbereich eines einzelnen Managers.
Mangelndes Bewusstsein mglicher Einsparungen. Der obersten Geschftsleitung, die fr die Beschaffungspolitik und Investitionsentscheidungen
verantwortlich ist, fehlt das Bewusstsein fr mgliche Energieeinsparungen.
Manahmen, mit denen die Kosten von Gertebeschaffungen optimiert werden sollen, z. B. Ausschreibungen, bercksichtigen den Stromverbrauch nur
selten.
Komplexe Managementstruktur. Die Verantwortlichkeit fr mgliche Optimierungsmanahmen ist meistens auf mehrere Managementfunktionen verteilt: Herstellung, Wartung, Beschaffung, Finanzierung. Es ist schwierig, auf
dieser Managementebene ber Posten mit niedriger Prioritt wie den Stromverbrauch einen Konsens zu erreichen, der quer ber Abteilungskompetenzen reicht.
Manahmen zur Frderung energieeffizienter Druckluftanlagen

Da die Hemmnisse zur Umsetzung energieeffizienter Manahmen im Grunde
auf organisatorische Faktoren bei den Druckluftanwendern zurckgehen, mssen sich die mglichen Manahmen an Anwendern orientieren und auf Organisationsvernderungen abzielen. Das Ziel ist es, das Management (Geschftfhrer, Technische Leiter) zu berzeugen, die notwendigen Entscheidungen fr die
Durchfhrung von Energieeffizienzprogrammen zu treffen. Im Rahmen der vor-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Zusammenfassung

liegenden Studie wurden die folgenden mglichen Manahmenvorschlge erarbeitet und bewertet.
Werbekampagne zur Steigerung des Bewusstseins fr den Stromverbrauch

in Druckluftanlagen;
Demonstrations- und Pilotvorhaben mit innovativen Konzepten, wie z. B.

durch Gasturbinen angetriebene Kompressoren, neue Rohrverbindungstechniken, um Leckageverluste zu reduzieren, neue Konzepte der Druckluftaufbereitung, durch Erdgasexpansionsanlagen angetriebene Kompressoren
oder eine automatisierte Leckageerkennung;
Messkampagne, um Nutzern von Druckluftanlagen ein besseres Verstndnis des qualitativen und quantitativen Einsparpotenzials ihrer Druckluftanlagen zu vermitteln;
Wettbewerbe und Preise; Motivation zu einer optimierten Anlagenauslegung;
Informationskampagnen, Aus-, Fort- und Weiterbildung im Hinblick auf

Energieeinsparungen bei Druckluftanlagen;
Lebenszykluskosten, die aufzeigen, dass optimierte umweltgerechte Entscheidungen auch wirtschaftlich optimal sind;
Kennzeichnung und Zertifizierung sowohl von Anlagenkomponenten als

auch von Gesamtanlagen;
freiwillige Selbstverpflichtungen zwischen Herstellern und Anwendern;
Erstellung von Leitfden, um Outsourcingvertrge fr Druckluftdienstleistungen zu verbessern;
Steuern auf Energie oder CO2;
Subventionen, besonders zur Untersttzung bei der Auswahl und Konzeption von Anlagen und fr Audits;
Vorschriften und Normung fr Systemauslegung und -betrieb.
Die einzelnen Manahmen wurden als Handlungsempfehlung in zwei sich ergnzende Programme zusammengefasst.
Das "Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)" (Aufmerksamkeits-Programm; in Anlehnung an das bestehenden EU-GreenLights-Programm) umfasst die Manahmen im Bereich Information und Entscheidungsuntersttzung und knnte Einsparungen bis zu 16,5 % des derzeitigen Stromverbrauchs in Druckluftanlagen aktivieren.
Das "Economic and Regulatory Programme (ERP)" (Manahmen-Programm fr Wirtschaftlichkeit, Vorschriften, Subventionen und Steuern) knnte
zusammen mit dem ARP Einsparungen bis zu 24,7 % initiieren. (Dabei ist zu
beachten, dass das Projektteam das ERP ohne die gleichzeitige Umsetzung
des ARP fr unwirksam hlt.)
Nach Auffassung der Projektbearbeiter, stellt die Umsetzung dieser Einsparpotenziale ein sehr ehrgeiziges Ziel dar, das jedoch ohne weiteres ber einen
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Zusammenfassung
Zeitraum von 15 Jahren erreicht werden kann. Fr einen Erfolg der zu ergreifenden Manahmen ist dabei sicherzustellen, das die Programme den folgenden Rahmenbedingungen gerecht werden:
optimale Abstimmung zwischen der EU und den Manahmen einzelner Mitgliedsstaaten;
ausreichende und langfristige Finanzierung;
ausreichendes Personal;
hochrangige politische Untersttzung und Frderung, um eine breite Akzeptanz in der ffentlichkeit zu erzielen;
groes Engagement von Wirtschaftsunternehmen und Fachorganisationen.
Handlungsvorschlag fr die Europische Kommission

Die Studie schlgt vor, dass die Kommission das vollstndige "Awareness Raising Programme" oder Teile davon durchfhrt. Dabei sollten mindestens die
drei Hauptaktionen Werbekampagne, Information und Ausbildung sowie die
Messkampagne umgesetzt werden. Eine berschlgige Ermittlung ergab, dass
ein solches Programm Einsparungen von 11 TWh/Jahr (oder mehr als 5 Millionen Tonnen CO2) bis 2015 initiieren knnte.
Dieses Programm wrde am sinnvollsten im Zusammenspiel von aufeinander
abgestimmten Manahmen auf nationaler und europischer Ebene funktionieren, z. B. integriert in ein Programm zur Verbesserung der Energieeffizienz bei
Einsatz und Anwendung von Elektromotoren (Motor Challenge Programme).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

11
Rsume
Rsume
Introduction
Lutilisation de lair comprim dans lindustrie et le tertiaire est courant, sa production et son usage tant faciles et sans danger. Lair comprim reprsente
10 % de la consommation dlectricit de lindustrie, soit plus de 80 TWh pour
lUnion Europenne.
Mais le rendement nergtique de nombreux systmes air comprim est faible : les tudes de cas mettent en vidence des conomies dnergie possibles
de 5 50 %. Les conditions actuelles du march et des mcanismes de dcision ne permettent pas la mise en uvre de cet important potentiel
dconomies dnergie. Ltude "Transformation du march des systmes air
comprim" propose des actions pour transformer le march et raliser le potentiel dconomies dnergie (et de dpenses) identifi.
Caractrisation du march, mesures techniques dconomie dnergie
Les compresseurs ont des dures de vie relativement longues, en moyenne 13
ans pour les compresseurs de puissance comprise entre 10 et 90 kW, 16 ans
pour les compresseurs de puissance de 90 300 kW. Ils sont utiliss en
moyenne 3500 heures par an. Le parc install par pays est indiqu ci-dessous.
Pays
Total
France
43 765
28 885
14 880
Allemagne
62 000
43 400
18 600
Grce + Espagne + Portugal
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italie
43 800
30 660
13 140
Grande-Bretagne
55 000
46 750
8 250
Autres pays de lUnion europenne
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Total
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
Le march pour les systmes air comprim (SAC) est stable en Europe, avec
une croissance de 1 2 % en Italie, Grce et Espagne, une croissance nulle
dans les autres pays europens.
La performance dun systme dpend de chaque lment, mais plus particulirement de sa conception gnrale et de son mode dexploitation. Le potentiel
dconomies dnergie, conomiquement et techniquement intressant, est
estim 32.9 %, ralisable en 15 ans. Toutes les mesures techniques examines sont rentables conomiquement (temps de retour de moins de 36 mois),
au moins pour certaines applications. Les mesures les plus importantes sont :
La rduction des fuites
Une meilleure conception du systme
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

12
Rsume
Lutilisation de moteurs vitesse adaptable

La rcupration de chaleur.
Le tableau suivant rsume la contribution potentielle aux conomies dnergie

des mesures techniques analyses.
Mesures dconomie dnergie
% application (1) % gains (2)
contribution
potentielle (3)
Installation ou remise neuf du systme

Amlioration des moteurs (moteurs haut
rendement)
25 %
2%
0.5 %
Amlioration des moteurs (moteurs vitesse variable)
25 %
15 %
3.8 %
Amlioration du compresseur
30 %
7%
2.1 %
Utilisation de systmes de contrle prcis
20 %
12 %
2.4 %
Rcupration de la chaleur pour dautres

usages
20 %
20 %
4.0 %
Amlioration du systme de refroidissement, schage et filtrage
10 %
5%
0.5 %
Conception gnrale, systmes multipression
50 %
9%
4.5 %
Rduction des pertes de pression par friction
50 %
3%
1.5 %
5%
40 %
2.0 %
Rduction des fuites dair
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
Remplacement plus frquent des filtres
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTAL
32.9 %
Optimisation des appareils consommant

l'air comprim
Exploitation et maintenance
Lgende:
(1) % des systmes o la mesure est applicable et rentable

(2) % rduction de la consommation dnergie annuelle
(3) Contribution potentielle = Application * Rduction
Les conomies dnergie sont mises en uvre plus aisment lors de

linstallation du systme, mais aussi lors du remplacement des principaux composants dun systme existant. De plus, les mesures relatives la maintenance
et lutilisation, en particulier la maintenance rgulire des filtres et la dtection
des fuites, peuvent tre introduites nimporte quand dans la vie du systme air
comprim.
Les mcanismes de transformation du march pour une meilleure efficacit
nergtique ncessitent limplication de diffrents acteurs :
Les utilisateurs des systmes air comprim devront augmenter leur investissement (capital et maintenance), pour limiter les dpenses dues
lnergie;
Les constructeurs pourront bnficier dune ouverture du march pour des
quipements plus performants, de meilleure qualit, ils devront ajuster leur
ligne de production selon la demande;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

13
Rsume
Les compagnies lectriques auront une lgre baisse des ventes;

Les bureaux dingnierie et les fournisseurs dair comprim pourront
bnficier dopportunit pour conseiller les utilisateurs sur lefficacit nergtique.
Bien que les mesures techniques pour amliorer lefficacit nergtique soient
plus rentables que beaucoup dautres investissements industriels, ces mesures
ne sont pas mises en uvre par les entreprises prives, pour des questions
essentiellement dorganisation :
Labsence de comptage du cot de lair comprim. La consommation
dlectricit des compresseurs est "invisible" pour la direction, son cot tant
le plus souvent relativement bas. La consommation dlectricit est le plus
souvent incluse dans les frais gnraux : rduire ce cot nest du ressort
prcis daucun responsable.
Le manque dinformation sur les conomies possibles. La direction, responsable des politiques dachat et des dcisions dinvestissement, nest pas
au courant des possibilits dconomie dnergie. Les mesures pour optimiser le cot des achats dquipements prennent rarement en compte la
consommation lectrique.
La complexit des structures de gestion. La responsabilit des prises de
dcision est rpartie entre plusieurs gestionnaires : production, maintenance,
achat, comptabilit. Il est difficile dobtenir laccord de la direction, transversale sur plusieurs services, pour une question aussi peu prioritaire que la
consommation lectrique.
Actions pour diffuser des systmes air comprim performants
Les obstacles la mise en uvre de mesures dconomie dnergie tant essentiellement dus des facteurs organisationnels, lintrieur des entreprises
utilisatrices dair comprim, les solutions doivent toucher ces entreprises et les
amener modifier leur organisation. Lobjectif est de convaincre la direction de
mettre en uvre les programmes ncessaires pour conomiser lnergie. Notre
tude a valu les actions suivantes.
Campagnes dinformation, pour sensibiliser aux consommations dnergie
de lair comprim;
Dmonstration technologique, pour des concepts innovants tels que de
nouvelles connections des tubes pour rduire les pertes, pour le schage de
lair ou la dtection automatique des pertes;
Compagnes de mesures pour que les utilisateurs dair comprim aient une
ide de leurs potentiels dconomie;
Concours et primes pour la conception des systmes;
Diffusion de linformation, formation, sur les conomies possibles des
systmes air comprim;
Analyse en cot global, qui peut montrer lintrt conomique dune solution intressante environnementalement;
Etiquetage et certification la fois des composants et du systme luimme;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
14
Rsume

Accords volontaires entre les constructeurs et les utilisateurs;

Dveloppement de contracts-types pour lexternalisation de la fourniture
dair comprim;
Taxes sur lnergie consomme ou les missions de carbone;
Subventions, particulirement pour les prises de dcisions amont et les audits;
Rglementations pour la conception et lutilisation des systmes.
Les actions recommandes sont regroupes dans deux programmes.

Un programme dinformation (Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)),
(similaire au programme europen GreenLights) qui comprend les mesures
dinformation et daides la dcision, et peut permettre une conomie de
16.5 % de la consommation actuelle dlectricit des systmes air comprim.
Un programme conomique et rglementaire (Economic and Regulatory
Programme (ERP)) (incluant subventions, taxes et mesures rglementaires),
qui en combinaison avec le programme dinformation permettrait 24.7 %
dconomie. (Il faut noter que les ralisateurs du projet ne croit pas
lefficacit du deuxime programme mis en uvre sans le premier.)
Selon le point de vue de lquipe ayant ralis le projet, ces niveaux
dconomie dnergie constituent des objectifs trs ambitieux, mais qui peuvent
tre atteints sur une priode de 15 ans. Pour ce faire, les conditions suivantes
devraient tre respectes :
coordination des actions entre lUnion europenne et les tats membres;
allocation de ressources financires suffisantes;
allocation de ressources humaines suffisantes;
support politique appuy, pour favoriser la participation du secteur priv;
engagement financier rel des chefs dentreprises et des organisations professionnelles.
Proposition pour la Commission
Ltude propose que la Commission mette en uvre tout ou partie du programme dinformation, avec en particulier trois actions cls : la campagne
dinformation, la formation, les campagnes de mesures. Les conomies
suscites par un tel programme sont estimes 11 TWh/an en 2015, quivalentes plus de 5 millions de tonnes de CO2.
Ce programme se dvelopperait plus favorablement dans le cadre dune coordination des efforts entre les actions nationales et europennes, intgres au
sein dun programme plus gnral (le "Motor Driven Systems Challenge" programme).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

15
Rapporto Conclusivo
Rapporto Conclusivo
Introduzione
Luso dellaria compressa nel settore industriale e dei servizi pratica comune,
data la semplicit e la sicurezza della sua produzione, gestione ed utilizzo.
Laria compressa costituisce sino al 10 % del consumo industriale di elettricit,
pari a oltre 80 TWh annui nella Unione Europea.
Ciononostante, lefficienza energetica della maggior parte degli impianti di aria
compressa piuttosto bassa: lanalisi di casi reali mostra che sono possibili
risparmi di entit che pu variare fra il 5 e il 50 %. Esiste un significativo
potenziale tecnico ed economico di risparmio energetico che normalmente
sfugge alla percezione nellambito dei correnti processi decisionali e di mercato.
Lo "Studio sulla trasformazione del mercato dei Sistemi di Aria Compressa"
sviluppa alcune raccomandazioni su possibili interventi che potrebbero dar
luogo a reali modificazioni del mercato, cos da concretizzare il suddetto
potenziale di risparmio energetico ed economico.
Caratterizzazione del Mercato e interventi tecnici di risparmio energetico
I compressori daria sono beni dinvestimento con durate relativamente lunghe,
in media 13 anni per compressori fra 10 e 90 kW, e 16 anni fra 90 e 300 kW. Un
compressore opera in media 3500 ore annue. Lattuale parco dei compressori
ripartito come segue.
Paese
Totale
Francia
43 765
28 885
14 880
Germania
62 000
43 400
18 600
Grecia + Spagna + Portogallo
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italia
43 800
30 660
13 140
Regno Unito
55 000
46 750
8 250
Resto dellUE
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Totale
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
Il mercato degli impianti di aria compressa (CAS) stabile in Europa, con

crescite dall1 al 2 % in Italia, Grecia e Spagna, e crescite nulle negli altri paesi.
Le prestazioni di un impianto di aria compressa dipendono da quelle dei suoi
singoli elementi, ma ancor pi dipendono dal progetto e dallesercizio
dellimpianto nel suo complesso. Gli interventi di risparmio energetico ritenuti
fattibili dal punto di vista tecnico ed economico ammontano al 32.9 %, ottenibile
su uno scenario temporale di 15 anni. Tutti i provvedimenti tecnici esaminati
sono economicamente convenienti (tempi di ritorno inferiori a 36 mesi) in
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Rapporto Conclusivo

16
misura maggiore o minore a seconda delle applicazioni. Gli interventi pi

importanti sono:
riduzione delle perdite di aria compressa

miglioramento del progetto dellimpianto
uso di azionamenti a velocit variabile (ASD)
recupero del calore di scarto.
La tabella seguente riassume il contributo potenziale di ciascun provvedimento

al risparmio energetico globale. I risparmi energetici possono essere ottenuti al
meglio in sede di nuova costruzione dellimpianto. Nondimeno, molto ancora si
pu fare in sede di rinnovo dei componenti pi importanti su impianti esistenti.
Inoltre, interventi relativi alla manutenzione e alla gestione (in particolare la
manutenzione sistematica dei filtri e la verifica delle perdite di aria) possono
essere introdotti in qualsiasi momento della vita utile di un impianto di aria
compressa.
% di
applicabilit (1)
% di
risparmio
(2)
contributo
potenziale (3)
Miglioramento dei motori (motori a alta

efficienza, HEM)
25 %
2%
0.5 %
Miglioramento degli azionamenti:

(variaz. di velocit, ASD)
25 %
15 %
3.8 %
Aggiornamento dei compressori
30 %
7%
2.1 %
Uso di sistemi di controllo sofisticati
20 %
12 %
2.4 %
Recupero del calore di scarto per altri scopi
20 %
20 %
4.0 %
Miglioramento del raffreddamento,

essiccazione e filtraggio
10 %
5%
0.5 %
Progetto complessivo dellimpianto (multi

livello di pressione)
50 %
9%
4.5 %
Riduzione perdite per attrito
50 %
3%
1.5 %
5%
40 %
2.0 %
Riduzione delle perdite di aria
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
Sostituzione pi frequente dei filtri
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTALE
32.9 %
Intervento di risparmio energetico

Istallazione o rinnovo dellimpianto
Ottimizzazione di alcune utenze

Gestione e manutenzione dellimpianto
Legenda:
(1) % di impianti ove il provvedimento fattibile e conveniente

(2) % di risparmio energetico
(3) Contributo potenziale = Applicabilit * Risparmio
La trasformazione di mercato volta al risparmio energetico avrebbe ricadute su

vari soggetti del panorama economico:
Gli utenti degli impianti di aria compressa vedrebbero incrementati i costi di
investimento e di manutenzione in vista di una riduzione della spesa energetica;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

17
Rapporto Conclusivo
I produttori di impianti e componenti pneumatici potrebbero beneficiare di

una espansione del mercato dei componenti di alta qualit e di elevate
prestazioni e dovrebbero rivedere di conseguenza le loro linee di prodotti;
Le aziende elettriche avrebbero limitate riduzioni delle vendite;
I progettisti e gli istallatori di impianti di aria compressa potrebbero
beneficiare di nuove opportunit di prestazioni finalizzate al risparmio energetico.
Anche se gli interventi di risparmio energetico sono considerati pi redditizi

rispetto a molti altri investimenti industriali, essi non sono realizzati in pratica
dalle imprese private per motivi essenzialmente organizzativi:
Mancanza di una voce di spesa specifica per laria compressa. Il consumo di energia elettrica "invisibile" per il top management, essendo di
norma una voce di costo relativamente piccola. Il consumo elettrico generalmente contabilizzato globalmente nel bilancio analitico di unazienza:
ridurre tale costo non rientra solitamente nelle responsabilit di uno specifico
manager.
Scarsa consapevolezza dei risparmi ottenibili. Il top management,
responsabile per la politica degli acquisti e degli investimenti, non consapevole dei possibili risparmi energetici. Le procedure per il controllo dei costi
di attrezzamento, quali ad esempio gare di appalto, raramente fanno riferimento al consumo elettrico.
Complessit della struttura decisionale. La responsabilit di possibili
provvedimenti di ottimizzazione diffusa fra varie funzioni decisionali:
Produzione, Manutenzione, Acquisti, Amministrazione. E difficile raggiungere un accordo ad alto livello, trasversale rispetto alle responsabilit dei vari
settori, su un argomento a basso livello di priorit come il consumo di elettricit.
Promozione degli impianti di aria compressa a basso consumo energetico
Le soluzioni devono essere orientate allutente e volte a conseguire mutamenti
in fattori organizzativi, che spesso costituiscono i maggiori impedimenti alladozione di provvedimenti di risparmio energetico. Lobiettivo devessere quello di
convincere il management di alto livello a compiere le decisioni necessarie allo
sviluppo di programmi di risparmio energetico. Il presente studio ha valutato le
seguenti misure.
Campagne informative, per aumentare la consapevolezza riguardo al consumo energetico legato allutilizzo di aria compressa;
Dimostrazioni di nuove tecnologie, per concetti innovatici quali compressori mossi da turbine a gas, nuovi tipi di connettori per ridurre le perdite,
nuovi sistemi di essiccazione, compressori mossi da espansori di gas o
sistemi automatici per il rilevamento di perdite;
Campagne di misura per dare agli utenti una percezione diretta dei possibili
risparmi;
Competizioni e premi per progetti impiantistici di alto livello;
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Rapporto Conclusivo
18

Disseminazione delle informazioni, istruzione e sensibilizzazione sul risparmio energetico;

Valutazione del Life Cycle Cost, che pu mostrare come le decisioni ottime
dal punto di vista ambientale sono tali anche dal punto di vista economico;
Etichettatura e certificazione dei componenti e degli impianti;
Accordi su base volontaria con i produttori e gli utenti;
Sviluppo di linee guida per la stesura dei contratti per la subfornitura del
servizio di aria compresa;
Tassazione sullenergia consumata o sulle emissioni di CO2;
Sussidi, in particolare per i costi relativi al supporto decisionale e agli audits;
Normative che regolino gli standard di progetto e di gestione degli impianti.
Le azioni raccomandate sono state raggruppate in due programmi.

Il programma di sensibilizzazione (ARP), (simile allattuale programma EU
GreenLights) contiene i provvedimenti di informazione e supporto decisionale, e potrebbe stimolare risparmi sino al 16.5 % dellattuale consumo energetico per laria compressa.
Il programma economico e normativo (ERP) (che include sussidi, tasse, e
misure normative), potrebbe, congiuntamente allARP, portare a risparmi del
24.7 %. (Si noti che il Gruppo di Studio convinto che lERP sarebbe inefficace in assenza dellARP.)
Secondo la visione del Gruppo di Studio, questi livelli di risparmio costituiscono
obiettivi molto ambiziosi, che tuttavia potrebbero essere verosimilmente raggiunti su un periodo di 15 anni. Per avere successo, i programmi dovranno rispettare le seguenti condizioni:
coordinamento ottimale dellazione fra lUE e gli Stati membri;
risorse finanziarie sufficienti;
risorse umane sufficienti;
supporto politico di alto livello, per favorire la partecipazione del settore privato;
forte coinvolgimento delle industrie leader e delle organizzazioni di settore.
Proposta operativa per la Commissione
Il presente studio propone alla Commissione limplementazione, anche parziale,
del "Programma di sensibilizzazione", comprendente in particolare le tre misure
chiave: campagna di sensibilizzazione, informazione e addestramento,
campagna di misura. Si pu stimare che tale programma potrebbe portare ad
un risparmio di 11 TWh/anno entro il 2015, equivalenti a oltre 5 milioni di
tonellate di CO2.
Il suddetto programma sortirebbe maggiori effetti ove fosse inserito in un
contesto di sforzi coordinati a livello Europeo e dei singoli paesi, integrato in
programma "Motor Driven Systems Challenge".
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

19
Samenvatting
Samenvatting
Inleiding
De toepassing van perslucht in de industrie- en toeleveringsbranche is alom
bekend. De productie, het omgaan en het gebruik van perslucht is
ongecompliceerd. In de Europese Unie wordt circa 10 % van het industrile
elektriciteitsverbruik ingezet voor productie van perslucht ofwel ruim 80 TWh
per jaar.
Ondanks dit hoge energieverbruik is de efficiency van veel persluchtinstallaties
(DLA) laag: praktijkstudies tonen aan, dat besparingen mogelijk zijn tussen 5
50 %. Een hoog technisch en economische besparingspotentieel wordt in de
actuele markt- en beslissingsmechanismen niet bereikt. In het kader van deze
studie worden aanbevelingen uitgewerkt, waarmee bestaande drempels
overwonnen kunnen worden, zodat energie- en kostenbesparingen in
persluchtinstallaties gerealiseerd kunnen worden.
Marktanalyse en technische energiebesparingsmaatregelen
Compressoren zijn relatief duurzame investeringsgoederen met een
gemiddelde levensduur van circa 13 jaar voor compressoren tussen 10 en 90
kW, resp. 16 jaar voor compressoren tussen 90 en 300 kW. De installaties zijn
gemiddeld 3.500 bedrijfsuren per jaar in bedrijf. Volgens de evaluatie van
marktgegevens door de werkgroep, zijn er in de Europese Unie ongeveer
321.265 compressoren in bedrijf. In de volgende tabel is een opstelling
gemaakt naar vermogen en betreffende landen.
Land
Totaal
Frankrijk
43 765
28 885
14 880
Duitsland
62 000
43 400
18 600
Griekenland + Spanje + Portugal
35 660
25 685
9 976
Itali
43 800
30 660
13 140
Groot Brittani
55 000
46 750
8 250
Overige landen binnen EU
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
Totalen
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
De markt voor persluchtinstallaties is op Europees niveau nagenoeg stabiel,

met een groeipercentage van 1-2 % in Itali, Griekenland en Spanje en een
stagnatie (0-groei) in de overige EU-landen.
De totale efficiency van een persluchtinstallatie hangt zowel van de efficiency
van de individuele componenten van de installatie af, als ook van het
totaalontwerp en de juiste inzet ervan. De economisch en technisch haalbare
energiebesparingen bedragen meer dan 30 %, welke in een tijdsbestek van
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

20
Samenvatting
15 jaar te realiseren zijn. Alle onderzochte technische maatregelen zijn in veel

toepassingen rendabel (terugverdientijden < 3 jaar). De belangrijkste energiebesparingsmaatregelen zijn:
verlaging van lekkageverlies.

verbetering van ontwerp van installaties.
toepassing van toerental-variabele aandrijvingen.
warmteterugwinning.
In de navolgende tabel wordt het energiebesparingpotentieel van de onderzochte technische maatregelen samengevat:
Energiebesparingsmaatregel
%
toepasbaarheid (1)
%
efficiencyvoordeel (2)
Totaalpotentieel (3)
2%
0.5 %
15 %
3.8 %
7%
2.1 %
12 %
2.4 %
20 %
4.0 %
5%
0.5 %
9%
4.5 %
3%
1.5 %
40 %
2.0 %
Nieuwe installaties resp. vervangingsinvesteringen

Verbeterde aandrijving(high efficiency
25 %
motoren, HEM)
Verbeterde aandrijving (toerental variabele
25 %
aandrijving, ASD)
Technische Optimalisering van de
30 %
compressoren
Toepassing efficinte en overkoepelende
20 %
besturingen
Warmteterugwinning voor gebruik in
20 %
andere functies
Verbeterde persluchtconditionering
10 %
(koeling, droging en filtering)
Totaalontwerp incl. installaties met
50 %
verschillende drukken
Vermindering drukverlies in
50 %
verdeelsystemen
Optimalisatie van persluchtapparatuur
5%
Het bedrijven van installaties en onderhoud/instandhouding
Vermindering van lekkageverlies
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
Het frequenter vervangen van filters
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTALEN
32.9 %
Legenda:
(1) DLA, waarbij deze maatregelen toepasbaar en rendabel zijn

(2) energiebesparing van het jaarlijkse energieverbruik
(3) Besparingspotentieel = toepasbaarheid * efficiencyvoordeel
Energiebesparingen zijn bij ontwerp van een nieuwe persluchtinstallatie op de

meest gunstigste en efficinte wijze te realiseren. Hoge besparingen zijn echter
ook in bestaande installaties te realiseren, door hoofdcomponenten te
vervangen. Bovendien kunnen maatregelen, die met de instandhouding en het
bedrijven van de persluchtinstallatie in verbinding staan, in het bijzonder de
regelmatige vervanging van filters en het opsporen en verhelpen van
lekkageverliezen, op elk willekeurig tijdstip tijdens de levensduur van een
installatie worden doorgevoerd.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

21
Samenvatting
Een efficinte aanpak van maatregelen tot verhoging van de energie-efficiency

op basis van marktbenvloeding door politieke maatregelen, heeft uitwerking op
de verschillende marktspelers:
Persluchtgebruikers moeten hogere kosteninvesteringen en kosten voor

onderhoud incalculeren, om zodoende van energiekostenreductie te kunnen
profiteren;
Fabrikanten van persluchtinstallaties kunnen van verbeteringen in de markt

van hoogwaardige en efficinte apparatuur/componenten, hun voordeel doen
en dienen hun eigen productaanbod dienovereenkomstig daarop aan te
passen resp. te optimaliseren;
De omzet van de energiebedrijven zal gering dalen;
Ingenieurbureaus, adviseurs en contractors in het bereik "perslucht"

kunnen van deze uitbreiding van mogelijkheden profiteren en gebruikers
omtrent energie-efficiency adviseren.
Ofschoon de, voor verhoging van de energie-efficiency in persluchtinstallaties

noodzakelijke technische maatregelen, veelal meer profitabel zijn dan andere
investeringen in de industrie, worden deze vanwege organisatorische redenen
veelal niet door de onderneming uitgevoerd. Dit kan in drie probleemgroepen
worden samengevat:
Er bestaat geen kostenrekening voor persluchtproductie- en gebruik.

Het energieverbruik voor persluchtproductie blijft voor de directie
"onzichtbaar", aangezien het in de meeste gevallen om relatief kleine
bedragen gaat. Het energieverbruik voor persluchtproductie wordt in de regel
als algemene kosten geboekt of is een bestanddeel van totale
energiekosten. De verantwoording voor verlaging van deze kosten horen
vaak niet tot de verantwoording van een manager.
Onvoldoende bewustzijn van mogelijke besparingen. De directie, welke

voor de aanschafpolitiek en investeringsbeslissingen verantwoordelijk is, mist
vaak het bewustzijn voor mogelijke energiebesparingen. Maatregelen, welke
nodig zijn om de investering te optimaliseren, b.v. het maken van een bestek,
hebben vaak nauwelijks invloed op het energieverbruik.
Complex managementstructuur. De verantwoording voor mogelijke

optimaliserings-maatregelen zijn veelal op verschillende managementniveaus verdeeld, zoals b.v. productie, onderhoud, aanschaf, financiering.
Het is problematisch om de prioriteit voor energiekostenverlaging op de
verschillende managementniveaus voldoende onder de aandacht te krijgen.
Maatregelen ter bevordering van energie-efficinte persluchtinstallaties

Aangezien de argumentatie voor het omzetten van energie-efficinte
maatregelen veelal vanwege organisatorische factoren bij de eindgebruiker
terecht komen, moeten de mogelijke maatregelen aan deze eindgebruiker
worden gerelateerd. Doel daarbij is, het management (bedrijfsleider, directeur,
hoofd technische dienst) te overtuigen van de noodzaak van het doorvoeren
van energiebesparingplannen. In het kader van deze studie werden de
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
22
Samenvatting

volgende voorstellen voor maatregelen uitgewerkt en vond daaromtrent en

waardering plaats:
Reclamecampagne voor het verhogen van het bewustzijn omtrent het

energieverbruik bij persluchtinstallaties;
Demonstratie- en pilootprojecten met innovatieve concepten, zoals b.v.

door gasturbine of aardgasmotor aangedreven compressoren, nieuwe
leidingsverbinding-technieken om lekkages te verminderen, nieuwe
concepten van persluchtconditionering, door aardgas-expansiemotor
aangedreven compressoren of een geautomatiseerde lekkagebewaking.;
Meetcampagne, om het energiebesparingpotentieel van persluchtinstallaties

en distributie op efficinte wijze voor de eindgebruiker zichtbaar te maken;
Concurrentie en prijzen: Motivatie tot optimaal installatieontwerp;
Informatiecampagnes, Opleidingen en kennisoverdracht m.b.t. energiebesparingen bij persluchtinstallaties;
Lifetime-cyclecosts, welke aantonen, dat geoptimaliseerde en milieugerichte beslissingen ook economisch optimaal zijn;
Kenmerken en certificatie van zowel installatiecomponenten alsook van

totale installaties;
Eigen verantwoordingsgevoel van fabrikanten en eindgebruikers;
Het opstellen van

persluchtleveringen te
contracten;
Belastingheffing op energie of CO2;
Subsidies, in het bijzonder voor ondersteuning bij de keuze en concepten

van installaties en voor audits;
Voorschriften en normen voor systeemontwerp en toepassing.
richtlijnen, om outsourcingcontracten voor

verbeteren. Hetzelfde geldt voor contracting-
De individuele maatregelen worden als richtlijnen in twee programmas samengevat:
Het "Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)" (aandachtprogramma), (als

aanvulling op het bestaande EU GreenLights Programm) omvat de
maatregelen in het bereik van informatie en ondersteuning van beslissingen
en kan besparingen opleveren tot 16.5 % van het huidige energieverbruik bij
persluchtinstallaties.
Het "Economic and Regulatory Programm (ERP)" (Efficiency, voorschriften, subsidies, en belastingprogrammas) kan, samen met de ARP
besparingen opleveren tot 24,7 % (daarbij is aan te merken, dat volgens het
projectteam de ERP zonder het ARP niet kan functioneren).
Volgens de mening van de projectmedewerkers, is de realisatie van het

energiebesparingpotentieel een behoorlijke inspanning, zijn echter van mening
dat dit over een tijdsbestek van 15 jaar haalbaar moet zijn. Om succes te
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

23
Samenvatting
kunnen boeken, zouden minimaal de volgende raamafspraken gemaakt moeten

worden:
optimale afstemming binnen de EU en de maatregelen binnen de diverse

lidstaten;
voldoende beschikbare financin, ook op lange termijn;
voldoende personele bezetting;
politieke ondersteuning op voldoende hoog niveau, om zodoende een brede

acceptatie in het openbaar te verkrijgen;
voldoende inzet van het economische bedrijfsleven en vakgespecialiseerde

ondernemingen.
Voorstel voor de Europese commissie

De studie stelt voor, dat de commissie het volledige "Awareness Raising
Programme" of gedeelten daarvan uitvoert. Daarbij dienen minimaal de drie
kernactiviteiten "reclamecampagne", "informatie" en "opleiding", alsmede een
"meetcampagne" gerealiseerd te worden. Een globale inventarisering levert tot
het jaar 2015 een besparingspotentieel op van 11 TWh/jaar (of meer dan 5
miljoen CO2).
Dit programma zal het meest efficint kunnen functioneren als op nationaal en
europees niveau goed op elkaar afgestemde maatregelen worden getroffen,
b.v. de integratie in een programma tot verbetering van energie-efficiency bij
toepassing en gebruik van (Motor Challenge Programme).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

25
Introduction
Introduction
Using compressed air in the manufacturing and service sectors is a common
practice, since production, handling and use are safe and easy. Aircompressors are thus available in a large variety of types, to match different
user requirements in terms of air quality, volume and pressure. Generating
compressed air accounts for as much as 10 % of industrial consumption of
electricity, and up to 30 % in certain sectors of activity, such as the glass industry. Estimates indicate that compressed air accounts for over 80 TWh of electricity, and 55 million tons of CO2 per year for the EU.
Nonetheless, the energy efficiency of many compressed air systems is low:
case studies show that savings in the range from 5 to 50 % are possible. It is
clear that market functioning at present is not integrating economically feasible
measures into industry choices. In order to achieve the electricity savings and to
make cost effective use of possible improvements, there is a need for a market
transformation.
This document is the final report of the SAVE Compressed Air Systems Market
Transformation Study, which aims to identify measures, policies and programmes which could lead to more energy efficient compressed air systems.
The study adopts a systems approach, taking into account improvements at all
stages of the compressed air use cycle. This type of approach is necessary because the most important actions to improve efficiency involve system issues:
system operations and maintenance practices, in particular to reduce air
leaks and to properly maintain filters;
system design, including optimal pressure choice, compressor controls, piping topology, etc;
recovery of waste heat, which is a design issue related to the integration of
the compressed air system into its industrial environment.
Thus, the study examines technical as well as organisational measures, which
could be cost effective in transforming market functioning. The document is organised according to the tasks of the project work plan:
PHASE 1:
Task 1
Task 2
Task 3
DATA COLLECTION
Characterisation of compressed air systems in the EU
Model energy consumption and growth
Technical and Economic Energy Savings Potential
PHASE 2:
Task 4
Task 5
Task 6
ANALYSIS AND ELABORATION OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Organisational aspects of energy savings
Analysis of impacts
Identification of actions to promote energy efficient compressed air
systems
Evaluation of the impact of measures
Task 7
PHASE 3: DISSEMINATION OF RESULTS

Task 8 Final report and dissemination of results
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

1.
27
1. Characterisation of Compressed Air Systems in the EU
Characterisation of Compressed Air Systems

in the EU
Work on this task was organised with respect to the basic objective of the task:
provide sufficiently accurate information to help identify priority energy savings
measures, and to judge their cost effectiveness.
Data collection was co-ordinated with the other ongoing related SAVE studies:
in particular the Pumps study, the Variable Speed Drive study and the Motors
study.
1.1
Data Collection Methods
The compressed air systems (CAS) market is a capital goods market, characterised by a relatively small number of producers for air compressors (the main
component of CAS). The market is highly segmented, by type of compressor
and power range. Thus, confidentiality of data poses a major problem, because
of the limited number of producers for each category of equipment1.
In order to overcome this difficulty, the study has negotiated an agreement on
data collection with Pneurop, the European Compressed Air Equipment Manufacturers' trade association. According to the terms of this agreement, the study
team will develop data from national sources, essentially from the countries of
team members (France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, with co-operation from
ETSU in the United Kingdom).
A numeric data collection guide was circulated to team members (copy in Appendix 1). This very complete guide was used to obtain existing data. Of course
not all data represented exists in each country. Best available data was used, in
conjunction with optimal industrial statistics extrapolation methods, in order to
create an aggregated skeleton model. This model was submitted to Pneurop
Compressor Committee. After review, a meeting was held (London, 16-17
September, in conjunction with the International Compressed Air Systems conference) in order to further improve the model.
Furthermore, Pneurop has agreed to circulate a qualitative data collection guide
among its members.
A different data collection system was used for those target groups that are not
represented by Pneurop:
1
Statistical confidentiality rules differ from country to country. In general, if a small number of
producers (from 3 to 5) account for a large part of a market, it is considered that publication
of data would violate confidentiality. The solution, from the statistician's point of view, is to
aggregate data with other industries. Unfortunately, this makes it useless for the needs of a
detailed study such as ours.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
28

the high volume turbo compressor market. This is a speciality market. The
study concluded, that because of its nature (very large, custom designed
systems), this market segment is probably of little interest for the energy
savings aims of the study;
distribution networks, in those countries where distributors are not represented by Pneurop member associations;
end users;
energy providers;
CAS value chain service providers, particularly engineering consultants, and

compressed air outsourcing service providers.
For those areas where the study directly collected data, specific data collection
tools have been developed, in the form of data collection guides, attached in
Appendices 2 and 3.
1.2
Numeric Data
The level of numeric data produced by the study is summarised in the following
tables. The data was collected either through direct interviews with producers
and users of CAS, or through a questionnaire designed specifically for Task 2
and distributed to Pneurop and the study group members. With respect to this
questionnaire, only scanty data is available. Furthermore, national data sources
are inconsistent in their classification schemes. For instance, in France, data is
available by power range but not by type of compressors (screw, piston, centrifugal, etc.), whereas in Germany, official statistics are classified by compressor types and volume flows, but not by power. Furthermore, some data may be
confidential, in market segments where less than 5 companies offer products. In
addition, it is difficult to distinguish between process gas compressors and air
compressors. Data collected by the study group comes from bibliography, discussions with manufacturers or associations, comments from experts from industry and university, etc.
According to a decision at the kick off meeting, confirmed in discussions with
Pneurop, the study is focused on CAS within the 10 kW to 300 kW power range.
Smaller units, while very numerous, account for only a small part of total consumption of compressed air. Larger units, above 300 kW, are specifically designed machines. Because of their high cost, they are usually integrated into
well designed and maintained systems, for which the energy efficiency measures covered in this study are not applicable.
The total electricity consumption in the EU for CAS is approximately 80 TWh,
that is to say roughly 10 % of the total electricity consumption in industry. The
study has agreed to the values listed in Table 1. Ademe source is "Prospective
de la consommation d'lectricit dans l'industrie l'horizon 2010, rapport d'enqute sur les moteurs", March 1994, CEREN.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Table 1:
29
Electricity consumption in compressed air systems

CAS consumption,
TWh
Country
% of
industrial
Source and remarks
electricity
consumption
France
12
11
Germany
14
Source ADEME, for 1990, from an inquiry, for

compressor > 10 kW
Statistisches Bundesamt, OIT, 19982
Italy
12
11
From Afisac, 1998
United Kingdom
10
10
From 'Best practices leaflet', 1996
Rest of the EU
32
11
Best guesses, based on 1996 electricity consumption, extrapolated to industrial electricity

consumption per country
CAS consumption, TWh

12
32
14
France
Germany
Italy
UK
Rest of the EU
12
10
Figure 1:
CAS electricity consumption
The ADEME study allows disagregation of air compressor data by power range.
The British Compressed Air Society proposes values for the United Kingdom.
Afisac proposes some values for Italy, including the range 4-10 kW, which have
been adjusted to the study's target power range. Table 2 presents the number
of installed machines and their division into power ranges.
2
While electricity consumption of CAS in Germany, expressed in absolute terms, is the largest
in any of the European countries, it appears to be the smallest as a percentage of industrial
electricity consumption. This could be due either to a difference in the statistical categories
used in the different countries, or to the specificity of industry activity in Germany.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 2:

30
Number of air compressors installed

Number of
systems
Country
10-110 kW
110-300 kW3
Source and remarks
France
43 765
28 885 (66 %)
14 880 (34 %) ADEME study, range of 10-70

kW and more than 70 kW
Germany
62 000
43 400 (70 %)
18 600 (30 %) Share from German statistics,

CA number from extrapolation
Italy
43 800
30 660 (70 %)
13 140 (30 %) AFISAC (CA number) and

extrapolation
United
Kingdom
55 000
46 750 (85 %)
8 250 (15 %) Insurance data, BCAS, extrapolation
Rest of the EU
116 700
81 700 (70 %)
Total
321 265
231 395 (72 %)
35 000 (30 %) Extrapolation

89 870 (28 %)
Note that while the data for the total number of compressors is derived from
reliable data for France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom, the breakdown between the 2 power ranges depends on extrapolations and estimates.
The study team believes that the above data is an accurate representation of
the situation, given existing data sources. Nevertheless, some contradictory
evidence indicates that the number of large machines might be somewhat lower
than these estimates.
Number of systems
Number
90000
60000
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
30000
0
France
Figure 2:
3
Germany
Italy
UK
Rest of
the EU
Number of air compressors by power range
There is a large difference between the proportion of large machines in the United Kingdom
and in other countries. This is surprising, given that statistics for the United Kingdom and
France, in particular, are both considered to be of a very reliable nature, resulting from procedures which actually counted over 100 000 machines in the field. The difference might be
due to the size of companies which use CAS in each country.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

31
The other parameters are estimated using data from ADEME, Afisac and Pneurop. We propose:
for the growth rate of the installed stock of air compressors:

2 % for Italy, Greece and Spain, for the 5 years to come, 1 % for the following 5 years, afterwards only a renewal of the stock,
a 0 % growth rate for the rest of the EU countries,
an average lifetime of:

13 years for compressors between 10 and 110 kW,
16 years between 110 and 300 kW,
an average power of
42 kW for compressors between 10 and 110 kW,
132 kW between 110 and 300 kW,
an average power loss of 15 % upstream from the compressor (motor power

loss, cooling, etc.),
3500 hours as the number of operating hours per year.
Operating hours vary between countries and years: 3500 hours in Italy, 2700
hours in France in 1990 but only 2000 hours in 1984. Generally speaking, operating hours increase with power. Specific information on age is available: in
France, the average age of installed machines is 11 years and one third of the
stock in the EU is older than 13 years.
1.3
Qualitative Data on CAS Decision Processes
The basic aim of qualitative data collection is to understand:
from the CAS users' point of view, the key decision criteria affecting user
choice in purchases. Specifically, how energy consumption issues are (or are
not) integrated into the decision process.
from the CAS manufacturers' and service providers' point of view, how energy efficiency issues (and more broadly, operating costs) are integrated into
sales strategies and practices.
In order to collect this information, in depth interviews were conducted within 19

companies: 7 in France (of which 3 service providers), 4 in Germany and 8 in
Italy. (See Appendix 1 for detailed information on these interviews.)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
1.3.1
32

CAS Users
Qualitative data collection, through in depth interviews with representative CAS

users, was focused on determining users' performance criteria in the choice and
design of systems. Data collected (Appendix 1) shows that for users, performance criteria are the following:
Reliability. Since compressed air is an essential part of the production process for most industrial compressed air users, system reliability is the absolute
primary performance criterion. System breakdown usually equates to lost
production, and is therefore very costly. The cost of lost production is certainly viewed by most users as more important than potential energy savings.
Quality. Compressed air quality is important for two main reasons:

Damage to production equipment. Impurities in compressed air can
cause breakdowns in production equipment that uses the air. In this case,
quality of air is an issue in many respects similar to the reliability issue
mentioned above.
Product quality. In some production systems, compressed air enters directly into the finished product, or comes into contact with the product (for
example in food processing, pharmaceuticals and electronics). In this
case, poor air quality can lead to reduced product quality.
Cost. It seems that cost is the least important performance criterion for users. This is an important result for the study, since the basic ts1ool that must
be used to encourage energy efficiency is cost reduction. Several reasons
seem to explain the low priority which users give to compressed air costs,
even in highly cost competitive industries.
No compressed air cost accounting. In many cases, users are not
aware of compressed air costs. Neither compressed air operating costs,
nor energy for compressed air, appear as distinct items in corporate cost
accounting. Compressed air energy costs are most often included in general overhead costs.
Limited management time. Managers do not feel it is worth their time to
improve energy efficiency, since they feel this would have a negligible impact on total production costs. The idea that compressed air energy costs
are a minor cost item is sometimes false. This issue is thus related to the
preceding issue on lack of information on compressed air energy costs.
Lack of awareness of possible savings. In some cases, even when cost
accounting information on compressed air is available within the organisation, managers with decision making power are not sufficiently aware of
the existence of cost effective energy savings measures.
Complex management structure. Because of the nature of compressed
air energy costs, responsibility for cost reduction measures is often divided
between managers for maintenance, production, purchasing and finance.
Co-ordination between these functions is a problem in all enterprises. It
generally requires very high level decisions to cut across the conflicting
priorities of these functions, and this type of decision is rare for compressed air, which is not viewed as a strategic business issue for users.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

33
Energy Services and Energy Service Providers

Energy services is a term used to refer to services that require energy in
their production. Examples are lighting, heating, refrigeration, motive
power, transportation, communication, etc. The use of this term is important, because it highlights the distinction between the energy services that
final users require, and the primary energy used to produce these services.
Compressed air can be used, for instance, to provide motive power (compressed air actuated pistons, pneumatic materials transport), cleaning (as
in dust blowoff) or control (pneumatic industrial control logic devices).
Energy products such as gasoline, electricity, piped gas, piped steam or
chilled water permit the transportation and/or storage of energy, and the
production of energy services. They are most often commercially sold as
such by the existing Power Utility Companies. Compressed air can be considered to be an energy product, although, until recently, few Power Utilities sold compressed air.
Energy service providers are organisations that produce and distribute
energy products or energy services. Energy service providers may be privately or publicly owned businesses, national or municipal agencies, cooperative organisations or the end users themselves. In the past, the sector was mainly limited to power utilities that sold energy products. Clients
paid for the quantity (litres of gasoline), or energy content (kWh of electricity) of the energy product. Today new actors are entering the market, and
billing is evolving towards a model in which users pay for the energy service rendered. Energy service providers are thus moving downstream in the
energy value chain, sometimes going as far as installing end use devices.
They often provide an integrated service composed of the equipment, the
maintenance and the operation of installations that produce several types
of energy services. This business model, if properly controlled through
regulations and contractual arrangements, can permit energy service providers to aid the development of rational use of energy.
1.3.2
Compressed Air Service Providers
As is the case with many "housekeeping" functions in industry, a major current

trend is for businesses to outsource compressed air production4. The business
is dominated by a small number of large service providers, most of them falling
into one of the following categories:
industrial gas suppliers (e. g. Linde, Air Liquide, Messer, BOC, Praxair),
general energy service providers (e. g. Vivendi/Dalkia, Suez-Lyonnaise/Elyo,

Harpen, ECH),
Because of its rapidly growing importance in France, ADEME has commissioned a study on
outsourcing, carried out by ADAGE consultants. Much of the information in this paragraph is
drawn from this study.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
34

power utility companies (e. g. Town owned utilities, EnBW, E.ON, HEW,
RWE, EDF).
The strategy of the companies in the first group is to provide an integrated solution for all the industrial gas needs of a plant. They might install a system consisting of a large compressor unit coupled with membrane filtration systems to
provide nitrogen and oxygen as well as compressed air.
The second group of companies also aims for an integrated solution, based on
a variety of energy services, such as cogeneration or trigeneration, combining
electricity, heat and cold, with compressed air.
Finally, power utilities have begun to broaden their range of services, often creating specialised subsidiaries with a full line of compressed air or industrial gas
services.
Outsourcing of compressed air can substantially modify the way in which decisions are made on system design and equipment choice. The actual impact of
outsourcing on energy consumption depends on the specifics of the contractual
arrangement between the client and the service provider.
Since clients' foremost concerns are system reliability and air quality, service
contracts usually have stringent clauses on these 2 elements. Some contracts
provide for a requirement to put repair people in the field within a certain time (4
hours, 8 hours, etc.). Some contracts have penalties if the system stays out of
service for more than a contractually specified period. Service providers generally install telemetering equipment to monitor key system parameters that help
them perform preventive maintenance, so as to prevent breakdowns.
We have chosen to organise our analysis of the energy impact of outsourcing
by elements of the compressed air system: inside the compressor house;
downstream from the compressor house.
1.3.2.1
Inside the Compressor House
Because of their large size and technical expertise, compressed air service providers are generally capable of designing and installing optimal systems. The
key to understanding the impact of outsourcing on energy consumption lies with
identifying the specific criteria for optimality applied by the service providers.
This depends on the precise type of contractual arrangement. Several basic
types of contracts exist.
Equipment sales, most often linked to a service contract. The service provider has no incentive to design systems for high energy efficiency.
Leasing of entire systems, almost always in conjunction with a service contract. As with the preceding type of contract, the service provider has no incentive to design systems for high energy efficiency.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

35
Sale of compressed air. This type of contract must be subdivided according

to three criteria:
Who pays for electricity? If the service provider pays for electricity, he
will be motivated to design systems with high energy efficiency. On the
other hand, if the client pays for electricity, the service provider has little
incentive to install efficient systems. On the contrary, inefficient systems
will run more hours, and will thus be more profitable for the service provider.
How is compressed air production measured? The simplest measurement system simple counts hours of compressor operation. In this case,
the service provider has no direct incentive to maintain the compressor at
optimal efficiency5. Measuring airflow requires more sophisticated and expensive equipment, and a more complex billing system. This type of
equipment requires frequent calibration of the meters. Nonetheless, when
actual air production is measured, the service provider has an incentive to
install equipment that stays efficient longer, and to maintain the efficiency.
Who pays for air drying? In some systems, air drying accounts for a significant portion of energy;
direct electricity consumption for heaters;
air consumption in adsorption dryers;
indirect consumption because of pressure drop across the dryers.
To summarise, the impact of outsourcing on energy consumption depends on

who pays for electricity and on how production is measured. The impact can be
positive or negative, depending on the type of contract used.
1.3.2.2
Downstream from the Compressor House
Maintenance of the air distribution system is a separate issue from air production. Of course, distribution air leaks constitute one of the major causes of excessive energy consumption.
In some cases, companies who chose to outsource compressed air production
also reduce maintenance staff. In this case, the distribution network may be less
well maintained, and overall system efficiency may drop. On the other hand,
some compressed air service contracts include leak detection (usually as an
"add on" to a basic contract). In this case, overall system efficiency could improve.
Another factor is adaptation to changing needs. A company that outsources
may no longer maintain internal management capacity to detect changes in
compressed air needs. This may be important if compressed air consumption
decreases, in which case downsizing the system could reduce operating costs.
5
Note that compressor efficiency decreases with time. Of course an ageing compressor,
whose efficiency is dropping, will also be prone to breakdown. Thus some aspects of preventive maintenance will also help maintain compressor efficiency.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
1.3.2.3
36

The Importance of the Contract
In conclusion, outsourcing can have a negative or positive impact on overall

energy consumption. The most important factors which determine the nature of
the impact are the contractual clauses which determine if:
the service provider is paid on the basis of real measured air production;
the service provider is in some way made responsible for the distribution
network efficiency, through a leak detection programme.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

37
2. Model Energy Consumption and Growth
2.
Model Energy Consumption and Growth
2.1
Aim of Model Development
The aim of Task 2 was to build a simple model of energy consumption (named
stock model) for compressed air systems, for the different Member States of the
European Union. This model, using a bottom-up approach, estimates the number of air compressors in the future, the probable rate of growth of their energy
consumption, as well as the past, present and future annual energy consumption.
The number of compressors and the energy consumption in the future are calculated under different market conditions. These market conditions are called
scenarios. In accordance with the other tasks, we use three scenarios, as described later:
BAU (Business As Usual),

ARP (Awareness Raising Programme)
ERP (Economic and Regulatory Programme).
Electricity consumption is based on the number of installed compressors, on

their power and on average operating time. The model integrates the effects of
new compressors entering and old ones leaving the stock. It allows evaluation
of policy changes on consumption. The results have been cross checked with
existing consumption estimates.
Data collected in Task 1 have been integrated into this energy consumption
growth model. We present here the complete model, as it was developed and
as it could have been used if all the necessary data had been available. Due to
the limited availability of data, we also present a simplified model, presented
hereafter. The data used, collected mainly with the aid of Pneurop, is presented,
as are the results in terms of installed machines.
2.2
Description of the Model
For a type i of compressor sold at the year j, the average unitary yearly consumption Cauy(i) at the year n (j<=n) is
Cauy (i, j ) = P (i, j ) * r (i, j ) * hoa (i, j )
Where:
P(i, j) is the average power of a compressor (type i) sold in year j
r(i, ,j) is the efficiency of a compressor (type i) sold in year j
hoa(i, j)is the number of operating hours of a compressor (type i) sold in year j
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

38
Consumption(typei , yearn ) = power * efficiency * nb _ of _ operating _ hours
The total electricity consumption for a type i at the year n (Ctot(i,n)) is the sum
of each Cauy(i,j) calculated on all the compressors sold since 1985 and still in
use at the year n
Ctot (typei , yearn ) =
Where:
Sales (i,j)
Remain (i,j,k)
sales(i, j ) * remain(i, j, k ) * Cauy(i, j )
k =1985, n j =1985 , n
is the number of compressor (type i) sold in year j

is the percentage of compressors sold in year j and still
remaining in use in year n.
The total consumption is the sum on all types of compressors.

The stock model can calculate results both for the past and the future. The past
values, where pertinent data series are available, are used to validate the model
and the algorithms. According to the lifetime of the compressors (15 years, in
theory) we could cover the period from 1985 until 2015. But we do not know
when the existing compressors were sold and how many remain in use. What is
known is the stock installed (Nb(i)) today. We have no data for the compressors
installed between 1985 and now.
We consider, in agreement with Pneurop, that working with hypothesis for the
past values would not significantly improve the quality of the results. Due to this
lack of data, we propose to simplify the equation: the year of sale is not taken
into account and we will study the number of machines and the consumption
only from 1999 until 2015.
2.3
The Simplified Model, the Data Used, and the Results
The simplified model
We propose to use the following simplified model. It may be developed from

partial data available for one or more years.
Ctot ( yearn ) =
Ctot ( yearn ) =
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
Nb(i) * Cauy (i)
i = all types
Nb(i) * P(i) * r (i) * hao(i)
i = all types
SAVE
DoE
ECE

39
Then we define three scenarios:
a business as usual scenario (BAU), based on the current growth of equipment and no specific improvement on energy efficiency
and scenarios of energy efficiency, based on measures and actions aimed at

improving energy efficiency. These measures and actions are grouped into
two programmes for action, which give rise to two corresponding scenarios,
the scenario ARP (Awareness Raising Programme)
and the ERP (Economic and Regulatory Programme).
We will compare the results and the main differences between the scenarios in
terms of energy consumption in Task 7.
The data available
The following tables present the data available, mainly coming from Task 1.
Table 3:
Number of air compressors installed in 1999

Country
Total
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
France
43 765
28 885
14 880
Germany
62 000
43 400
18 600
35 660
25 685
9 976
Italy
43 800
30 660
13 140
United Kingdom
55 000
46 750
8 250
Rest of the EU
81 040
56 015
25 024
321 265
231 395
89 870
71 kW
42 kW
132 kW
Total
Average power
Table 4:
Electricity consumption for CAS in 1999

Country
ADEME
Total
10-110 kW
110-300 kW
[TWh]
France
12
Germany
14
10.5
3.5
6.6
2.2
Italy
12
United Kingdom
10
7.5
2.5
Rest of the EU
23
17
Total
80
60
20
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

40
Note: consumption and number of machines for countries other than France,
Germany, Italy and Germany have been estimated according to their percentage in the European electricity consumption. For Greece, Spain and Portugal,
this amounts to, respectively, 1.5, 8.0 and 1.6 %. This method of estimation was
used due to the lack of other data for these countries. Greece, Spain and Portugal are treated separately from other countries, because the number of installed systems is growing in these 3 countries.
Results: Number of installed systems
We indicate here the different hypothesis used by the model for the changes
occurring in the number of installed compressed air systems. The hypothesis
described here are drawn from Task 1.
In the model, the compressed air systems currently running in the EU countries
are called Old systems. Their number decreases from year to year.
Growth rate of the installed compressed air systems is:
2 % for Italy, Greece, Portugal and Spain, for the five years to come, 1 % for
the following five years and afterwards renewal of the stock only,
0 % for the rest of the EU countries.
Systems entering the stock due to the building of new installations are called
New systems in the model.
The renewal of the stock is realised in 15 years; that is to say that 6.7 % of the
systems are retrofitted or upgraded each year. These systems are called Upgraded systems in the model.
These values are presented in the table below. Table 5 summarises the assumption for the calculations.
Table 5:
Growth rates for CAS in the EU
For 1999
Operating
hours
Country
Average
power
[kW]
Growth rate year [%]

Lifetime
years
1-5
5-10
> 10
France
78
Germany
65
71
Italy
78
United Kingdom
52
Rest of the EU
82
Average value
ADEME
3500
Fraunhofer ISI
71
15
SAVE
Stock
renewal
per year
6.70 %
DoE
ECE

41
These hypothesis allow us to calculate the number of remaining old systems,

new and upgraded systems for each year between 2000 and 2015. This is calculated:
individually for France, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom,

for Greece, Portugal and Spain together
and for the other EU countries together.
Figure 3 shows the number of machines installed until 2015. In 2015, the stock
of installed machines reaches 334010 systems (compared to 321265 today),
that is to say an increase of 4 %. The stock of CAS is the same for all scenarios.
old
upgraded
new
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
France
Germany
United
Kingdom
Greece,
Portugal,
Spain
Italy
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
2015
2010
2005
1999
Rest of the
EU
Figure 3: Number of new and upgraded CAS until 2015
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

3.
43
3. Technical and Economic

Energy Savings Potential
Technical and Economic Energy Savings Potential
The chain that links the source of electricity to the service rendered consists of:
Drive Compressor Air treatment Network End use device
Controls
Figure 4:
Process chain for CAS
System performance depends on the performance of each element, but even

more on overall system design and operation. The study team has identified
and examined the following technical measures that could improve overall performance of the CAS process chain:
improvement of drives: use of high efficiency motors; integration of variable

speed drives into compressors;
optimal choice of the type of compressor, as a function of specific end use
applications;
improvement of compressor technology, particularly in multi-stage compressors;
use of sophisticated control systems;
recuperating waste heat for use in other functions;
improved air treatment: reducing pressure and energy losses in cooling, drying and filtering; optimising filtering and drying as a function of users' needs,
and of temperature conditions;
overall system design, including multi-pressure systems;
reducing frictional pressure losses in networks;
reducing air leaks;
optimising certain end use devices: more efficient, better adapted devices, or,
in some applications, replacing compressed air by electrical or hydraulic
systems;
measuring and tracking system performance.
Work done during the study has confirmed that all of these technical measures
can improve energy efficiency in many installations. Furthermore, all of these
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

44

measures are cost effective (that is to say they have a payback time of less
than 36 months6) in some applications.
3.1
Improvement of Drives
The use of high efficiency motors improves energy efficiency. The integration of
adjustable speed drives (ASD) into compressors could lead to energy efficiency
improvements, depending on load characteristics.
With respect to high efficiency motors, the possible gains would be concentrated in new systems, since it appears unlikely that users could be convinced
to retrofit high efficiency motors to existing machines, even at replacement time
for the motor. The biggest differences in motor performance are found in small
machines7. Since these machines are most often sold as stand alone units, it
would appear that energy efficiency labelling might be the most appropriate tool
for achieving these gains. Nevertheless, since most of these machines operate
relatively few hours per year, high efficiency motors would be cost effective for a
limited proportion of machines.
Integration of speed controllers into a CAS would be very cost effective for variable load conditions, considered to be about one quarter of installations. Their
installation would be in great part limited to the sale of new compressors, since
retrofitting adjustable speed drives to existing machines poses a host of technical problems.
In the case of multi-machine installations, the adjustable speed drive would be
integrated into only one of the machines, and would most likely be linked to
some type of sophisticated control technology, which would start and stop fixed
speed machines as well as vary the speed of one machine, so as to adjust output to system demand.
The 36 month cut-off period for payback time is a "quick and dirty" method for defining economic feasibility. Of course more sophisticated accounting/economic tools, such as NPV or
IRR (Net Present Value, or Internal Rate of Return) which take into account the cost of borrowing or raising capital are more accurate. Nevertheless, NPV calculations are time consuming, and must be done in detail to take into account the specificity of the financial situation of a particular enterprise. For the overall evaluation needs of the present study, a payback time criterion appears sufficient, in particular since the term is short, and since current
interest rates are low. The 36 month cut-off period is the upper limit for what industrial enterprises use as decision criterion for energy efficiency investments. Use of sophisticated financial tools (ESCOs, etc.), can make projects with longer payback times feasible. Nevertheless, these tools are only applicable to large projects (for instance a very large compressor
installation).
Note that small machines (< 10 kW) are outside the scope of this study.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

3.2
45

Optimal Choice of the Type of Compressor
The market segment studied (10-300 kW) is today largely dominated (75 % of
sales) by oil injected screw compressors because of their reliability, simplicity
and relatively low cost. Nevertheless, a large number of alternative technologies
exist: piston, vane, scroll, centrifugal, and turbine compressors all have their
market shares. The choice between oil injected or oil free machines, as well as
between single stage or multi-stage machines constitute other parameters of
choice. Within each family of compressors, there are multiple variants. The following diagram illustrates the major families of compressors.
Source: BCAS/Pneurop
Figure 5:
Major families of compressors
The optimal choice of compressor technology must take into account the specific needs of the user's compressed air system. This choice can affect the energy efficiency of the system, both in terms of compressor performance, but
also in terms of the multiple interactions with other elements of system design.
In particular, the benefit of multi stage systems for high duty cycle installations
is a point which should be stressed.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

3.3
46

Improvement of Compressor Technology
Research and development is quite active in the field of compressor technology.

Efforts are being carried out to improve existing families of compressors, but
also to develop new types, usually designed for niche markets. Another aspect
of research is the improvement of production methods, for instance to achieve
closer clearances so as to reduce gap leakage within machines.
Nevertheless, it must be kept in mind that compressor performance is limited by
the laws of thermodynamics. Thus, while R&D will certainly make possible small
incremental improvements in energy efficiency, the potential for technological
improvement within the compressor is much smaller than the gains that can be
achieved through improved system design and operations. Furthermore, in the
highly competitive market for compressors, there is already great pressure on
the manufacturers to develop better performing machines.
For these reasons, the study has concluded that there is little potential for
accelerating improvement in compressor technology through institutional
action by the European Union or the Member States.
3.4
Use of Sophisticated Control Systems
Sophisticated control systems are used to match compressor output to system

air demand. They save energy by optimising the transitions between the running, idling and stopped states of the compressor. Sequencers optimise the operation of multi machine installations. These control systems can often be used
in conjunction with speed controllers. Predictive controls apply fuzzy logic or
other algorithms to predict future air demand from past performance of the system.
As the price of electronic control technology comes down, and as familiarity with
these technologies increases in industry, their use is rapidly expanding, and
their application to compressors is becoming more common.
These controls can be fitted to new machines or to many existing installations.
3.5
Recuperating Waste Heat
By their very nature, compressors generate heat, which can, in some circumstances, be used for other functions. Since this heat is so to speak "free", the
advisability of using it depends on the existence of a thermal load whose characteristics match the available heat, and for which the necessary equipment
(heat exchangers, piping, regulator, backup heat source, ...) are available and
reasonably priced as compared to alternative solutions. Design of waste heat
recovery must assure proper cooling of the compressor. The waste heat from a
compressor is often too low in temperature, or too limited in quantity, to ade-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

47

quately match the needs for industrial process heat. Climate and seasonality
also affect the cost/benefit ratio. Typical applications are more often for space
heating, when a need exists in proximity to the compressor location.
The cost effectiveness of recuperating waste heat depends on the alternate
sources of energy which are available. It might be very cost effective if the alternative solution would be electric heat. It may be less cost effective if natural
gas, waste process heat or waste process gas could be used.
3.6
Improved Air Treatment
Cooling, drying and filtering equipment causes pressure drops. Furthermore,

drying equipment uses compressed air or electricity for filter regeneration. Thus,
optimising filtering and drying as a function of users' needs is a major source for
energy savings. The possible measures are:
dynamically adjust the degree of drying to outside temperature conditions.

This is applicable when drying is done essentially to maintain the air above
the dew point, so as to prevent condensation in the system. It may be inappropriate if drying is required to meet a specific process requirement for air
quality.
adjust the degree of oil or dust filtering to match the precise needs of the
system. Over-filtering wastes energy.
add filtering capacity. Increasing the number of filters in parallel decreases air
velocity, thus reducing the pressure drop. This can often be a very cost effective investment, for both new or existing systems.
increase or optimise the frequency of filter replacement. Blocked filters increase pressure drop. Maintenance procedures should include regular
checking of filters, and replacement when necessary. Automatic sensing and
alarm equipment to warn of excessive pressure drop can be very cost effective.
3.7
Overall System Design
The basic objective of good system design is to match air pressure, volume and
quality to the needs of the various end use devices. While this can be straight
forward, it can also be very complex if end use devices in the system have differing, or varying, needs. Two examples of system design issues are:
single pressure or multi-pressure systems. Typical systems are designed to

deliver air at the highest pressure and air quality needed by any of the end
use devices. This can waste substantial energy if only a small percentage of
devices really need this high pressure or high air quality. Alternative solutions
might be to:
build a system delivering a lower pressure, and add pressure boosters for
those devices requiring higher air pressure
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

48

provide adequate filtering for the majority of applications, and add specific
local filtering for those devices which require it;
limit pressure variations in the system. Inadequate control systems can lead
to wide pressure variations, which waste energy. Furthermore, when particular end use devices have very erratic demand characteristics, it can be
useful to install air storage capacity close to these devices, so as to reduce
pressure variations.
3.8
Optimising End Use Devices
Many end use devices are energy inefficient. For instance in blowing and drying
applications, ventilators can often be used with an energy savings benefit. In
some applications, electrical or hydraulic equipment can cost effectively replace
compressed air end use devices, and be more energy efficient. While equipment manufacturers' catalogues usually state compressed air requirements for
their machines, users do not always take this into account in their purchasing
decisions.
The optimisation of end use devices is one aspect of the system design issue.
While hand held pneumatic tools can be easily replaced by more efficient models, much CAS use results from devices (pistons, motors, etc.) which are components of large fixed machines, for which replacement or upgrading can be
very costly.
3.9
Reducing Frictional Pressure Losses in Networks
Pressure losses in CA networks depend on multiple factors: topology (ring or

star networks, ); geometry (pipe diameter, radius of curvature), materials
used, etc. Correct design and installation can optimise frictional losses.
Figure 6 illustrates an example of a CA network.
Despite the importance of the network, a majority of CAS have less than optimal
networks.
At the time of factory construction, the CA network is often installed by the
same enterprise responsible for all the piping or "fluids" work. These enterprises are often not qualified for design and installation of CA networks.
Undersized piping is a common situation. Even systems which are initially
well designed can become "energy wasters" if CA use increases above the
level for which the system was initially designed.
Lack of shut-off valves makes it impossible to close off parts of systems, for
example for machinery which does not operate during night shifts.
Since it is difficult and expensive to improve an existing network, correct design
and installation, including a margin for future growth, is an important issue for
new systems.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

49

Source: BCAS/Pneurop
Figure 6:
3.10
An example of a CA network
Reducing Air Leaks
Reducing air leaks is probably the single most important energy savings measure, applicable to almost all systems. Awareness of the importance of a regular
leak detection programme is low, in part because air leaks are invisible, and
generally cause no damage.
Correct design and installation of the network can greatly diminish air leaks, for
instance through the use of modern, no air loss, condensate draining devices,
or through the specification of high quality, long life quick disconnect couplings.
Nevertheless, the essential issue is one of proper maintenance. Hand held leak
"sniffers" which detect the noise of air leaks can reduce the cost of leak detection.
3.11
Measuring and Tracking System Performance
Measuring and tracking system performance does not in and of itself improve
energy efficiency. Nevertheless, it is often the first step in improving energy efficiency, for two basic reasons:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

50

Measuring air use and energy consumption is essential in determining

whether changes in maintenance practices or investment in equipment could
be cost effective. As long as the per unit cost of delivered compressed air is
unknown, it is difficult to initiate the management process necessary to improve a system.
Tracking of system performance is a valuable tool to detect performance

degradation, or changes in the nature or quantity of air use.
Three basic parameters air flow, air pressure, electricity consumption must
be measured and recorded in order to evaluate system performance. While this
seems simple in principle, the interpretation of this data can be difficult, particularly in variable load applications. Measuring air flow also poses technical problems, and retrofitting reliable measuring equipment can be difficult or impossible
if this was not taken into account at the time of system design and installation8.
The study has concluded that medium and large size systems should be designed and installed so as to facilitate the measurement of air flow. Institutional
action to encourage (or even mandate) this might be useful.
Where information on air flow is not available, low cost pressure sensing
equipment can still be very useful, for instance to measure the pressure differential across filters or the pressure loss in the network, or to detect excessive
pressure variation in a system.
3.12
Synthesis of Technical Measures
Measures to improve energy efficiency of CAS are relevant at different stages

of a CAS's life cycle:
system design, bidding or purchasing procedures

installation
major component replacement or upgrading
preventive and corrective maintenance
Table 6 gives an approximate indication of the phase at which each of the

measures described above could be applied.
The best opportunity for achieving energy savings is at the time when a new
system is built from scratch. At this moment, the entire range of energy savings
measures is open. Nevertheless, this situation is relatively rare in the context of
European industry. With the shift to a service and information economy, with the
rationalisation of production and merger of production sites, the number of industrial plants is decreasing. Few new plants are being built in Europe, except
in those Member States which are still in a phase of industrialisation.
The most common type of flow meter must be installed in a turbulence free pipe, which must
be several times as long as its diameter. In some systems, no adequate place exists to install the meter.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Table 6:

51
Compressed air system life cycle

system
design,
purchasing
installation
component
maintenance
replacement
Improvement of drives
++
++
Optimal choice of compressor
++
Sophisticated control systems
++
++
Recuperating waste heat
++
++
Improved air treatment
++
++
Overall system design
++
Optimising end use devices
++
Reducing frictional losses
++
++
++
Reducing air leaks

Measuring system performance
++
++
The much more frequent situation is that of replacement of major components

of an existing system, or extension of existing systems. In this situation, most
measures are possible, but some are more difficult, in particular those relating
to the system design: air network, multi-pressure systems, choice of type of end
use devices (other than hand held tools). It is estimated that possible gains in
existing system at the time of major overhaul is 2/3 of the efficiency gains possible in new systems which are designed and built from scratch.
Some energy savings measures can be retrofitted to existing systems at any
moment, independently of the life cycle of major system components. This is
true for example for the introduction of some types of sophisticated control systems, or the recovery of waste heat. Nevertheless, these measures usually require an engineering study and are thus more difficult to foster, and would
probably be limited to the larger systems. In any case, it appears to the study
team that it would be more cost effective to target institutional efforts on the decision making process at the time of major component replacement or upgrading, rather than to waste efforts on the more limited and complex retrofit measures.
Actions which are related to maintenance and operations, in particular frequency of filter changes and air leak detection, constitute a major opportunity
for energy savings. These measures can be introduced at any moment in the
life cycle of a CAS.
The study team has consulted a number of experts to obtain estimates of the
applicability of energy savings measures, and on the potential for gains. Experience has shown that industrial enterprises are loath to allocate precious capital
resources to energy savings investments, even when they show high rates of
return on investment. Thus, the economic cut-off point was chosen at 36
months payback time. This is a conservative cut-off point, since it provides an
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


52
internal rate of return (profitability) of over 25 %, which is significantly higher

than the average rate of return on industrial investments.
Table 7 resumes the findings of the study.
Table 7:
Energy savings measures
Energy savings
measure
%
%
Potential
applica- gains contribution
bility (1)
(2)
(3)
Comments
(high efficiency motors)
25 %
2%
0.5 %
Most cost effective in small (<10 kW) systems
(Speed Control)
25 %
15 %
3.8 %
Applicable to variable load systems. In multimachine installations, only one machine should
be fitted with a variable speed drive. The estimated gain is for overall improvement of systems, be they mono or multi-machine.
30 %
7%
2.1 %
Use of sophisticated
control systems
20 %
12 %
2.4 %
Recovering waste heat

for use in other functions
20 %
20 %
4.0 %
Note that the gain is in terms of energy, not of

electricity consumption, since electricity is converted to useful heat.
10 %
5%
0.5 %
This does not include more frequent filter replacement (see below).
Overall system design,

including multi-pressure
systems
50 %
9%
4.5 %
Reducing frictional
pressure losses (for
example by increasing
pipe diameter)
50 %
3%
1.5 %
Optimising certain end

use devices
5%
40 %
2.0 %
Reducing air leaks
80 %
20 %
16.0 %
More frequent filter

replacement
40 %
2%
0.8 %
TOTAL9
Largest potential gain
32.9 %
Table legend: (1) % of CAS where this measure is applicable and cost effective
(2) % reduction in annual energy consumption
(3) Potential contribution = Applicability * Reduction
The study team thus concludes that the economically and technically feasible
energy savings amount to 32.9 %. This gain could be achieved over a 15 year
period, since the large majority of major system components are replaced within
this time frame. The possible savings are of course higher in new systems designed from scratch, that in retrofits to existing systems.
Note the potential for savings, 32.9 %, is less than the sum of the savings for individual
measures. The total possible savings must be calculated as a product of efficiency gains.
See Paragraph 5.1, Equation 5.4.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


53
In summary, the most important energy savings measures appear to be:
reducing air leaks
better system design
use of speed controllers
recovery of waste heat, although its economic value is subject to practicality

and energy price considerations.
Figure 7 shows the share of these measures on the overall savings potential.
Major energy savings measures

26%
Reducing air leaks
42%

Adjustable spee drives
All other measures
10%
10%
Figure 7:
ADEME
12%
Major energy savings measures
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

4.
55
4. Organisational Aspects
of Energy Savings
Organisational Aspects of Energy Savings
It is clear that a large technical and economic potential exists for increasing energy efficiency in compressed air systems. As in many other areas of energy
efficiency, the adoption of energy savings measures for compressed air depends as much on resolving organisational questions as technical questions.
In this chapter, we present preliminary conclusions of the study on the nature of
organisation barriers to CAS energy efficiency, and on one possible method of
overcoming this barrier, through outsourcing.
4.1
Organisational Barriers to Improving CAS Energy

Efficiency
There are multiple reasons that explain why business organisations do not
adopt cost effective energy savings measures.
Shortage of capital makes it difficult for companies to invest in more efficient
systems, despite profitable opportunities10. Limited available capital is reserved
for investments that have a clear link to strategic business objectives (expanding sales, etc.).
As noted in the findings from the market characterisation task, most business
organisations do not have analytical cost accounting tools for compressed air
costs. Thus, these costs are not specifically assigned to compressed air users
within the organisation. This leads to the paradoxical situation, that while cost
reduction is generally a high priority for businesses in competitive environments,
reducing compressed air costs is "nobody's problem".
Specialisation of functions within medium and large companies leads to the dissociation between the technical managers who are aware of potential energy
savings, and those in the purchase and finance departments responsible for
investment decisions.
In most businesses, compressed air production is a "house keeping" function
assigned to the maintenance department. The maintenance manager is judged
on the reliability of the production equipment for which he is responsible. Secondarily, he may be judged on the cost of maintenance. On the other hand, the
major cost item of compressed air production is electricity consumption (75 % of
10 The term "profitable investment opportunity" describes an investment whose IRR (internal
rates of return, see footnote 6 on page 44) is higher than the opportunity cost of capital for
the investing company. In this document, the term "profitable" is used as shorthand for "profitable investment opportunity". While "profitable" is less precise, it is used in this non technical text, since it is understandable for most readers.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
of Energy Savings
56

overall compressed air costs). But this cost item is almost never considered as
part of the maintenance department budget.
The conclusion of this analysis is that the key to overcoming organisational barriers to improving CAS energy efficiency lies in making the cost of producing
compressed air visible to all levels of management.
The study will examine two radically different approaches to making compressed air costs visible:
outsourcing of the compressed air function;

analytical accounting methods.
4.2
Outsourcing of the Compressed Air Function
The production of compressed air11 is typical of functions that can be easily

isolated within a business organisation and outsourced12. As described in Paragraph 1.3.2, outsourcing of the compressed air function is growing rapidly.
Companies that outsource compressed air production usually do so because
their system was in crisis: it either had become so unreliable that it affected
general production capacity, or the equipment was so old that maintenance had
become very expensive or impossible.
In either case, switching to a service provider was seen as having some of the
following advantages, as compared with an in house solution requiring investment in new equipment:
improve reliability and quality of service, guaranteed through the contractual

obligations of the service provider. In most cases, the service provider is a
large specialised company, perceived as being capable of respecting its
contractual obligations;
liberate capital for other more strategic investments;
liberate limited management capacity for other more strategic tasks;
control and make visible compressed air costs;
reduce compressed air costs.
11 Outsourcing is most often limited to the part of the compressed air system inside the com-
pressor house consisting of drive + compressor + cooling/drying/filtering equipment + air

tank.
12 Outsourcing refers to the business practice by which an enterprise isolates an element of the
business from other activities, and contractualises it so as to have the function performed by
another enterprise specialised in this function. Outsourcing is typically used for very high skill
functions (computer operations, telecommunications, financial planning, project management, etc.) or for very low skill functions (gardening, office cleaning, etc.).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

57
of Energy Savings
The last two points are of most concern for the present study. Paradoxically, as
explained above (Paragraph 1.3.2.3), the majority of outsourcing contracts
cover maintenance costs, but not energy costs. In fact, the actual cost per cubic
meter of air is rarely measured. Thus, businesses using outsourcing usually
achieve improved reliability and quality of service, but may pay more for compressed air, without even knowing it.
The study findings at this point seem to show that, while outsourcing in principle
should be a useful tool to improve energy efficiency, in fact, under current contractual practice, this objective is not always being met, and in some cases,
outsourcing can even lead to higher energy consumption (see Paragraph
1.3.2.3).
This finding leads to the conclusion that modifying current outsourcing practices
might be an area for institutional action by the Commission.
4.3
Analytical Accounting Methods
As explained above, compressed air costs are usually considered as part of

overhead costs, and are rarely broken down by user departments within companies. In fact, actual consumption is rarely measured, even at the output of the
compressor, much less at more detailed levels within the company. Accounting
methods could be developed which help managers become more conscious of
compressed air costs. This would make it possible to motivate them to realise
savings.
Different levels of precision might be aimed for in an energy related measuring,
accounting and reporting system. The basic parameters which determine the
nature of an energy accounting and reporting system are the objectives, and the
recipients of information.
What is the basic purpose of energy consumption accounting and reporting?

Is it primarily for cost control or cost reduction? Is it used for benchmarking?
Is it a maintenance tool to warn of problems?
Who are the recipients? Cost controllers, production managers, maintenance

managers?
Once these parameters are determined, the technical parameters can be decided upon.
What is the level of detail? Company wide? Factory wide? Profit centre? Production department, or shop level?
What frequency for reporting? Real time, or cumulative?
How are energy costs broken down? Does electricity appear separately? Is
energy consumption for production separated from administrative consumption? Is compressed air electricity consumption separated from other electricity consumption? Within compressed air consumption, is main drive con-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
of Energy Savings

58
sumption separated from auxiliary consumption (air drying, compressor

house heating and lighting, ventilation, etc.)?
What kind of metering is done? Electricity consumption only? Operating time

for compressors? Compressed air flow? In multi-machine systems, are meters installed on each machine? Is the metering cumulative only, or does it
produce time based information?
Of course, generating greater detail in energy reporting has a cost, which must
be justified by the objectives and the potential savings. Table 8 outlines three
types of measuring systems.
Table 8:
Types of measuring systems
Objective
Metering
Reporting
Company wide electricity No special metering. Use of

consumption cost control. existing information from
electricity (and other energy)
bills.
Synthetic monthly summary of costs,

broken down into 2 categories: production, administration.
Detailed cost control and Installation of electricity

benchmarking.
meters for major functions,
including production of compressed air.
Detailed reporting of different types

of energy consumption, as compared with production levels.
Shop or production level

cost accounting.
Detailed cost accounting by production department.
Maintenance tool.
Electricity and air flow meters on each compressor.

Air flow meters for each
shop in a factory.
Reporting for senior management.
Comparison of unit energy costs

between factories.
Maintenance reports, perhaps at a

higher frequency, permitting the
rapid identification of production
problems (major leaks, declining
compressor performance, etc.).
Synthetic reports for senior management. Detailed, frequent reports
for production and/or maintenance
managers.
Note that the Commission has funded several projects, under the "Monitoring
and Target Setting" sub-programme, which lay the technical and organisational
basis for energy accounting systems. Some typical projects, among others, are:
Pilot project for the development and demonstration of Energy Monitoring &
Target Setting in the Meat and Meat Product Industry (SAVE XVII/4.1031/92033, Meat and Livestock Commission). Statistical energy savings and management procedures for monitoring and target setting (M&T) that had been
developed for other high energy using industries was re-shaped to fit meat
companies.
ENERGY MANAGEMENT INTEGRATED IN A DAIRY INDUSTRY (THERMIE
project IN./00097/91, INTERLAC INTERCOOPERATIVE LAITIERE) tested a real

time telemetering system, with 47 measurement points in a dairy.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

59
of Energy Savings
A computerised guide to M&T for accountants (SAVE XVII/4.1031/93-047,

Linden Consulting Partnership) The project developed a computerised knowledge base for generic application in industry and commerce for financial directors and company accountants to provide an interactive training and management information system to enhance the acceptance of M&T systems by
professional accountants.
While these projects lay the groundwork for general energy accounting systems, work remains to be done to treat the specific problems of compressed air
energy accounting.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

5.
61
5. Analysis of Impacts
Analysis of Impacts
The study analysed the impacts of:
technical energy savings measures to improve compressed air system energy efficiency;
EU Commission and Member state actions to encourage market transformation, so that these measures are implemented.
Action for market transformation could be relevant considering that:
compressed air generation accounts for approximately 10 % of the total

electrical energy consumption of industry (Paragraph 1.2);
typically, over a ten year period, the total cost of compressed air includes
75 % energy, 20 % capital, and 5 % maintenance (Paragraph 6);
energy efficiency of compressed air systems is often relatively low; air leaks,
for instance, account for 10 to 20 % of the total air usage.
Various technical measures can produce significant improvements in energy

efficiency, while reducing costs. The efficiency and cost of compressed air generation is controlled by the efficiency of the compressors, but is strongly influenced by several factors including:
compressor configuration and location;

number of compressors used to meet the demand;
individual compressor and overall system control modes;
quality of the inlet air;
quality of the cooling service;
quality of maintenance.
The main technical measures that can improve energy efficiency of compressed
air systems in many installations have been discussed in Task 3, and are summarised in the Table 9.
Table 9:

6. Improved cooling, drying and filtering
1. Improvement of drives: use of high

efficiency motors
7. Overall system design, including multipressure systems
2. Improvement of drives (e. g. speed

control)
8. Reducing frictional pressure losses
3. Upgrading of compressors
9. Optimising certain end use devices
4. Use of sophisticated control systems

5. Recuperating waste heat for use in
other functions
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
10. Reducing air leaks

11. More frequent filter replacement
SAVE
DoE
ECE
62

All the measures are cost-effective in some applications, even if they are characterised by different applicability and gains (see Table 6). A careful selection
of efficient components can help to save energy, but even greater efficiency
opportunities exist within the compressed air system design, implementation
and maintenance.
The entire set of measures, at their maximum application, defines the technoeconomic potential of the project, as defined in Task 3. To make reasonable
predictions, however, different scenarios have been conceived in Task 6. In the
following, reference will be made to the "Awareness Raising Programme" (ARP)
scenario, corresponding to 50 % of the potential energy savings.
Our "analysis of impacts" will be focused on possible macroscopic modification
of the compressed air market (and of linked markets), subsequent to the introduction of new technologies and improved design and maintenance. This
analysis will cover the influence of these measures on the cost structure of market actors involved and on their market strategy.
We have chosen to organise our analysis of impacts of market transformation
by different actors:
users of CAS;
manufacturers of compressors and CAS equipment;
electric utilities;
engineering consultants and compressed air suppliers.
Together with the energy issues, economic and emission issues should be kept
in mind. The former are considered in the paragraphs dedicated to CAS final
users and electric utilities, while the latter are summarised in the paragraph
dedicated to environmental impact.
In this chapter, some acronyms for energetic and economic parameters have
been used. For the readers convenience, the following Table 10 is a brief
summary. Three different values are used for energy costs, since prices vary
among EU countries, even inside a given country.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Table 10:
63
Some acronyms for energetic and economic parameters
The Global Energy Consumption

The Industry Energy Consumption
The CAS Energy Consumption
(GEC)
(IEC)
(CasEC)
= 2200 TWh/year
= 990 TWh/year
=
80 TWh/year13
The Industry Electricity Factor

The Compressed air systems Factor
The Efficiency Gain Factor
The Market Penetration Factor
(IEF)
(CasF)
(EGF)
(MPF)
= IEC / GEC = 45 %
= CasEC / IEC = 10 %
The Energy Savings

The CAS Energy Savings Ratio
The Global Energy Savings Ratio
The Energy Price
(ES)
(CasESR) = ES / CasEC
(GESR) = ES / GEC
(EP)
= 0.04 0.06 0.08 /kWh
(low, medium, high)
The Energy sales of electric utilities

The Fuel consumption
(Ee)
(F)
The Number of Compressors

(NC)
The Number of Compressed air systems (NCas)
The Maintenance Costs
The Operating Costs
The Investment Costs
The Payback Time14
(MC)
(OC)
(IC)
(PB)
= CasEC * EP+MC
= IC / (-OC)
5.1 CAS Final Users

As discussed in Chapter 1, system reliability and air quality are the key issues
for compressed air users. Therefore, in order to make energy efficiency enhancing measures acceptable for users, these measures should improve (or at
least not degrade) system reliability and air quality.
Opportunities for enhancing energy efficiency exist in all three basic areas of
compressed air systems:
13 This figure does not correspond to the CasF cited below. See discussion after Equation 5.1
below.
14 Note that we use simple payback time in this chapters calculations. Given the very short
payback times of measures studied (under 3 years) use of discounted payback would unnecessarily complicate the discussion, without substantially altering the results. (See footnote 6 on payback time, Chapter 3.)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

64
supply (compressors, filters and dryers), where the air is compressed,

treated and delivered to the system;
transmission (pipes, fittings, valves and dedicated storage), to the point-ofuse;
demand, that is the actual use of compressed air.
From the final users point of view, some modifications are expected in the cost
structure:
Increase of capital investment costs, due to the adoption of high efficiency

plants, which will most likely be more expensive than currently used ones;
Operating cost variation:

Decreased energy costs due to energy savings;
Increased maintenance costs, due to increased complexity of new plants,
and to modified maintenance practices (more frequent filter change, leak
detection, ).
Data reported in Chapter 3 defines two important parameters:
The Market Penetration Factor (MPFi), there called "applicability" (the subscript i is referred to the considered action);
The Efficiency Gain Factor (EGFi), there called "gain" (the gain in energy
costs is proportional to gain in efficiency).
Table 11:
Market Penetration Factor and Efficiency Gain Factor

Market
Penetration
Factor (MPF)
Efficiency
Gain
Factor (EGF)
Drives: high efficiency motors
25 %
2%
Drives: Speed Control
25 %
15 %
30 %
7%
20 %
12 %
20 %
20 %
Cooling, drying and filtering
10 %
5%
50 %
9%
50 %
3%
5%
40 %
Reducing air leaks
80 %
20 %
40 %
2%
Action
Moreover, we can define:

The Industry Electricity Factor (IEF), equal to about 45 %
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

65
The Industry Electricity Factor, defined as ratio between electricity consumed by

industry and total electricity consumption, can be estimated observing the electricity fraction of total energy consumed by industry in recent years. In Figure 8,
the industry electricity factor is reported for different countries in 1997. As
shown, the IEF is in the range from 40 to 50 percent for many countries, while it
is remarkably higher than 50 % for Luxembourg15 (61.1 %) and Finland
(54.9 %) and lower than 40 % for Denmark (30.9 %), Great Britain (35.6 %),
Greece (36.9 %) and the US (35.8 %)16.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Au
st
Be ria
lg
D ium
en
m
a
Fi rk
nl
an
Fr d
a
G nce
er
m
an
G y
re
ec
Ire e
la
nd
U
S
Ja
pa
n
0
Lu
xe Ital
m y
N bo
et
he urg
rla
nd
U
P
s
ni
o
te
r
d tug
Ki
a
ng l
do
m
Sp
a
Sw in
ed
en
EU
15
Industry Electricity Factor (%)
In order to estimate the energy savings achievable in compressed air systems

directly from each country electricity consumption, a fixed value of 45 % has
been assumed for the industry electricity factor. Obviously, energy savings
achievable in each country, besides the efficiency gain and market penetration
of technical measures, depend on the absolute value of the electricity consumption in industry. In Figure 9, these absolute values are reported for different countries, comparing the incidence of various sectors (industry, agriculture,
household, commercial buildings). Countries characterised by high electricity
consumption are Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy, all consuming more
than 100 TWh/year of electricity in industry.
Source: IEA, ENEL "Dati statistici sull'energia elettrica in Italia 1997"
Figure 8:
Industry Electricity Factor for EU countries, US and Japan in 1996
15 The high percentage in Luxembourg may be due to the importance of electric steel produc-
tion in that country.

16 The value for the US may be overestimated, due to different criteria for aggregating electric-
ity consumption: in the US, in fact, industry electricity consumption includes also agricultural
electricity consumption.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

66
Electricity consumption (TWh)
500
Commercial buildings
Household
Agriculture
Industry
400
300
200
100
Au
st
B e r ia
lg
D iu m
en
m
a
Fi r k
nl
an
Fr d
a
G nce
er
m
an
G y
re
ec
Ire e
la
nd
Lu
xe Ital
m y
N bo
et
u
he rg
r la
nd
U
ni Po s
te
r
d tug
Ki
a
ng l
do
m
Sp
a
S w in
ed
en
Source: IEA, ENEL "Dati statistici sull'energia elettrica in Italia 1997"
Figure 9:
Electricity Consumption for EU countries in 1996
The Compressed air systems Factor (CasF), defined as ratio between electricity
consumed by compressed air systems and total electricity consumption in industry, is approximately equal to 10 %. As an example, the data collected for
Italy reveal an annual electric energy consumption by compressed air systems
of about 15000 GWh which corresponds to about 11 % of the electric energy
consumption in industry (135000 GWh/year).
The Compressed air system Factor (CasF), equal to about 10 %,
as referred in Chapter 1 (Table 1)
The Global Electricity Consumption (GEC): GEC = 2200 TWh/year
(see Figure 9)
The Compressed air systems Electricity Consumption (CasEC):
(5.1)
CasEC = IEF*CasF*GEC = 99 TWh/year
Thus, according to the data available to the study, 99 TWh appears to be a

likely figure for total CAS energy consumption in Europe. However, in the rest of
this chapter (and in the rest of the study), we will use a somewhat lower value of
80 TWh, in the interest of coherence with other studies, and so as to avoid
overestimating the savings potential.
(5.1a)
CasEC = 80 TWh/year
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

67
Using this set of data, the energy savings subsequent to each of the proposed
actions have been evaluated. In particular:
Energy Savings:
ESi = CasEC*EGFi*MPFi
(5.2)
CAS Energy Savings Ratio:
CasESRi = ESi/CasEC
(5.3)
The results of the calculations are listed in Table 12.

Table 12:
Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for each proposed
measure
Energy
Savings
(ES)
[TWh/year]
Action
CAS Energy
Savings Ratio
(CasESR)
[%]
0.40
0.5
3.00
3.8
1.68
2.1
1.92
2.4
3.20
4.0
0.40
0.5
3.60
4.5
1.20
1.5
1.60
2.0
12.80
16.0
0.64
0.8
Reducing air leaks

To estimate energy savings deriving from the application of all the proposed
actions, it should be considered that the efficiency gain of each measure acts
on the residual CAS energy consumption, after the previous measures have
been undertaken. Therefore, the resultant energy savings will be:
Energy Savings:
ES = GEC*IEF*CAF*(1-i(1-EGFi*MPFi))
(5.4)
CAS Energy Savings Ratio:
(5.5)
CasESR = ES/CasEC
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 13:

68
Energy Savings and CAS Energy Savings Ratio for the actions
globally considered
Market
Penetration
Factor (MPF)
Action
Efficiency
Gain Factor
(EGF)
1-EGF*MPF
[%]
25
99.5
25
15
96.3
30
97.9
20
12
97.6
20
20
96.0
10
99.5
50
95.5
50
98.5
40
98.0
Reducing air leaks
80
20
84.0
40
99.2
67.1 %
ES
26.3 TWh/year
CasESR
32.9 %
The evaluated energy savings will determine a decrease in energy costs EC.
Indicating with EP the energy price for CAS users (in /kWh), for the action
globally considered, it will be:
EC = -EP*ES
(5.6)
In the following table, three values of EC are reported, according to the different hypothesis for price (low, medium, high) considered.17
Table 14:
Reduction of energy costs for the actions globally considered

ES
[TWh/year]
EC [Million /year]
26.3
low EP
-1052
medium EP
-1578
high EP
-2104
17 The energy price varies widely among the European countries and in some cases also de-
pends on the time of the day or the season in which energy is required. Three values, 0.04,
0.06 and 0.08 /kWh, have been proposed here as a starting point for further calculations.
Energy market globalisation could bring a levelling of prices, but paradoxically, also wider
price spreads between customers, as a result of individual companies negotiating their energy prices. In addition, energy service providers often package electricity with other services
(heat, refrigeration, ) making it difficult to determine real electricity prices.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

69
These savings should be compared with the global energy costs for CAS users,
which, in the medium price scenario, is:
(5.7)
EC = EP*CasEC = 4800 Million /year
The application of proposed measures will increase plant complexity and the
frequency of some maintenance tasks. This effect, especially during the first
years, will produce a rise in maintenance costs. The ratio between maintenance
and energy costs in existing plants can be assumed to be equal to about 515 % (Paragraph 6.1.6) for typical CAS systems with low-medium power.
Therefore, estimated maintenance costs are:
(5.8)
MC = 10 %*EC = 480 Million /year
Assuming that maintenance costs rise by about 20 %, their increase can be

evaluated as:18
MC = 20 %*MC = +96 Million /year
(5.9)
The operating cost OC is therefore decreased by a quantity:
OC = EC + MC = 1482 Million /year
(5.10)
For each measure individually considered the decrease in energy costs ECi
will be:
ECi = -EP*ESi
(5.11)
Again, three values of ECi are reported in the following table, according to the
different hypothesis for price considered. Finally, for each action, a decrease in
operating cost is evaluated, assuming the medium value of energy price and
reducing each value by a factor OC/EC = 0.94 calculated from Equation
5.10.
Moreover, to put into practice proposed measures, users would have to increase capital investment in CAS. To evaluate the increment in investment
costs, the payback time (PB) of each action has been estimated. From these
values, it is possible to estimate the global investment costs that European CAS
users should undertake to implement energy savings measures.
18 We have used an estimate for the overall increase in maintenance costs. Of course, some of
the measures would have more impact on maintenance and system complexity than others.
In particular "Reducing air leaks", "More frequent filter changes" or "Waste heat recovery"
could be expected to increase maintenance costs. On the other hand, introduction of adjustable speed drives or sophisticated control systems may decrease the frequency of mechanical failures.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 15:

70
Reduction of operating costs for each proposed measure

EC [Million /year]
Energy
Savings
Action
low EP
[TWh/year]
medium EP
OC
[Million
/year]
high EP
0.40
-16
-24
-32
-23
3.00
-120
-180
-240
-169
1.68
-67
-101
-134
-95
1.92
-77
-115
-154
-108
3.20
-128
-192
-256
-180
0.40
-16
-24
-32
-23
3.60
-144
-216
-288
-203
1.20
-48
-72
-96
-68
1.60
-64
-96
-128
-90
12.80
-512
-768
-1024
-721
0.64
-26
-38
-51
-36
Reducing air leaks

Table 16:
Increment of Investment costs for each proposed measure

Payback Time
OC
[Million /year] (PT) [months]
IC
[Million ]
-23
12
23
-169
127
-95
18
143
-108
54
-180
90
-23
12
-203
18
305
-68
12
68
-90
18
135
-721
361
-36
18
54


Reducing air leaks

IC [Million ]
1370
Finally, from the variations of Energy, Maintenance and Investment costs, a

"global" payback time can be evaluated, assuming the full implementation of all
proposed measures. This is in some way representative of the applicability of
the proposal, roughly defining its economic feasibility.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Table 17:
71
Payback Time, full realisation of techno-economic potential
OC [Million /year]
IC
[Million ]
PB
[Months]
-1482
1370
11
As stated before, these numbers represent the techno-economic potential of the

project. In the moderate "ARP" scenario, these target values are cut in half,
giving the final results detailed below. Obviously, the pay back time is unchanged.
Table 18:
Payback Time, moderate ARP scenario
OC [Million /year]
5.2
-741
IC
[Million ]
685
PB
[Months]
11
Manufacturers of Compressors and CAS Equipment
It is clear that the adoption of technical measures to improve compressed air

systems efficiency has significant effects on manufacturers of compressors and
CAS equipment. However, it is important to observe that many manufacturers
are already investing heavily to fund research, engineering and development for
enhancing their design, testing and manufacturing capabilities. Moreover, some
manufacturers, especially those producing compressors, have recently implemented processes for assessing customer requirements and future marketplace
requirements, in order to respond quickly to market requirements for both products and services.
Manufacturers behaviour towards introduction of new technologies can be
quantitatively evaluated from the data estimated for CAS users in the former
paragraph. CAS users increased investment costs may be seen as possible
increased sales for manufacturers of compressors and CAS equipment.
Given the possibility of increased sales, manufacturers will be strongly motivated to modify their production in order to meet users demand. In any case,
CAS manufacturers already invest significantly in research and development, to
be prepared to meet increasing demand for technologically advanced products.
Defining:
The Number of Compressors in use in Europe:
(5.12)
NC = 321000
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

72
and the Number of Compressed Air Systems19:
(5.13)
Ncas = 107000
On the basis of these estimates, the number of individual enterprise level

measures for each proposed technical measure can be estimated, assuming
that this number is associated with either NC or Ncas, and is directly proportional to the Market Penetration Factor, which identifies the applicability of each
action.
Table 19:
Number of company-level measures for each proposed energy

savings measure
Number of actions
Market Penetration Factor

(MPF)
NC
NCas
321000
107000
25 %
80250
25 %
30 %
20 %
21400
20 %
21400
10 %
10700
50 %
53500
50 %
53500
5%
5350
Reducing air leaks
80 %
85600
40 %
42800
Action
26750
96300
Note that while some measures might be rapidly implemented (in particular leak
detection and optimal filter replacement) others measures would most likely be
spread over the approximately 15 year life cycle of major system components.
Globally, the introduction of new technologies for enhancing energy efficiency
will produce a series of modifications on the market of compressors and CAS
equipment:
Modifications on production activity:
new components;
improvement of existing components;
19 This number can be evaluated by a ratio giving the mean number of compressors in use for
each CAS user. From data developed by the study regarding some of the most important
sectors for CAS users (producers of paper, cement, mineral water, glass, steel products,
etc.), it can be estimated the average CAS has about 3 compressors. It is obviously an average value, this ratio being dependent on the size of the enterprise and its main products.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

73
improvement of control systems;

improvement in CAS design;
Remarkable modifications of existing manufacturing practice:
increased employment opportunities;

increased production opportunities;
increased after-market.
For actions requiring new/upgraded component purchasing, an estimate of annual sales volume can be made, assuming a 15 year life cycle. The results are
reported in the following table.
Table 20:
Estimated annual sales of new / upgraded components

Item
Annual sale
High efficiency motors
5350
Speed Controls
1783
Upgraded compressor
6420
1427
Waste heat recoverators
1427
Coolers, dryers, and filters
5.3
713
Electric Utilities
Energy savings in compressed air systems produce effects on electric utilities,

which can be significant locally, but are of limited impact on the global electricity
network.
The energy savings deriving from the adoption of a single action (ESi) or of all
technical measures (ES) have been already estimated. From the point of view
of the electricity producers, this will determine a decrement in energy sales.
This can be quantified by the variation of energy sales:
Ee = EC,
(5.14)
equal to cost decrement for CAS users.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 21:

74
Reduction of energy sales for electric utilities due to each of the

proposed actions (medium price scenario)
Energy
Savings (ES)
[TWh/year]
Action
Ee
[Million/year]
0.40
-24
3.00
-180
1.68
-101
1.92
-115
3.20
-192
0.40
-24
3.60
-216
1.20
-72
1.60
-96
12.80
-768
0.64
-38
Reducing air leaks

Table 22:
Reduction of energy sales for electric utilities due to the actions

globally considered (medium price scenario)
ES
[TWh/year]
Ee
[Million /year]
26.3
-1578
Reduced electricity production will generate a saving in fuel consumption:20
F=ES/(* LHV)
(5.15)
where is the net electric conversion efficiency and LHV is the low heating
value. Assuming a mean value for equal to 39 % and considering methane as
primary fuel (LHV=50 MJ/kg), a fuel consumption reduction of about 4.9
Mtons/year has been estimated. Hence, significant reductions of pollutant emissions are expected.
Table 23:
Fuel savings
ES
[TWh/year]
[Mtons/year]
26.3
4.9
20 For (efficiency in energy production) a mean value of 39 % has been assumed. For Hu
(Lower Heating Value), it has been assumed to burn methane (Hu = 50 MJ/kg).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

75
It should be noted that, since influence of CAS on total energy consumption

(GEC) is low (equal to CasEC/GEC = IEF*CAF = 4.5 %), the influence of the
proposed actions on the cost structure of electric utilities would be even lower21.
What has been said can be quantified by the Global Energy Savings Ratio,
which evaluates the ratio between energy savings and global energy consumption:
for each of the proposed measures

GESRi = ESi/GEC
(5.16)
for the action globally considered

GESR = ES/GEC
(5.17)
Table 24:
Global Energy Savings Ratio for each proposed measure

Energy
Savings (ES)
[TWh/year]
Global Energy
Savings Ratio
(GESR)
0.40
0.02 %
3.00
0.14 %
1.68
0.08 %
1.92
0.09 %
3.20
0.15 %
Cooling. drying and filtering
0.40
0.02 %
3.60
0.16 %
1.20
0.05 %
1.60
0.07 %
12.80
0.58 %
0.64
0.03 %
Action
Reducing air leaks

Table 25:
Global Energy Savings Ratio for the action globally considered

ES
[TWh/year]
GESR
26.3
1.2 %
In the moderate scenario, applying the usual one-half ratio, the following results
are obtained:
21 We have not considered possible avoided investment costs for new electricity generation
facilities.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 26:
Energy and Fuel Savings for the moderate scenario

ES
[TWh/year]
Ee
[Million /year]
-789
[Mtons/year]
-2.5
GESR
5.4

76
13.15
0.6 %
Engineering Consultants and Compressed Air

Suppliers
The adoption of technical measures proposed in Chapter 3 requires the definition of the strategies to be used, which are strictly related to the particular characteristics of the enterprise involved and its CAS services. According to results
shown in Paragraph 1.3.1, which reveal a limited interest of managers to spend
their time on improving energy efficiency, the required analysis is likely to be
delegated to external sources, including manufacturers, distributors and consultants. Hence, the adoption of saving actions could greatly stimulate the market for engineering expertise. However, all parties must be kept up-to-date with
a specific training oriented towards the new energy savings technologies. The
development of the external sources market, therefore, should receive public
incentives, such as training through institutional structures.
Enterprises that produce high efficiency CAS can be expected to implement
processes for assessing customer and future market requirements, in order to
respond quickly to market requirements for both products and services. They
will also require training for personnel employed in this task. A similar trend will
involve all the activities of extraordinary maintenance of CAS equipment. As
mentioned above in Chapter 1, (market analysis), maintenance is often outsourced to enterprises specialised in this function or to CAS producers.
In general, the adoption of new technologies for enhancing the energy efficiency
will produce the following modifications, which involve the market for both design consultants and maintenance services:
increased design costs (new software, new design techniques, optimisation

tools, etc.);
enhanced knowledge required;
new opportunities;
training activities;
support for decision making.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

77
As for compressed air service suppliers, their importance is variable between

different European countries22. Data does not exist for a European wide quantitative analysis of outsourcing. Nevertheless, interviews with the main outsource suppliers indicate that potential energy savings is one of their main selling points. Interviews with companies that have chosen to outsource confirm
that controlling energy costs is one of the main decision criteria in favour of
outsourcing. Increased user awareness of the potential for energy savings could
thus be expected to expand the market for compressed air outsourcing.
5.5
Environmental Impact
The adoption of the proposed technical measures, enhancing the energy efficiency of CAS, will produce a decrease in their environmental impact. In fact,
the energy savings (ES) allow for reducing the fuel consumption and related
pollutant emissions.
Given the context of recent international agreements (Kyoto protocol), the reduction of CO2 emissions has become a public policy priority. CO2 production
from a power plant depends on the primary fuel employed and on the energy
conversion efficiency. Assuming an average power plant efficiency g = 0.39,
the following specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.) can be calculated:
s.f.c. = 220 grams / kWh for oil fired plants
s.f.c. = 180 grams / kWh for natural gas fired plants
s.f.c. = 370 grams / kWh for coal fired plants.
Considering an average composition for each fuel, the above reported figures
can be translated into CO2 emissions as follows:
720 grams CO2 / kWh for oil fired plants
515 grams CO2 / kWh for natural gas fired plants
890 grams CO2 / kWh for coal fired plants.
Given the large spread in the specific emission among fuels, the reduction of
CO2 emissions will vary between countries. Moreover, the fraction of electricity
produced in power plants without combustion (hydroelectric, nuclear, geothermal, renewable sources) varies.
In Table 27, the electricity production in 1997 is reported for various countries,
distinguishing different energy sources.
22 For instance, compressed air outsourcing is developing rapidly in France, but is rare in the
United Kingdom.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 27:

78
Electricity production in 1997 for various countries

Hydro
Nuclear
[TWh]
Geothermal
[TWh]
2657.3
Europe
[TWh]
Fossil
fuels
[TWh]
[TWh]
Fossil
fuels
[%]
42.8
2392.7
9002.1
14094.9
63.9
789.7
4.8
1115.2
2443.4
4389.0
55.7
EU 15
323.6
4.3
861.0
1224.3
2413.1
50.7
Austria
37.3
19.5
56.8
34.3
Belgium
1.3
47.4
30.2
78.9
38.3
Denmark
1.2
40.5
41.7
97.1
Finland
11.9
20.9
33.1
65.9
50.2
France
68.1
395.5
42.2
505.7
8.3
Germany
26.3
0.3
170.4
352.5
549.5
64.1
Greece
4.1
39.4
43.5
90.6
Ireland
1.0
19.2
20.2
95.0
46.7
3.9
200.9
251.5
79.9
Luxembourg
0.9
0.3
1.3
23.1
Netherlands
0.5
3.1
82.5
86.1
95.8
13.2
0.1
20.9
34.2
61.1
6.1
98.1
241.1
345.3
69.8
Spain
36.1
55.3
92.4
183.9
50.2
Sweden
68.8
70.2
9.7
148.7
6.5
363.6
17.3
666.4
2761.2
3808.4
72.5
Country
World
Italy
Portugal
United Kingdom
US
Total
Source: ENERDATA, ENEL "Dati statistici sullenergia elettrica in Italia 1997"
It is evident that the reduction of CO2 emissions will be high in countries where
the fraction of electricity produced from fossil fuel power plants is high (Greece,
Italy, Denmark, etc.). Conversely, it can be fairly low in countries where electricity is mainly produced through hydro or nuclear sources (Sweden, France, Luxembourg, etc.). Moreover, the possibilities for reducing CO2 emissions with energy savings actions are strictly related to the mix of fossil fuels (coal, natural
gas, oil) used for the thermoelectric power generation, as well as to the mean
energy conversion efficiency. In the following table, the resulting specific CO2
emissions are reported, with reference to the thermoelectric power generation
(case 1) and to the total electricity production (case 2).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Table 28:
79
Specific CO2 emissions
Country
CO2 emissions related to

thermoelectric
total electricity
power generation
production
[grams/kWh]
World
957
611
1045
582
EU 15
801
406
Austria
541
186
Belgium
755
289
Denmark
957
928
Finland
893
449
France
700
58
Germany
932
598
Greece
952
862
Ireland
677
643
Italy
656
524
Luxembourg
Netherlands
652
624
Portugal
695
425
United Kingdom
745
520
Spain
868
436
1051
69
939
681
Europe
Sweden
US
Source: ENERDATA, ENEL "Dati statistici sullenergia elettrica in Italia 1997"
It can be readily observed that in the European Union, the specific CO2 emission is rather low, when compared to the European continent as a whole, or
when compared to the whole world or the US. However, inside the Union there
are countries, like Denmark or Greece, where specific emissions are very high,
and therefore any energy savings is highly appealing from the environmental
point of view.
In any case, the absolute values of the CO2 emissions avoided by the previously described interventions are worth examining, in light of the variations between countries. However, for an overall estimate, it appears significant to
evaluate the reduction of CO2 emissions for each energy savings action and the
mean EU value for the specific CO2 emission referred to the total electricity
generation. In Table 29, considering a specific CO2 emission of 406 grams/
kWh, we show the decrease for the 11 measures.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Table 29:

80
Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction for each of the proposed actions
Energy
Savings (ES)
[TWh/year]
Action
CO2 emission
reduction
[Mtons/year]
0.40
0.16
3.00
1.22
1.68
0.68
1.92
0.78
3.20
1.30
Cooling, drying, and filtering
0.40
0.16
3.60
1.46
1.20
0.49
1.60
0.65
12.80
5.20
0.64
0.26
Reducing air leaks

In the ARP moderate scenario, these data are reduced by one half and the
energy savings will be 13.5 TWh/year and a related emission saving of 5.3
Mtons/year (Table 30).
Table 30:
ADEME
Energy savings and CO2 emission reduction in the moderate scenario

Energy Savings (ES)
CO2 emission reduction
13.5 TWh/year
5.3 Mtons/year
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

6.
81
6. Actions to Promote Energy

Efficient Compressed Air Systems
Actions to Promote Energy Efficient Compressed

Air Systems
The basic conclusions of the data collection tasks can be summarised in the
following manner: a large economic and technical potential exists for energy
savings in compressed air systems, estimated at 32.9 % of their current electricity consumption. While the technical measures needed are considered to be
more profitable than many other industrial investments, these measures are not
carried out by private enterprises, for reasons which are essentially organisational:
Motor system electricity consumption is "invisible" to top management, since

it is most often a relatively small cost item for any company.
Electricity consumption in general, and motor system consumption in particular, is usually treated as a general overhead item in company analytical
accounting schemes. Thus reducing this cost item is not the responsibility of
any particular manager.
Measures to optimise the cost of equipment purchases, such as competitive

bidding procedures, rarely take into account long term operating costs including electricity consumption. Thus these cost cutting practices can be
counterproductive in terms of reducing life cycle costs for electricity. This is
particularly true since the optimal systems according to the electricity consumption criterion often require higher initial investment. Thus they are not
even proposed by suppliers in competitive bidding procedures.
Responsibility for potential optimisation measures is largely diffused among

several management functions: Production, Maintenance, Purchasing, Finance. It is difficult to get high level management agreement, cutting across
departmental responsibilities, on a low priority item such as electricity consumption.
Since the barriers to the energy efficiency measures are essentially organisational, the solutions must also be organisational. The objective must be to convince high level management to make the decisions necessary to carry out energy efficiency programmes. Experience in national programmes shows that in
companies where this has been done, the results are often outstanding, and
management retrospectively is happy with the decision.
In Chapter 6.1, 14 different actions will be described, which will help to exploit
the existing savings potentials in CAS. These 14 actions where derived from
intensive discussions of the study group, taking into account the view from outside people who are actively working in the compressed air business. To facilitate the reading and understanding of the proposed actions, each action will be
evaluated in a standardised table after a short description of each action. The
criteria for the evaluation used are "cost", "implementation time" and the "covered potential". The cost criteria gives an estimate of the expected cost which
would be born by the Commission or national institutions. The criteria 'implementation time' gives an indication of the time which is necessary to get the ac-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

82

tion started and is important to set up a complete programme. Some actions

can be prepared in a short time and thus will permit quick initial results. Other
actions, which require intensive preparation and discussion, will influence the
energy consumption of CAS only in the medium or long term. The criteria 'covered potential' gives an indication of the share of the total savings potential
which might be reached through each action. An action with very good performance will have low cost, the implementation time will be short and the covered
potential will be high. For a better understanding of the tables it should be
noted, that the different actions are not independent in their results, therefore
the potential covered by a set of two actions may be even larger than the sum
of the potentials of these two actions.
The proposed actions are grouped into two distinct programmes. The "Awareness Raising Programme" (ARP) is linked to the experience, that the best
results can be achieved if all actors involved work together to achieve the feasible reduction of energy consumption in CAS and the related reduction of CO2
emissions. However, if action through consensus proves to be impossible, public authorities might consider resorting to other actions, such as an "Economic
and Regulatory Programme" (ERP) containing mandatory actions. These
programmes are described in Paragraph 6.2.
6.1
Actions
6.1.1
Advertising Campaign
Analysis of the energy savings potentials in Chapter 3 and the organisational

aspects of energy savings in Chapter 4 has revealed that large cost-effective
savings potentials exist for most compressed air users, but the responsibility for
different aspects of the compressed air system is often spread over different
levels of management. Often, key persons are not even aware of the large costeffective savings potential which lies in their compressed air system. Thus public actions aimed at encouraging specific technical measures to exploit the savings potential are pointless, since these actions are not even considered by
management.
Therefore, as a first step, management must be encouraged to examine and
think about their compressed air system. At this level, information about possible saving options need not be too detailed: as a starting point, an advertising
campaign could create an initial awareness of the savings potential in compressed air systems. The contents should inform that a savings potential exists
rather than how and how much energy can be saved.
This campaign could be started by the Commission and include the cooperation of manufacturers, associations and national institutions. Information
should be concise and easy to remember: "How is your compressor today?"
The channels could be any medium which touches management: journals,
meetings, fairs, internet. An additional channel could be the involvement of
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

83

trade organisations. Once this campaign has started and begins to take effect,
more detailed information might have a better chance to reach the targeted
audience. The campaign should be simple, and should be limited to non technical information. Therefore the cost for preparation should be low. In order to
avoid unnecessarily high costs, we would recommend cheap media such as a
WEB site, an email or fax campaign, or flyers and news flashes in newspapers
and technical papers.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.2
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Technology Demonstration
Pilot actions are aimed at only a small proportion of the target group. However,
the results can be used to gain more insight into the handling of compressed air
systems and to orient more detailed research. Pilot actions are also used to
demonstrate "theory" on energy savings in a practical way, comprehensible to
other compressed air system users.
Various programmes already support demonstration actions for energy-efficient
measures and technologies, often including actions targeted at efficient compressed air production and distribution. Examples are the Best Practise programmes in the United Kingdom or the international Centre for the Analysis and
Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies (CADDET)23. The EU is
member of the CADDET team and thus initiatives for further projects might be
supported within the framework of this programme.
Innovative concepts which might be supported include
gas turbine driven compressors;

new tube connections for reducing leakage and pressure losses;
new concepts for air drying;
gas expansion motor or gas expansion turbine driven compressors;
automatic leak detection systems.
The promotion potential of these concepts needs to be evaluated on a deeper

technical level. In general, demonstration projects should address market deficiencies and generate technical information aimed at new technologies. Results
should be disseminated to a broad public, e. g. through publications in journals
and newspapers, brochures and posters, and the internet. The costs and implementation efforts very much depend on the demonstration objective, but can
be considerable and time-consuming. However, demonstration links manufacturers to end-users and gives them some feedback about end-users needs, and
furthermore, demonstration can push new, efficient technologies considerably.
23 http://www.caddet-ee.org/
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.3

84
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Measuring Campaign
A general and major obstacle when introducing energy efficiency is that users
are often not willing or capable of relating general information or measures to
the specific situation in their own company. If they get a cheap and concise
overview of their own situation, it is much easier for them to consider and adapt
savings measures. Thus, a pilot action to overcome this barrier would be a
measurement campaign to give compressed air system users a short description of their savings potential.
The procedure for measurement, including the analysis of the energy and air
consumption in a company might be as follows. Compressed air system users
could apply for support for the measurement expense (e. g. 50 %). The applications would be filed at a national institution24, which would arrange the necessary support. The institution would also be responsible for public relations and
dissemination of results. In addition, the institution would collect statements of
interest from metering institutions and distribute a list to compressed air system
users. The support would be conditioned by an agreement to publicly report on
the results in public (anonymously or as an advertisement for the involved partners).
As a starting point, the measuring campaign could involve a few pre-selected
member countries of the EU. Assuming that a good analysis for one company
costs about 5 000 Euro of which 50 % would be financed through support from
the Commission, the investigation of 3 000 companies would cost 7.5 million
Euro to be financed by the EU. Of course, the actual cost of each individual
system analysis depends on system size and complexity, and would in some
cases cost less or more than 5 000 Euro.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.4
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Contests and Awards
The awarding of prizes is a way to honour the efforts of manufacturers, users or

other involved organisations to improve the efficient applications of compressed
air systems. The bigger and more far-reaching side effect of awards is the pub-
24 The EnR agencies of several European countries already administer similar programmes.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

85

lic attention gained during the contest procedure, from press releases and from
the use of the award name and logo for publicity campaigns.
Existing awards are targeted on both users and equipment manufacturers. The
US ENERGY STAR awards can serve as an example for a successfully organised contest where both manufactures and retailers are rewarded. The awards
should "honour organisations that have made notable contributions to energy
efficiency [...]. These awards acknowledge superior technical accomplishment,
public education, implementation, and promotional efforts to realise and raise
consumer awareness of the benefits of ENERGY STAR-labelled products that
result in substantial energy and cost savings and a cleaner environment."25
The analysis of the savings potential in Chapter 3 has shown that the most important benefits can be gained from improved system design rather than from
improving the individual components. Thus, in contrast to existing awards like
the Energy Star award, a compressed air system award should not only include
the improvement of equipment but should be concentrated on the system interactions. For a suitable award, the study group has derived two possible approaches:
Award for the best system design corresponding to the definition of a theoretical user's needs
Awarding the design of existing and implemented systems
Both approaches focus on proper system design, yet the contest realisation and
the target groups are quite different. The approaches are explained in more
detail below.
6.1.4.1
Award for System Design
Awards for energy or environmental efficient products often lack the possibility
to compare the different submitted examples. The comparison of different compressed air systems is equally difficult, as the systems can vary in size, equipment, required air quality etc. Setting up appropriate criteria for "efficiency"
might thus prove difficult. A possible approach to overcome this problem might
use "standardised" conditions of entry.
The call for tenders would consist of a fictitious example of a system with specific requirements for the produced air: pressure, quality, quantity, load curves.
Participants should deliver solutions which fulfil these needs with less energy
consumption. The assessment of solutions might also take into account environmental and economic aspects.
By linking the contest with the requirements of an existing company or a system
which needs to be replaced or newly built, the contest could serve as sort of a
25 Energy Star Award Rules and Instructions: Year 2000. More and continuously updated in-
formation under www.epa.gov/energystar/
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


86
public bidding process and the winning of the award might be linked with the
possibility to realise the proposed system.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.4.2
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Design Award for Installed Systems
A second (parallel) prize could award real system solutions which have been or
are about to be implemented in companies. In this case, the criteria would be
less explicit and the comparison of the filed applications less straightforward.
While, for the first approach, the certification of the function of the workability
and chances for realisation must be carefully considered, in the second approach, the impact on energy consumption of applications would be easy to
prove. The applicants in the first case would be manufacturers (who in most
cases already co-operate with each other, e. g. compressor and dryer and filter
manufacturers) or possibly independent consulting engineers. In the second
approach distributors or compressed air system users are the target group. In
both cases the awards could be rewarded on national and EU level.
As in the first approach, the costs of such a contest would mainly consist of
public relations costs and the prizes for the contest. Again, the benefit of
awarding seems to be rather low as only projects are awarded which would
have been realised anyway. However, the major benefit lies in the broad dissemination of the awarded examples.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
It should be recognised, that the definition of an agreed set of decision criteria

for either award might be difficult to obtain and will therefore require some time
for preparation.
6.1.5
Dissemination of Information, Training, and Education
The examination of the organisational barriers has shown that responsibility for
different aspects of the compressed air system is often widely spread within
business organisations. Thus, information tools and training courses need to
address all company levels, from engineering and maintenance staff to management, as well as multipliers like service providers and compressed air system distributors.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

87

Raising awareness of energy savings through information and training tools is a

common and widespread measure. Several approaches to disseminate information to different target groups are used and should be further promoted. They
include
Publications: Different kind of publications like leaflets brochures, handbooks, journals and software are issued and distributed by manufacturers,
trade associations, distributors, energy agencies, etc.
Seminars and Training Courses: comprehensive seminars are carried out

by manufacturers, trade associations and government agencies and address
mainly engineering and maintenance staff.
Energy audits: Detailed energy analyses are provided by some manufacturers and service providers when new investments in the compressed air system are planned.
Education: The complete design and implementation of efficient compressed

air systems is currently only a side topic in the education of engineers and
technicians.
Shortcomings of these information and training devices are not the accessibility
but the focussing to the specific needs of the target groups. The interests, the
information network and the reception may differ largely and differences in education, culture, sector membership, size of the company and/or the size of compressed air system should be carefully taken into account when spreading information. For instance, material for maintenance staff should be available in
their mother language whereas information for managers might be usable in
English. Managers usually have access to the internet, e-mail and CD-ROM use
whereas the maintenance staff on the shop floor may not. Information must be
specific to an industry: compressed air needs are, for instance, very different in
the food sector and in glass production.
One way to obtain better dissemination of suitable information to relevant target
groups could be by collecting and grouping all kinds of information in an "information pool" which is accessible to information agents as well as users. Most
information today is available in an electronic form, thus the Internet as a platform open to the general public might be a suitable tool to realise the pool.
Practise examples as well as training material should be offered, and the material should be indexed according to its target groups.
The Commission's EuroDEEM database could serve as an information dissemination tool. It would be possible to include in EuroDEEM modules on the performance and benchmarking of CAS, on good/best practices, on system design
and component selection, etc. EuroDEEM could also serve as an entry point to
a distributed information service, with pointers to information tools maintained,
for instance, by European Energy Agencies or by manufacturers.
Similar considerations can be applied to training seminars and training material.
Seminars represent significant effort and expense, both for those who offer and
those who attend the seminar. The participants can contribute to the seminar
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


88
with their experience and their own specific problems. Nevertheless, most
seminars provide theoretical knowledge. A link to the practise which is important
for many people to absorb knowledge could be achieved if the seminars were
combined with on-site tours. Seminars could take place at the site of a compressed air system user, where more efficient compressed air system use could
be demonstrated in practise (provided that there are enough persons in the
factory interested in attending the seminar, or the factory management is willing
to open their doors to outsiders).
Last but not least, careful design and maintain of compressed air systems
should be part of the basic education of technicians and engineers.
Good quality information and training material is available. Further efforts should focus on favouring more widespread use,
and better fit between information and targeted groups. Integration of information tools with demonstration and pilot actions
would be advantageous.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.6
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Life Cycle Costing
Life cycle costing (LCC) methods are one of the basic tools which link purchasing decisions to their long term impact on energy consumption. LCC facilitates
"Challenge" type programmes, in that it allows management to demonstrate that
environmentally optimal decisions are also economically optimal.
As noted earlier, many companies are not aware of costs related to the compressed air system. LCC is a concept that makes the cost of a product visible
over its whole lifetime. In a pure sense, LCC is the assessment of all costs that
are caused by the existence of a specific product. However, for compressed air
systems, three main cost factors should be considered:
Investment Costs: The purchase price of the components of the compressed air system and the cost of their installation.
Maintenance Costs: They include replacements for wear, consumption of

oil, filters and other spare parts. They should also include the labour cost for
the maintenance staff. Maintenance costs are mostly difficult to assess as
they are usually not accounted for separately from the compressed air system.
Energy Costs: Energy Costs are the sum of the yearly electricity costs for
running the compressed air system over the whole lifetime. Energy costs include the consumption of the compressor drive, and also associated services
such as cooling and ventilation. The energy costs can be calculated with the
following formula:
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


89
Lifetime Motor Power
Motor Efficiency Operating Hours pa Load Factor Energy Price (1 + Rise in Prices pa )t
t =1
This formula is however a simplification, as it does not take into account factors
such as the complex load profiles that have to be satisfied by the CAS. While
this simplification may influence the final result of the calculation, the results
should be sufficiently accurate in most cases.
For the calculation of the life cycle costs, a range of parameters can be varied:
share of maintenance cost (on a basis of annual energy cost or on the basis of
initial investment), motor efficiency, operating hours, energy price, rise in energy
price, lifetime, share of idle, part and full-load times. The list makes clear that
results from LCC can only serve as an example for typical compressed air system applications, although they all will show the large importance of the energy
costs (typically 75 % and more of the total costs). The two examples presented
below, for compressors of 15 and 160 kW, represent typical values for CAS (cf.
Chapter 2). The assumptions for the calculations are included in the Figure 10.
The investment costs are based on actual catalogue prices. It should be kept in
mind, that catalogue prices normally represent an upper value for the purchase
price.
Life Cycle Costing - Variation of Power
Operating hours: 4000 h
Power: 15 kW
Lifetime: 15a
Power: 160 kW
15%
(64 k)
21%
(9 k)
- Investment costs:
list price
- Maintenance costs:
5 % of inv. costs pa.;
6%
- Energy costs:
(24 k) motor eff. = 90 %;
load factor = 1;
el. price = 0.06 /kWh;
rise in prices = 0
8%
(4 k)
71%
(31 k)
- Interest rate = 10%
79%
(332 k)
Investment Costs
Maintenance Costs
Energy Costs
Figure 10: LCC for two different sizes of compressors, indicating the significance of energy consumption
Depending on the average electricity price, the share of energy costs in the total
life cycle costs may vary considerably. However the calculations presented in
Figure 11 show, that even for very low electricity prices the energy costs remain the dominant factor of the life cycle costs.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


90
Variation of the Electricity Price

Power 15 kW; Operating hours 4000 h; Lifetime 15a
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
(- 33 %)
0.04 /kWh
base case
0.06 /kWh
(+ 33 %)
0.08 /kWh
(+ 67 %)
0.1 /kWh
(+ 100 %)
0.12 /kWh
Electricity Price
Energy Costs
Maintenance Costs
Investment Costs
Figure 11: LCC of a compressor with variation of electricity prices
Compressed air system users could link the findings of LCC sample calculations with their own specific investment decisions if they have a suitable computer software tool at hand to calculate the LCC with their specific parameters.
This could be done with the help of a software tool which provides the calculation scheme. The input would be plant specific parameters or if the user is not
aware of any specific details pre-defined, typical parameters. The result will
be an individual LCC calculation in a graphical form.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.7
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Labelling and Certification
Appropriate, reliable product information is an essential component of efforts to

help users make optimal choices in the design, purchase and operation of CAS.
Product labelling on energy performance is a way to inform prospective buyers
of the relative quality of competing products. Experience has shown that product information can have a powerful influence on consumer choice, and consequently on the type of products which manufacturers put on the market.
Labelling of CAS, like other labelling, poses some difficulties since individually
marketed components are integrated into complex systems, operating under a
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

91

variety of specific environments. Their energy performance depends on correct

system design, on proper installation, on interaction with other components and
end use devices, and on correct maintenance. For labelling, two types of approaches could be considered:
Energy labelling for individual system components

Energy performance labelling or certification for entire systems.
What is common to these approaches is the identification of adequate product

information. Nevertheless, in practice, these two approaches would be very different in nature. Therefore, they will be treated separately in the following paragraphs.
Furthermore, we consider comparative testing (as described below) to be a first
step towards labelling, that can be implemented alone with positive and pertinent results.
6.1.7.1
Energy Labelling for Individual System Components
With respect to CAS, appropriate product information on system components

would be an essential element of any programme which aims to transform the
market towards better energy (and economic) efficiency. This information would
permit users, system designers and installers to best build CAS which meet
user needs in the most efficient manner. In order to fulfil this role, product information must be:
detailed enough to permit informed choice in a variety of operating conditions and with different system design constraints;
sufficiently accurate to permit the identification of the best product for a particular application;
cost effective, that is to say, the cost of producing product information

should be reasonable, in comparison with the economic consequences of the
choice;
fair and verifiable, so as to assure a level playing field between competing

manufacturers. The test protocol should permit objective judgements, in the
case of disagreement between user and supplier over the performance and
efficiency of the CAS system.
A product information system should consist of the following elements:
a definition of the scope of a particular product description;
a definition of the pertinent information which must be given to users;
a test protocol, which if applied correctly to a given product, develops the

necessary information;
the presentation mode for the information. This often takes the form of a label
which is physically affixed to the product.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


92
Furthermore, the cost effectiveness of labelling must be taken into account in

establishing priorities for future public action. As explained in Chapter 3, over
of the potential energy savings in CAS would come from proper system design
and optimal maintenance procedures. Replacing systems components with
functionally identical products with better performance accounts for of the
potential savings.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
The study team investigated an approach to product information, which would

start by gaining experience with comparative testing, as described in the following paragraphs. Such a voluntary testing programme could contribute to elucidating, and perhaps resolving, the technical problems associated with the medium term objective of providing appropriate product information.
The following paragraphs describe a voluntary testing programme, as a possible option to meet the challenge of creating a useful and workable product information system for individual CAS components.
6.1.7.1.1 Comparative Testing
The study team investigated the possibility of inciting test laboratories to perform comparative testing of CAS components.
Under this approach, laboratories, in co-operation with the most important
stakeholders (users, manufacturers, system designers) would identify those
areas where:
comparative testing could be most useful, since user demand for information
already exists, or can be expected to develop rapidly;
technical problems could be resolved in a satisfactory manner;
the cost of obtaining and publishing product information would be reasonable.
Such a testing programme might be carried out through a co-operative effort
among member states. National institutions (for instance, the members of the
EnR network) could divide up the effort, with each country taking on the responsibility for a subset of an agreed upon list of components.
In order for such a comparative testing programme to be useful, several difficulties would have to be overcome.
Who pays? In the medium term, such product testing might become a self
supporting activity. As users become more aware of energy savings in CAS,
they might be willing to pay for the relevant information (for instance through
trade associations). At the same time, manufacturers might be willing to pay
to have their products tested, so that they appear in those test result publications which will have demonstrated their usefulness to users. Nevertheless,
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

93

in the short term, it would be essential that public authorities (the Commission and member states) "prime the pump" by financing test programmes.
Possible high cost. The cost for carrying out reliable and fair tests would be
very variable for different types of equipment. For certain pieces of equipment (for example large compressors) purchase, transportation and installation can be very costly. For a machine that might be produced in limited series, or even custom built, the cost of testing could not be spread over many
machines, and might be a prohibitively high proportion of the value of the
machine. Laboratory testing would be best fitted for small components produced in large series. For large, limited volume items, perhaps testing could
be done at the factory, in co-operation with a laboratory, or with buyers.
Test conditions. As described above, to be useful, tests would have to
simulate actual operating conditions. For certain types of equipment, a very
large variety of operating conditions would have to be simulated, perhaps
through the use of standardised test cycles (similar to the city/highway protocols for cars).
Expertise. Today, few laboratories are capable of performing comparative
tests on CAS components. To establish laboratories of this nature and familiarise them with the testing procedure required could be a long and expensive process.
6.1.7.1.2 Labelling of Individual System Components
Developing adequate product information systems for CAS components necessitates defining useful categories of products, and the scope of product information, so as to permit users to compare competing products, and to find appropriate responses to the questions raised in creating energy efficient systems.
The pertinent data for the comparison of the energy consumption is the "specific
consumption", expressed in kWh per m3. ISO reference conditions specify
measurement at 20C and 0 %RH (relative humidity).
Meeting variable needs for compressed air
A large portion of CAS must meet varying needs for air. Characterisation of a variable load is of course much more difficult than for a
constant load. The test process for machines and control systems
designed for variable loads necessitates the definition of a limited
number of test protocols, which should be representative of a majority of real systems. The method is similar to the definition of highway
and city driving modes for the testing of automobile fuel consumption.
Recent research has made progress in the definition of standard
variable load profiles, that could be used in testing26.
26 Grant, A.; "Changing attitudes in compressed air usage through developments in variable
speed drives"; in Compressors and their Systems, IMechE Conference Transactions; Professional Engineering Publishing Ltd; London; 1999.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

94

6.1.7.1.3 From Comparative Testing to Labelling
A pragmatic, "bottom up", approach to product labelling might be to initiate the

above described comparative testing programme, and to use the experience
gained to define elements of voluntary or mandatory product labelling.
The voluntary product testing phase would allow testing laboratories to try out
different test protocols, and to evaluate the usefulness of their results for
equipment users. Users and manufacturers would have the opportunity to suggest elements for the definition of test protocols. In this way, over time, a consensus might develop between laboratories, users and manufacturers on the
usefulness of a particular test protocol and the resulting production information.
Once this consensus is achieved, test protocols might become ISO standards,
and corresponding labels could be adopted by the EU as voluntary or mandatory product information.
The study team has concluded that a "bottom up" approach is
the most promising option for developing product information for
CAS components. In a preliminary phase, the Commission and
member states could encourage and finance comparative testing. Experience gained could lead to a consensus on pertinent
test protocols and labels.
6.1.7.1.4 Short Term Opportunities for Labelling
The study group identified two areas where product labelling could be implemented in the short term at a reasonable cost, and where it might prove useful:
Labelling similar to current European labelling programmes for consumer

goods, with a simple A to G quality scale, might be applicable to small compressors (under 10 kW) which are sold as stand alone tools. The study did
not further investigate this possibility, because these machines are outside of
the scope of the study (focused on medium size, 10 to 300 kW machines),
but also because these machines usually operate a small number of hours
per year, and the total energy savings potential appears to be small.
For compressors sold with motors covered by existing European motor labelling agreements, the efficiency class of the motor should appear on the compressor nameplate and in catalogue information. In addition, efficiency at full
load and at three-quarter load could be quoted in the catalogue. This could
create an "Intel inside" effect ("eff 1 motor inside").
6.1.7.2
Labelling for a Programme of Rational Use of Energy
Performance or quality labelling of entire systems is a different (although complementary) approach to pertinent product information for CAS.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

95

In the quality approach, a label might, for instance, certify that the system had
been designed in accordance with good engineering practices, which takes into
account long term energy consumption. Some elements of LCC could be integrated into the requirements for a quality label. In order to cover system operation, which accounts for over half of the potential for energy savings, the label
would have to be renewed periodically. This approach is in some respects
similar to an ISO 9000 or ISO 14000 approach. In fact, possible synergy between ISO, EMAS and a future European compressed air system quality label
should be considered. Much work has already been done to define the "best
practices" which should be respected in the design and operation of CAS.
The performance approach might use "benchmarking" techniques, in which the
energy consumption (or overall cost, including initial cost and operating costs)
of a system would be compared with that of similar systems. This would of
course necessitate some categorisation of systems (including such criteria as
air quality and nature of variable loads). Since the benchmarking of service
functions in industry is becoming increasingly common, senior management
might be easily convinced of the utility of this approach for CAS. One of the
main obstacles to this approach would be to convince users to put into operation the necessary equipment to measure air flow. A weakness of this approach
is that it would focus attention on the production of compressed air. It would be
difficult to treat downstream issues, such as the distribution network, overall
system design, or leak detection.
The motivation for users to request labelling or certification might come from
two sources:
increased awareness of the money savings potential from improved CAS

design and operation;
government incentives or pressure, through European and national energy or

Green House Gas programmes.
A European wide CAS challenge could include the certification or labelling of

entire systems. Achieving and effective, impartial and workable system would of
course necessitate extensive discussion with manufacturers and users.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.8
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Voluntary Agreements
Voluntary (or negotiated) agreements (VA) have gained growing popularity in

the 90s27. The action is based on co-operation between public authorities and
27 P. Bertholdi; Energy efficient equipment within SAVE: Activities, strategies, success and
barriers; in: E.V.A. the Austrian Energy Agency; Proceedings of the SAVE Conference For
An Energy Efficient Millennium, 8-10 Nov. 1999, Graz
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


96
industry representatives. The advantages are: manufacturers are more willing to

reach efficiency targets, as they have the freedom to decide how to reach the
target. Governmental authorities are favourable to VA because they are easier
and faster to implement than regulatory approaches.
The US Department of Energy's Motor Challenge Programme is an industry/
government partnership designed to improve the energy efficiency of motordriven systems. In addition, in 1997 the DoE initiated the Compressed Air
Challenge, a voluntary collaboration of large compressed air system users,
manufacturers, distributors, associations and public institutions to support energy-efficient compressed air systems. Both initiatives have shown the usefulness of providing public recognition for private enterprise engagement in actions
which favour the environment.
In Europe, the Commission is currently setting up the GreenLight Programme, a
voluntary programme with private and public organisations to accelerate the
penetration of efficient lighting28. The criteria to become a partner in the GreenLight Programme are addressed to users of lighting systems.
For the adoption of a European compressed air system Challenge Programme,
two approaches might be possible:
A voluntary agreement with manufacturers and their associations

A voluntary programme targeted on compressed air system users
Both approaches are described in the following paragraphs.
6.1.8.1
A Voluntary Agreement with Manufacturers and their

Associations
A voluntary agreement between the European Commission and manufacturers

of compressed air systems equipment would aim to influence the supply side of
the market by setting ambitious efficiency standards, accelerating technological
development and phasing out low-efficiency products. Major efforts would be
necessary to negotiate such agreements:
The VA is only reasonable if the participating manufacturers account for a

significant market share. For improvements of the whole compressed air
systems, compressor as well as other equipment (filters, dryers, etc.) manufacturers need to be included. The integration of manufacturers of end-use
devices with considerable compressed air consumption (e. g. wrapping machines, bottling machines, pneumatic transport equipment, weaving looms) is
of special importance in order to include optimisation air consumption in the
VA.
A consensual target for energy-efficient production, distribution and consumption of compressed air must be developed. The target should provide
28 http://www.eu-greenlight.org
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

97

notable improvements in a given period of time which must lie well above a
pre-defined "business as usual" scenario.
Procedures to monitor the progress must be defined.
An agreement should be reached on action to take in case of noncompliance.
The negotiated target could be linked to an energy/environment "charter", to

which companies could adhere. This type of challenge programme can easily
integrate and be coupled with the entire range of measures available in European or National energy efficiency programmes and the ones already described
like certification of compressed air systems, information exchange and dissemination, call for tenders for awards, demonstration and pilot actions.
Voluntary agreements, which necessitate intensive negotiation, have high implementation efforts. On the other hand, a successful agreement includes important market players, thus the benefit can be considerable. A starting condition of the US compressed air challenge programme was to gather a $ 300 000
budget in the first year by including sponsors with a minimum contribution of
$ 30 000 each.29 The money was spent for co-ordination, development of information and training material, an advertising campaign and press work.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.8.2
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
A Voluntary Programme for Compressed Air System Users
The GreenLight programme of the European Commission interprets the voluntary agreement instrument in a different way from most of existing programmes:
it addresses the demand rather than the supply side, that is the users rather
than manufacturers of efficient products. Applying this process to compressed
air systems, that is involving companies which use compressed air, would foster
the systems approach rather than the improvement of stand-alone equipment
(as in the VA concept described in the preceding paragraph).
The Commission would have to define a user charter, containing targets and
procedures for improvement in the production, distribution and consumption of
compressed air within a company. Compressed air system users would become
partners in the programme by announcing their willingness to fulfil the adopted
targets. In exchange, the partners would profit from accompanying actions (information campaigns, etc.)30.
29 A.T. McKane, J.P. Ghislain, K. Meadows; Compressed Air Challenge: Market Change from
the Inside Out; in: ACEEE; Proceedings of the 1999 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry, Washington 1999
30 A pilot action of this type, addressing motor systems in general (fans, pumps, compressors)
was submitted for consideration by the Commission under the SAVE II programme. The proposal was submitted by a consortium of EnR agencies and other partners.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


98
Again, this approach could and should be linked with several other measures, to
create a consistent bundle of actions. However the target group is even more
difficult to approach and a broad application of the programme would be a very
ambitious goal.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.9
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Development of Guidelines for Outsourcing
More and more companies are trying to focus their limited resources (capital,
management time) on their core business. Therefore energy services like heating, cooling, steam production and the delivery of compressed air or other
services are outsourced from the company. Outsourcing is very often initiated
when old equipment must be replaced, because it has become too expensive
(or impossible) to maintain, or because repeated breakdowns have caused loss
of production.
Outsourcing permits companies to delegate a function to a specialised service
provider, under a contract which specifies quality of service, reliability and cost.
However the possible energy savings in CAS are very often not addressed in
outsourcing contracts. Many contracts are written in such a way that neither the
contractor nor the customer have an interest in reducing energy consumption.
This is the case, for instance, when electricity consumption is paid for by the
company, rather than by the service provider. In fact, in many contracts, the
service is paid for as a function of the number of hours of operation of the compressor. Thus, the service provider does not benefit from increased efficiency of
the compressor, or from leak reduction.
Public action could be useful to help potential users of outsourcing services to
better contractualise the delivery of service:
install electricity and air flow meters;
pay for air delivered;
use some type of "ESCO" arrangement, so that the service provider is motivated to engage in measures such as leak reduction, or system reconfiguration which reduce air consumption.
Such action could ensure that energy consumption and energy savings are
considered in outsourcing contracts.
However it should be noted, that the contract for outsourcing of a CAS system
will be in any case an individual contract, which has to take into account the
specific needs of the service provider and the customer and the external conditions such as space availability, location, possibility to contract with other cus-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


99
tomers, integration of compressed air delivery into a broader energy services

package, etc.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.10
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Economic and Regulatory Actions
The preceding paragraphs have described a programme of actions which aims

to convince industry management to adopt profitable, technically feasible, energy savings measures.
A complementary approach would be to use the economic, fiscal or regulatory
authority of the EU and of member states to strongly incite, or even to impose,
these same energy savings measures.
6.1.10.1
Taxes and Subsidies
Economic measures, by injecting money through subsidies or tax reductions, or

by removing money through taxes, aim to modify the economic parameters
which influence the decision making process.
Many European countries currently use this type of measure.
Subsidies, to carry out energy audits, or even to pay for part of energy savings investment costs. When the subsidies apply to investment costs, they
often take the form of tax reductions (accelerated depreciation, etc.), or of
special low cost financial mechanisms.
Taxes, on electricity, energy, or on carbon. In the context of the Kyoto Protocol process, discussion of some form of eco-tax is continuing within the EU.
Note that the United Kingdom has recently instituted an interesting combination
of subsidies and eco-taxes. Under the British system, electricity is taxed. But
the tax is refunded to firms which engage in energy savings investments or actions.
Taxes
Fiscal policy is a broad policy question, with a scope much wider than CAS. The
study team wishes to limit its comments to a remark on the potential effect of
energy related taxes on those energy savings measures identified in Chapter 3
of this report.
The study has identified a very large potential for measures
which are highly profitable (3 year maximum pay back time) under current economic conditions (energy prices, taxes, etc.).
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


100
Taxes will add only marginal additional costs on the total energy
expenditures and will therefore modify the technical and economic potential for energy savings only slightly.
A small change in energy prices would make investments that
are already highly profitable even more profitable. For the reasons described in Chapter 4, businesses are not seizing these
opportunities. Slightly increasing the profitability would probably
not have much impact on decision making.
Subsidies
The review of experience with subsidies performed by the study team indicates
that subsidies should be placed as far upstream as possible and as a complement to awareness raising programmes. The cost of upstream measures is
much lower, and the impact appears to be larger. For instance a brief prediagnostic for a CAS costs approximately 2 000 Euro. Paying for half of this for
10 % of the 320 000 medium size systems in Europe would thus cost about 30
million Euro, or perhaps 6 million Euro per year if the effort was spread over 5
years31. Experience has shown that this is an effective complement to a programme of actions which aims at raising management awareness of the savings potential, and at interesting management in paying for more comprehensive diagnostics. It is of course important that a follow up of the audit be ensured, to overcome possible internal barriers.
On the other hand, subsidising investments seems to have less impact. Most of
the energy savings investments carried out with subsidies would have been
profitable without the subsidy, and it seems likely that the existence of a subsidy
is not the decisive element which convinces management to consider these investments.
If subsidies are to be considered, experience indicates that they
should be placed as far upstream in the decision process as
possible (that is to say as close as possible to initial decision to
consider energy efficiency in the CAS), and should be closely
linked with awareness raising programmes.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Note that the "medium" estimation for the cost of economic measures is approximate, due to the variable nature of possible measures. A programme of
subsidies or tax rebates might be very expensive, or to the contrary low cost,
31 Note that if such a programme were targeted on those systems which consume the most
energy, the percentage of energy use would be much larger than 10 %.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

101

depending on the breadth of the measure. Similarly, taxes can have a small or
large impact, depending on their nature. In fact, from the point of view of public
authorities, taxes can be revenue generating, and thus may have a negative
cost32.
6.1.10.2
Regulations
Regulatory measures are used by governments to impose certain energy savings technologies. This is done routinely in building regulations, for instance.
This approach is being widely used in Europe for boilers. In France, a July 5,
1977 decree instituted a broad system of mandatory energy inspections in industry.
Thus, it would be technically possible to:
require licensing for the installation of new systems, with a procedure that
aimed at imposing a certain number of "good" or even "best" practices in the
design and installation of CAS;
mandate periodic inspection of existing systems, to insure optimal operation:

for instance, that maintenance included leak detection and regular replacement of filters.
It is interesting to estimate what such a system would cost. We have taken as a

working hypothesis a 3 year inspection cycle. French experience with the decree of 1977 indicates that the cost of administering this type of inspection
would be at least 2 000 Euro per system every 3 years (650 Euro/year). This
would include the cost of running the administration responsible for registering
installations, making sure that the inspections are carried out, and paying for
some kind of internal or external quality control scheme. For the over 320 000
medium size CAS in Europe, this would then amount to 200 million Euro per
year, a very considerable sum33. This figure does not include the cost of the on
site inspections. But of course, the inspection costs are born by businesses,
and in any case, to achieve energy savings, some kind of on site audit or inspection is necessary.
While the cost of administering mandatory measures is high, it could be justified
if they were the only way to obtain the potential savings identified in Chapter 3.
But French experience seems to show, that on the contrary, this type of "command and control" system is not very effective in achieving the goal of energy
savings. In fact, businesses see the inspection as a cost item imposed by governments, rather than an opportunity to identify money saving operating cost
32 There is much debate among economists on the overall impact of energy taxes. Some argue
that they can have an overall positive effect, due to the so called "double dividend". This debate is outside the scope of this study.
33 The scope of this study is limited to CAS. Nevertheless, it would seem logical that if a man-
datory inspection system was created, it would not be limited to CAS. A workable system
would probably have a larger scope, for instance all motor driven systems, or all rotating machines, or industrial energy use, ... In this case, the costs would of course be even higher.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


102
reductions. Management tends to look for the lowest cost service provider who
will meet the strict minimum imposed by the regulations. These low cost inspections were rarely sufficiently comprehensive to provide a basis for energy savings investments. Thus, under some conditions, the overall effect of mandatory
inspections may even be negative, since businesses who have paid for one inspection imposed by regulations, are unlikely to pay for an audit of the same
installation to identify energy savings measures. It is interesting to note that in
1998, the French system was sharply reduced in scope.
A priori, it would appear difficult to integrate mandatory regulatory measures
into a programme based largely on awareness building measures. Experience
shows that at the very least, administrative responsibility for awareness building
and regulatory measures has to be assigned to separate agencies. It would appear that consideration of mandatory regulations should be considered if other
types of measures prove insufficient to achieve substantial energy savings.
The study team has concluded that mandatory inspections
and/licensing would be costly, and perhaps of limited effectiveness. In view of evidence collected, it would seem logical to
make a concerted effort to build a voluntary programme based
on awareness raising actions, before considering mandatory
regulatory measures.
Costs
Implementation Time
Covered Potential
6.1.11
low
short
high
medium
medium
medium
high
long
low
Other Possible Actions
In the preceding chapters a range of measures have been described which aim
at different target groups, savings potentials and system components. Yet, a
large range of other ideas or instruments exists (e. g. incentives, accounting
and calculation tools, audits), which represent different forms of the described
concepts or were considered not to be practical for the improvement of compressed air systems.
Co-operative procurement as an example, aims to bring together a group of
purchasers which formulate their product requirements and producers which are
willing to compete to fulfil these demands. Procurement shows the producers
that a potential market exists for efficient products. It has been successfully applied in some national initiatives. Procurement applied to the scope of compressed air systems would focus on the improvement of the system components rather on the system itself, and thus miss the major saving option. The
study group therefore concluded that co-operative procurement is not a useful
measure for improving compressed air systems and thus this possibility was not
examined in more detail.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

6.2
103

Classification of Actions and Development of a

Concerted Programme
The following tables summarise the impacts of the described actions, and the
involved target groups.
In Chapter 3, a range of technical and organisational saving options has been
identified which all could improve the overall performance of a compressed air
system. For all saving options estimates of the applicability of the technical
measure and the potential for efficiency gains were conducted to derive the
maximum potential contribution of each option (see Table 7).
The implementation of the described measures involves different target groups
and stakeholders:
Companies (users), which operate a compressed air system;
Distributors, who sell system components and provide the link between
manufacturers and users;
Manufacturers of compressors, other system components and compressed

air systems;
Compressor or CAS component manufacturers' associations;
Industry associations, for those sectors of activity which are major compressed air users;
Other stakeholders: energy agencies, research institutes, other associations,

etc.
The groups differ in aim, means, sphere of action, influence, etc. but it is obvious, that the user of CAS will be one of the key-actors that has to be addressed (cf. Table 31).
Each CAS consists of a number of different components. The system can thus
be optimised by improvement of individual components or of the system as a
whole. Each of the measures described in Chapter 6.1 may affect only parts of
the CAS, all system components, or the overall performance ( = whole system).
As the analysis of the savings potentials has shown that the largest potential
exists in the overall system optimisation, the basic actions should address this
issue.
Due to the nature of energy savings in CAS, the bulk of savings would result
from the decisions of several hundreds of thousands of users to implement
profitable energy savings investments and practices, (decisions which are not
being made under current conditions in the market). Note that in this respect,
estimating the prospective impact of measures is of a very different nature from
the impact of other programmes (household appliances, motors) where decision
making is limited to a relatively small number of producers.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Table 31:

104
Target groups of proposed actions

Target groups
Users
Manufacturers
Manuand User
Distributors
and Trade
Others
facturers
Associations
Associations
Measuring Campaign
Award for Installed Systems

Information and Training Material
LCC Tool
Component Labelling
System Certification
Vol. Agreement for Manufacturers
Voluntary User Programme

Outsourcing Guidelines
Subsidies and Taxes
Regulations
= The target group is involved in the implementation of the measure
Table 32:
Affected components of proposed actions
Affected components
Compressors
Dryers
Filters
Networks
End-use
Devices
Measuring Campaign

LCC Tool
Component Labelling

Subsidies and Taxes
Regulations
Whole
System
= The measure includes the improvement of the component
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

105

In order to estimate the impact of the proposed EU and member state actions,
these actions have been grouped into two programmes, of a different nature:
Awareness Raising Programme (ARP), which would include all of the information and decision aid measures described in Chapters 6.1.1 to 6.1.9.
This programme would be somewhat similar in nature to the existing EU
GreenLights programme.
Economic and Regulatory Programme (ERP), which would include subsidies, taxes, and regulatory measures. This type of programme would require
EU directives, as well as changes in national law and fiscal policy.
The impact of these programmes would depend on the proportion of users who
would put into practice some energy savings measures, and for these users, the
proportion of potential savings that they would actually realise.
For the awareness raising programme, experience with existing national programmes (for instance ADEME regional pilot programmes or training activities
of the German manufacturers association VDMA) shows that well designed information campaigns can in fact reach a large proportion of industrial users of
medium sized systems. We estimate that in the case of co-ordinated and complementary EU and national programmes, focused on CAS energy savings, that
high level management in almost all industrial firms could be informed of the
potential for savings, and that 60 % of these firms could be motivated to implement an energy savings programme. Experience shows that once a firm undertakes an energy savings programme, a large proportion of possible energy
savings measures are in fact carried out. The study estimates this proportion at
85 %.
Estimating the impact of an economic and regulatory programme is difficult,
since it would depend on the legal basis of such a programme, on the nature of
the administrative practices used to carry it out and on the amount spent on
subsidies or the level of new taxes. It is assumed that the ERP would be put
into practice in addition to the ARP, and would be linked with it in an optimal
way. Under these circumstances, it could be expected that the percentage of
firms acting might increase substantially (from 60 % to 85 %), and that the proportion of measures carried out would also increase slightly (from 85 % to
90 %).
The techno-economic potential identified in Chapter 3 is 32.9 % of current CAS
electricity consumption. To estimate the impact of the two action programmes
proposed, this potential must be multiplied by the percentage of firms acting,
and by the proportion of measures carried out by these firms. Table 33 resumes
these estimates.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Table 33:

106
Estimate of gained energy savings by the two programmes

% of
firms
acting
% of
measures
carried out
% of
technoeconomic
potential
gained
%
energy
savings
Awareness raising programme (ARP)
60 %
85 %
51 %
16.8 %
Economic and regulatory programme

(ERP) combined with ARP
85 %
90 %
77 %
25.2 %
For this study, we have assumed that:
the ARP could stimulate the achievement of half of the techno-economic potential, or 16.5 % of current CAS electricity consumption;
the ARP combined with the ERP would achieve 3/4 of the techno-economic
potential, or 25.2 % of current CAS electricity consumption.
Note that the study team does not believe that an ERP could be effective in the
absence of the ARP. Thus, we have not projected savings for the ERP in isolation.
In the view of the study team, these levels constitute very ambitious targets,
which nevertheless could be achieved over a 15 year period by well designed
and comprehensive programmes. Such programmes, to be successful, would
have to meet the following conditions:
optimal co-ordination between EU and member state action;
sufficient financial resources;
sufficient human resources;
high level political support, in order to favour the active participation of the
private sector;
strong commitment from business leaders and organisations.
For a better understanding of the linkages between the different actions and the
related costs, implementation time and the covered potential, the actions have
been grouped into three different diagrams, showing the different sets of
evaluation criteria. Short tabular summaries have been presented after the descriptions of the possible actions.
Figure 12 shows the implementation time for the different actions and the savings potential covered by these actions. Actions that can be implemented
quickly, such as the development of an LCC Tool or the outsourcing guidelines,
will cover only a small share of the total potential. Large saving effects can be
realised on a medium-term with the measuring campaign, and information and
training. Activities orientated to long-term improvements, e. g. the technology
demonstration and system certification will require a significant amount of time
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


107
to be implemented but may have a significant impact. The fiscal and regulatory
measures however will need much time but will have smaller effects than many
other possible actions.
AR Programme
high
Measuring
Campaign
possible suppl. to ARP
Information and
Training
ER Programme
medium
System
Certification
Vol. Agreement
for Manufacturers
Component
Labelling
Regulations
Advertising
Campaign
Subsidies and
Taxes
low
Covered Potential
Voluntary User
Programme
Technology
Demonstration
LCC Tool
Award for
System Design
Outsourcing
Guidelines
short
medium
long
Implementation Time
Figure 12: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (covered potential and implementation time)
If actions to improve CAS were adopted by the European Commission, it is also

important to choose the measures which can be started with justifiable costs. A
first idea of the cost-benefit-ratio can be obtained, if the savings potential for the
proposed actions is compared to the associated cost. In Figure 13 these two
criteria are presented in one graph. It can be seen, that the cost-benefit-ratio of
all proposed actions are on a similar level. Actions with small savings potentials
tend to have lower cost whereas actions with high savings potentials have
higher cost. However it should be noted, that the actions grouped into the ARP
in general have a better cost-benefit-ratio than those in the ERP.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


108
AR Programme
high
Measuring
Campaign
Information and
Training
ER Programme
medium
System
Certification
Vol. Agreement
for Manufacturers
Component
Labelling
Regulations
Advertising
Campaign
Subsidies and
Taxes
Technology
Demonstration
low
Covered Potential
Voluntary User
Programme
LCC Tool
Award for
System Design
Outsourcing
Guidelines
low
medium
high
Costs
Figure 13: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (costs and covered potential)
6.3
Proposition to the Commission on How to Act
The results of this study have shown, that significant energy savings potentials
exists in CAS throughout Europe. These potentials can be developed, if increased user awareness about the economic savings potentials can be
achieved. Therefore action should be mainly user oriented but should not oversee the influence of other key actors and key factors. As the group of users of
CAS is a very inhomogeneous group of actors, a single isolated action may not
be very effective in achieving any improvement. Therefore, the study group has
decided not to propose single actions but a program of actions which maximise
synergy between the individual actions. This approach would facilitate combining short, medium and long term actions in a program that may run over a period of several years. Thus, awareness of the savings potential in CAS could be
maintained over the long period necessary (15 year replacement cycle for systems) for actions to be effective.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


109
The program should start with the three key actions, "advertising campaign", "information and training" and "measuring campaign" which we
believe are essential components of any action programme.
As the action program proceeds, it would be possible to present first results of

the actions with short implementation time and low cost. This would help demonstrate the value of other actions. Figure 14 shows that the actions combined
in the ARP are based on each other and represent a mix of short and mediumterm actions. However, if the ARP is not successful in the medium-term, elements of the ERP could be implemented, but at higher overall cost.
System
Certification
AR Programme
high

Regulations
ER Programme
medium
Costs
Voluntary User
Programme
Component
Labelling
Measuring
Campaign
Subsidies and
Taxes
Vol. Agreement
for Manufacturers
Information and
Training
Technology
Demonstration
low
Award for
System Design
Advertising
Campaign
LCC Tool Outsourcing
Guidelines
short
medium
long
Implementation Time
Figure 14: Evaluation matrix for proposed actions (Implementation time and
costs)
To aid in the understanding of the ARP, Figure 15 represents the programme in

form of a building. The advertising campaign, information and training and the
European wide measuring campaign will act as the foundation for the action
programme. The walls of the building will be constructed on one side by the
LCC tool and the guidelines for outsourcing and on the other side by the award
for System design and installed systems. A large portion of the building will be
built by the voluntary user programme and the voluntary agreements for manufacturers. To complete the building and to protect the achieved savings for the
future, technical demonstration will be a necessary part of the building. In addi-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


110
tion, it will prepare the building for further extensions (additional savings potential) which can be exploited in the future, when additional space is required.
Technology
Demonstration
Award for
Installed System
Voluntary
User
Programme
Advertising
Campaign
Award for
System
Design
Outsourcing
Guidelines
LCC
Tool
Information
and Training
Voluntary
Agreement
for
Manufactures
Measuring
Campaign
Figure 15: Construction of the Awareness Raising Programme (ARP)
To make this program work, it is not sufficient to act only on community level but
to have co-ordinated efforts between national and European actions. In addition, all levels of management should be reached in the target group (see
Table 34). This is especially important for the key actions identified by the study
group. Therefore the European Union should set up an European wide programme and encourage the national governments to co-operate on a national
level. The advertising campaign might be integrated in a much larger advertising campaign addressing the rational use of energy or a least the energy savings potentials in motor applications such as compressors (air, gas, refrigeration
plant), fans and pumps.
The priority actions proposed in the ARP with respect to CAS would also gain in
impact if they were inserted into a transversal programme aimed at energy
savings for all motor driven applications in industry. This would in some respects be similar to the insertion of the US DoE "Compressed Air Challenge"
into its "Motor Challenge". A European "Motor Challenge" could serve as a focal
point for actions with respect to compressed air, pumping, ventilation, and other
motor driven applications. It would allow scale economies and synergy between
actions in these areas, since much of the awareness raising work is common to
all these systems.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Table 34:

111
Actions and action levels
Action to be performed by
Measuring Campaign
LCC Tool
Component Labelling
Subsidies and Taxes
Regulations
EU
National
level
Management level
to be addressed
Top Management
Upper Management
Upper and Middle Management
Top Management
Top Management

Upper Management
Middle Management
Upper Management
Top and Upper Management
Top and Middle Management
Upper Management
Top and Upper Management

The dissemination of the results of this study will be a first step in communicating the large economic savings potential in compressed air systems to the public. The members of the study group who prepared this study will be pleased to
help the European Commission in implementing the proposed awareness raising programme.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

7.
7. Evaluation of the
Impact of Measures
113
Evaluation of the Impact of Measures
This task deals with the evaluation, in terms of energy consumption, of the impact of the programmes for action identified previously.
The model, named a stock model, has been described and developed in
Task 2. It allows the calculation of the impact of the energy savings actions. The
energy savings actions are the ones identified in Task 6. They are organised in
different scenarios, which are described below. The scenarios are different from
the point of view of energy: while they are based on the same stock of systems
the energy policy differs from one scenario to another.
We indicate here the different hypothesis used by the model for the energy scenarios and the results of the model.
7.1
The Energy Scenarios
An equivalent consumption is recalculated per compressed air system, based

on the values of consumption of Task 1. This consumption, per system, is specific to each country. This value reflects the specificity of each country, in terms
of installed power, operating hours, etc. Due to the technical progress in energy
efficiency, the new and upgraded systems consume less energy than the old
systems. This is taken into account through a specific gain applied only to these
systems:
For the old systems, in the stock since 1999, it is assumed that there is no
improvement in energy consumption,
For the new systems entering the stock due to the growth in installed systems, it is assumed that energy consumption will be 5 % less than in the old
systems,
For the upgraded systems, which gradually replace old systems, it is also
assumed that energy consumption will diminish by 5 %.
We are proposing three scenarios for energy consumption:
a scenario BAU (Business As Usual),
a scenario ARP (Awareness Raising Programme),
a scenario ERP (Economic and Regulatory Programme).
The three scenarios differ globally in energy consumption. No specific hypothesis were applied to more detailed technical parameters (installed power, hours
of operation, industrial maintenance practices, etc.). Rather, an overall reduction factor was applied, which takes into account these changes.
In the BAU scenario, no energy policy is adopted, and no action is taken. This
scenario continues the current trend of energy consumption. Only new and upgraded systems benefit from some progress in terms of energy efficiency. We
propose to take an optimistic value, 5 % as the decrease of energy consump-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Impact of Measures

114
tion for new and upgraded systems. This value integrates different elements:
efficiency deteriorates with the age of the compressor; the upgrading of the
systems may imply a reduction of the leaks; the new technologies are more efficient; machines are better sized to correspond to needs, etc.
In the ARP scenario, we consider an effort on energy savings allowing reaching
half of the maximum potential identified in Task 6, that is to say 16.5 % reduction in consumption in the year 2015. In this scenario, voluntary actions focused
on awareness raising (in general the easier and least costly actions) are implemented over a 15 year period.
In the ERP scenario, we consider that economic, fiscal and regulatory actions
(mandatory measures, generally more difficult and expensive to implement) are
implemented in parallel with the ARP actions during a 15 year period, in order to
reach three quarters of the maximum potential identified in Task 6, that is to say
24.7 % reduction in consumption at the end of this period.
For each scenario, we calculate the energy consumption, per year and per
country, for each type of system.
7.2
Future Energy Consumption of CAS
The results are presented in different graphs and tables, showing either the total
consumption, either the change in consumption per country, according to the
scenario.
Table 35:
Total CAS electricity consumption in TWh, per country

France Germany
BAU
1999
2005
2010
2015
ARP
1999
2005
2010
2015
ERP + ARP
1999
2005
2010
2015
Italy
United Greece/Spain/
Rest of EU
Kingdom
Portugal
Total
12
12
12
11
14
14
13
13
12
13
13
13
10
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
23
23
22
22
80
81
80
79
12
11
11
10
14
13
12
12
12
12
12
11
10
9
9
8
9
9
9
8
23
22
20
19
80
77
73
69
12
11
10
9
14
13
11
10
12
12
11
10
10
9
8
7
9
9
8
7
23
21
19
16
80
74
68
61
In the BAU scenario, annual energy consumption only decreases by 1 TWh, to

80 TWh, the 1996 value. The consumption first increases to 81 TWh, and then
decreases. Different countries evolve differently: total consumption over the pe-
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Impact of Measures
115
riod studied decreases in France, Germany, United Kingdom and the rest of the
EU countries but increases (due to the growth in stock) in Spain, Greece, Portugal and Italy.
CAS Electricity Consumption acc. to Scenario
Consumption, TWh
90
80
BAU
ARP
70
ERP
60
50
1999
2005
2010
2015
Figure 16: CAS electricity consumption according to scenario
The stability in energy consumption, despite a 4 % increase of the stock, is due

to the replacement of old systems by new and more efficient systems. As the
stock increase is limited to 4 countries (of which only one with a large stock), it
can be compensated by the current energy savings progress.
Note that energy consumption would rise if the stock were to increase significantly, due to some unforeseen changes.
Thus, reliance on current technological progress from industry, in the absence
of a targeted energy policy, will not allow a decrease in energy consumption
and the emission of greenhouses gases. It must be kept in mind that this scenario is based on an optimistic value of 5 % for current energy efficiency progress. Without any policy the consumption of the new systems might not decrease this much.
If the policies and actions proposed in the ARP scenario were adopted, consumption would decrease to 69 TWh in 2015. In the ERP scenario, consumption would decrease to 61 TWh in 2015. In the both cases, the total consumption for each of the EU countries would decrease at the end of the period. For
the 4 countries with an increase in stock, energy consumption would increase
for the first few years, especially in the ARP scenario. In the ERP scenario, this
appears only in Italy, where the increase of the stock is larger.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Impact of Measures

116
CAS Electricity Consumption by Country, BAU Scenario
Consumption, TWh
25
20
15
10
5
1999
2005
2010
France
Italy
Rest of EU
2015
Germany
United Kingdom
Greece, Portugal, Spain
Figure 17: CAS electricity consumption by country, BAU scenario
CAS Electricity Consumption by Country, ARP Scenario
Consumption, TWh
25
20
15
10
5
1999
2005
2010
France
Italy
Rest of EU
2015
Germany
United Kingdom
Figure 18: CAS electricity consumption by country, ARP scenario
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Impact of Measures
117
CAS Electricity Consumption by Country, ERP Scenario
Consumption, TWh
25
20
15
10
5
1999
2005
2010
France
Italy
Rest of EU
2015
Germany
United Kingdom
Figure 19: CAS electricity consumption by country, ERP scenario
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

119
Bibliography
Bibliography
ADEME; Prospective de la consommation d'lectricit dans l'industrie l'horizon 2010, Rapport d'enqute sur les moteurs; March 1994; CEREN
Afisac; 1998
BCAS, Installation Guide: Guide to the Selection & Installatino of Compressed
Air Services, CompAir-Broomwade-Reavell, 1992
Bertholdi P.; Energy efficient equipment within SAVE: Activities, strategies, success and barriers; in: E.V.A. the Austrian Energy Agency; Proceedings of the
SAVE Conference For An Energy Efficient Millennium, 8-10 Nov. 1999, Graz
Bertholdi P., de Almeida A., Falkner H. (ed.); Energy Efficiency Improvements in
Electric Motors and Drives; Springer; 2000
Centre Franais de l'Electricit, La Variation Electronique de Vitesse: Guide
d'utilisation, Paris, 1997 co-edited by ADEME, EDF and GIMELEC
Direction Gnrale des Technologies, de la Recherche et de l'Energie (Wallonie, Belgium), Le Ractif, N 21, September 1999
DoE (Department of Energy, US); Energy Star Award Rules and Instructions:
Year 2000
DoE (Department of Energy, US); Improving Compressed Air System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry; DoE; 1998
DoE (Department of Energy, US); United States Industrial Motor Systems Market Opportunities Assessment: Executive Summary; DoE; 1998
ETSU; Best practices Series;
Compressing Air Costs: Generation;
Compressing Air Costs: Leakage;
Compressing Air Costs: Treatment;
Compressed Air and Energy Use;
Cost & Energy Savings Achieved by Improvements to a Compressed Air
System;
Compressed Air Costs Reduced Automatic Control;
Energy and Cost Savings from Air Compressor Replacement;
Refurbishment of a Compressed Air System;
Compressed Air Savings through Leakage Reduction and the Use of High
Efficiency Air Nozzles;
Compressed Air Leakage Reduction Through the use of Electronic Condensate Drain Traps;
Compressing Air Costs;
Energy Saving in the Filtration and Drying of Compressed Air;
Heat Recovery from Air Compressors.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

120
Bibliography
IEA, ENEL "Dati statistici sull'energia elettrica in Italia";1997

Grant, A.; Changing attitudes in compressed air usage through developments in
variable speed drives; in Compressors and their Systems, IMechE Conference
Transactions; Professional Engineering Publishing Ltd; London; 1999.
McKane, A.T., Ghislain, J.P., Meadows, K.; Compressed Air Challenge: Market
Change from the Inside Out; in: ACEEE; Proceedings of the 1999 ACEEE
Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Industry, Washington 1999
McKane, A.T.; Using Collaboration to Achieve Industrial Market Change; Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory; Washington DC, US; 2000
OIT (Office of Industrial Technologies) United States; Industrial Electric Motor
Systems Market Opportunities Assessment; Appendix B, December 1998
Pneurop; Air Treatment: Contaminations Purity Classes and Measurement
Methods; Pneurop/CAGI; 1997
Statistisches Bundesamt: Produktion im Produzierenden Gewerbe, Fachserie 4,
Reihe 3.1, different years
Statistisches Bundesamt: "Auenhandel nach Waren und Lndern", Fachserie 7 Reihe 2, different years
Talbot, E.M.; Compressed Air Systems: A guidebook on Energy and Cost Savings; Fairmont Press; 1993
http://www.caddet-ee.org
http://www.epa.gov/energystar
http://www.eu-greenlight.org
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

121
APPENDIX 1:
Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data
APPENDIX 1:
Enterprises
Number of enterprises:
16 users
3 service providers
Countries:
France, Germany, Italy
Sectors of activity:
Metal products, textile, glass, cement, paper, beverages, brewery, food processing, packaging, wood
products, rubber products
Certification:
ISO 9000 (6 enterprises), ISO 14000 (4), EMAS (1)
Uses of compressed air:
Materials handling or transport

Pistons, presses, other mech. movement
Blowing, cleaning
Drying
Hand tools
Process
Other
Air quality:
Drying (dew point not specified)

Sterilisation
7
16
15
4
7
7
1
9
1
Relative importance of energy vectors

Relative importance
Compressed air
Hydraulics
Mechanical systems
Electric systems
2
3
1
5
9
3
6
2
3
3
4
2
6
2
0
2
2
0
0
Legend: each cell indicates the number of enterprises

reporting the energy vector at the given level of importance.
Conclusion: vectors in order of importance =
Electricity,
Mechanical systems,
Compressed air,
Hydraulics
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
APPENDIX 1:

122
Relative importance of operating criteria

Relative importance
Cost
Quality
Reliability
1
4
3
10
3
3
5
3
6
5
Legend: each cell indicates the number of enterprises reporting the given importance to the corresponding criterion.
Conclusion: Reliability is clearly the first criterion,
followed by Quality and Cost
Compressors
Number of compressors: 81
Avg. number of
compressors per system: 4+
Types of compressors:
Screw, centrifugal, piston, rotary vane
Air pressure levels (bar): 3

6, 6.2, 7, 7.5, 8
10, 12, 15
30
Manufacturers:
Atlas-Copco, Boge, CompAir, Crepelle, Demag,

Ingersoll Rand, Kaeser, Mahle, Mattei, Nea, Nehrer,
Neumann, Thom C.
Range of age:
1 to 55 years, with 5 piston compressors over 25

years old
Power range:
11 kW to 3600 kW
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

123
APPENDIX 1:
Certification
ISO 9001
ISO 14001
Nb of machines
Sector,
activities
CA consumption
Country
Detailed information for enterprises
620
Air quality Invest- Operating

requirement ment
cost
Energy
cost
110 000 000 93 000 000
It
Metal
products
Drying
It
Textile
It
Metal
products
ISO 9000
8000
It
Glass
ISO 9001
ISO 14001
2400
It
Cement production
6500
It
Paper
production
1800
Dessication, 100 000 Euros

dehydration
It
Beverage production
2000
Dessication
It
Beverage production
Fr
Food ind.
Fr
Rubber
Fr
Metals works
Fr
Metals works
Lires
Lires
540
ISO 9001
ISO 14001
Dessication
10
50 000
Euros
Dessication
ISO 9000
Ger Brewery
Drying, filtering,
sterilisation
Ger Packaging
ISO 9000
300
Oil tap, refrigeration,

drying
Ger Printing
in process
Refrigeration,
drying
Ger Wood
EMAS
Drying
It = Italy, Fr = France, Ger = Germany
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
APPENDIX 1:

124
Relative
importance of Relative importance
energy
of operating criteria
vectors
Metal
products
It
Glass
It
Cement
production
It
Paper
production
It
Beverage
production
It
Beverage
production
Fr
Food ind.
Fr
Rubber
Fr
Metals
works
Fr
Metals
works
Ger Brewery
Ger Packaging
Ger Printing
Ger Wood
X
X
Relability
It
Quality
Cost
Electric systems
Textile
Mechanical
systems
It
Hydraulics
Compressed air
Other
Process
Drying
Metal
products
Sector,
activities
Hand tools
Blowing, cleaning
It
Country
Pistons, presses,
other mech. movement
Materials handling
or transport
Uses for compressed air
3
X
2
X
X
X
X
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

APPENDIX 1:
125
Country
Detailed information for compressors
Sector,
activities
Compressor
manufacturer
Power
Flowrate
Pressure
[kW]
[m /h]
[bar]
Type
Age
Control
It
Metal
products
Atlas-Copco
Screw
34
290
It
Textile
Atlas Copco
Vite
30
204
10
25
Atlas Copco
Vite
30
204
10
25
Kaeser
Vite
55
498
10
Metal
Atlas
centrifugal
6000
25
Construction
Ingersoll
centrifugal
2x5000
Glasses
Ingersoll
Screw
24000
10 VSD
Atlas Copco
piston
10
17
It
It
It
Cement
production
It
Paper production
It
Beverage
production
It
Beverage
production
ADEME
Atlas Copco,
Mattei
3595
20 VSD
centrifugal
760
3400
30
Screw,
piston
700
8000
7.5
6 VSD, ...
Screw,
piston, ...
177
1800
7.5
9 VSD, ...
Atlas
screw
90
817.2
9 Electronic
control
Mattei
Rotating
44
420
12 Electronic
control
Mattei
Rotating
44
420
12 Electronic
control
Mattei
Rotating
44
420
12 Electronic
control
Mattei
Rotating
44
420
12 Electronic
control
Atlas Copco
screw
250
2.100
10
15
Atlas Copco
screw
250
2.100
10
12
Atlas Copco
screw
250
2.100
10
10
Atlas Copco
screw
600
4.800
10
Atlas Copco
screw
600
4.800
10
Ingersoll R.
centrifugal
600
4.800
10
Ingersoll R.
centrifugal
700
6.000
10
Ingersoll R.
centrifugal
700
6.000
10
Atlas Copco
Piston
75
960
30
16
Atlas Copco
piston
75
960
30
15
Neumann
piston
200
1.550
30
10
Neumann
piston
200
1.550
30
Thom C.
piston
450
5.600
30
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
Country
APPENDIX 1:
Sector,
activities
It
Beverage
production
Fr
Food ind.
Fr
Rubber
Fr
Metals
works
Fr
Ger Brewery
Ger Packaging
Ger Wood
Thom C.
Power
Flowrate
Pressure
[kW]
[bar]
Type
piston
450
[m /h]
5.600
Screw
Metals
works
Ger Printing
Compressor
manufacturer

126
Age
30
Control
7
700?
6 + 13
5?
AtlasCopco
250
6.2
pressure
Crepelle
550
6.2
and flow rate
Demag
screw
6.2
Nea
piston
40
416
44 Manual oil free
Nea
piston
40
416
43 Manual oil free
Nea
piston
40
416
36 Manual oil free
Nea
piston
23
240
47 Manual oil free
Nehrer
piston
45
361
12 Manual oil free
Nehrer
piston
22
181
27 Manual oil free
Nehrer
piston
15
125
21 Manual oil free
Nehrer
piston
7.5
71
10
19 Manual oil free
Nehrer
piston
7.5
71
10
19 Manual oil free
Nehrer
piston
7.5
71
10
19 Manual oil free
Kaeser
screw
37.5
360
Kaeser
screw
37.5
360
Demag
screw
22
180
Demag
screw
75
720
12
Boge
screw
45
397
18
Boge
screw
45
397
18
Boge
screw
55
416
18
Boge
piston
15
102
15
17
Boge
piston
11
70
15
21
Mahle
piston
15
12
Mahle
piston
1.5
18
10
12
CompAir
Rotary
vane
7.5
72
12
CompAir
Rotary
vane
7.5
72
12
CompAir
Rotary
vane
7.5
72
12
CompAir
Rotary
vane
18.5
185
12
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

APPENDIX 2:
Market Characterisation: Numeric Data
127
APPENDIX 2:
10- 11010110- Total

110 300
110 kW 300 kW TWh
kW kW
Growth rate
%
year year > 10

1-5 5-10 years
France
43765 28885 14880
12
78
Germany
62000 43400 18600
14 10.5
3.5
65
Greece + Spain +
Portugal
35660 25685
9976
6.6
2.2
71
Italy
43800 30660 13140
12
78
United
Kingdom
55000 46750
8250
10
7.5
2.5
52
Rest of the EU
81040 56015 25024
23
17
82
321265 231395 89870
80
60
20
71 42 kW 132 kW
80
Total
Average value
In Greece
In Spain
In Portugal
3500
71
15
Stock renewal
per year (%)
Total
Lifetime years
Country
Consumption
Operating
hours
Number of
air compressors
For 1999
Average
power [kW]
Data and hypothesis from Task 1
0 6.70
= 1.5 % of the electricity European consumption, so the same ratio for consumption and
numbers of machines
= 8%
= 1.6 %
Change in stock of compressors

Growth rate as indicated.
Lifetime of 15 years, so 6.7 % of new machines in the stock.
Old systems
= the machines in the stock since 1999, with no improvement of energy

consumption
New systems
= the machines entering the stock, due to the growth rate, with 5 %
consumption less
Replaced systems = the machines replacing the old machines leaving the stock, with 5 %
consumption less
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
STOCK
APPENDIX 2:
Types of
machines
Growth y 1-5
rate
y 5-10
y 10-15
Replacement rate

128
United
Greece,
Kingdom Portugal,
Spain
France
Germany
0
0
0
0.07
0
0
0
0.07
0
0
0
0.07
Italy
Rest of
the EU
0.02
0.01
0
0.07
0.02
0.01
0
0.07
0
0
0
0.07
EU total
Year
1999
Number
All
43765
62000
55000
35660
43800
81040
321265
2000
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
40847
2918
62000
0
57867
4133
55000
0
51333
3667
36374
713
33283
2377
44676
876
40880
2920
81040
0
75637
5403
322854
1589
299847
21418
2001
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
37930
5835
62000
0
53733
8267
55000
0
47667
7333
37101
727
32250
4851
45570
894
39612
5958
81040
0
70234
10805
324475
1621
281426
43049
2002
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
35012
8753
62000
0
49600
12400
55000
0
44000
11000
37843
742
30469
7374
46481
911
37424
9057
81040
0
64832
16208
326129
1653
261337
64791
2003
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
32094
11671
62000
0
45467
16533
55000
0
40333
14667
38600
757
28653
9947
47411
930
35193
12217
81040
0
59429
21611
327815
1686
241170
86646
2004
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
29177
14588
62000
0
41333
20667
55000
0
36667
18333
39372
772
26800
12572
48359
948
32917
15441
81040
0
54026
27013
329535
1720
220921
108615
2005
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
26259
17506
62000
0
37200
24800
55000
0
33000
22000
39766
394
24543
15223
48842
484
30145
18697
81040
0
48624
32416
330413
877
199771
130642
2006
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
23341
20424
62000
0
33067
28933
55000
0
29333
25667
40163
398
22263
17900
49331
488
27345
21986
81040
0
43221
37818
331299
886
178570
152729
2007
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
20424
23341
62000
0
28933
33067
55000
0
25667
29333
40565
402
19960
20605
49824
493
24516
25308
81040
0
37818
43221
332194
895
157319
174875
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

STOCK
129
Types of
machines
France
Germany
2008
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
17506
26259
62000
0
24800
37200
55000
0
22000
33000
2009
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
14588
29177
62000
0
20667
41333
2010
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
11671
32094
2011
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
2012
APPENDIX 2:
United
Greece,
Kingdom Portugal,
Spain
Italy
Rest of
the EU
EU total
40971
406
17635
23336
50322
498
21660
28663
81040
0
32416
48624
333098
904
136016
197081
55000
0
18333
36667
41380
410
15286
26095
50826
503
18775
32051
81040
0
27013
54026
334010
913
114662
219349
62000
0
16533
45467
55000
0
14667
40333
41380
0
12527
28853
50826
0
15386
35439
81040
0
21611
59429
334010
0
92394
241616
43765
0
8753
35012
62000
0
12400
49600
55000
0
11000
44000
41380
0
9768
31612
50826
0
11998
38828
81040
0
16208
64832
334010
0
70127
263884
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
5835
37930
62000
0
8267
53733
55000
0
7333
47667
41380
0
7010
34371
50826
0
8609
42216
81040
0
10805
70234
334010
0
47860
286151
2013
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
2918
40847
62000
0
4133
57867
55000
0
3667
51333
41380
0
4251
37130
50826
0
5221
45604
81040
0
5403
75637
334010
0
25592
308418
2014
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
0
43765
62000
0
0
62000
55000
0
0
55000
41380
0
1492
39888
50826
0
1833
48993
81040
0
0
81040
334010
0
3325
330686
2015
All
New systems
Old systems
Upgraded systems
43765
0
0
43765
62000
0
0
62000
55000
0
0
55000
41380
0
1393
39988
50826
0
1711
49115
81040
0
0
81040
334010
0
3103
330907
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

131
APPENDIX 3: ADEME Data Collection

Guide for Compressed Air Outsourcing
APPENDIX 3:
ADEME Data Collection Guide for Compressed Air
Outsourcing
GESTION de lAIR COMPRIME DANS LINDUSTRIE

Questionnaire ENTREPRISES
sous la direction de Bruno CHRETIEN
avril 1999
VOS COORDONNEES
nom socit:
adresse:
groupe:
tel / fax / e-mail:

contact(s):
filiale:
fonction(s):
effectif:
activit principale:
volume de production:
clients:
centre technique daffiliation:
certification:
ISO 9000
ISO 14 000
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
EMAS
DoE
ECE

132

LAIR COMPRIME DANS VOTRE ENTREPRISE

Q I-1 Place de lair comprim dans votre entreprise
- quelle utilisation faites-vous de

lair comprim ?
mouvement, transport
actionnement de machines, vrins,
presses
soufflage, dpoussirage
schage (prcisez)
petite utilits (visseuses, soufflettes)
process ou autre (prcisez)
- donnez la place relative de lair

comprim par rapport aux autres
nergies utilises
hydraulique
[......] %
mcanique
[......] %
lectricit [......] %
air comprim [......] %
- quels autres fluides nergtiques

utilisez-vous et pour quelles applications ?
froid
chaleur
vapeur
gaz (azote, oxygne)
autre (prcisez)
- si votre entreprise est certifie, la

procdure de certification a-t-elle
point la ncessit / possibilit
damliorer votre poste air comprim ?
oui
non
- si oui, quelles suites avez-vous alors donn ?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

133

Q I-2 Votre installation matrielle

Description sommaire de linstallation de production d'air comprim
marque des
compresseurs
type de compresseur
puissance et
dbits spcifiques
pression
ge
tat de marche
vitesse lectronique
variable
Description sommaire du rseau de distribution

longueur
diamtre
moyen
taux de fuites
ge
Description sommaire des conditions de gestion technique / suivi /

contrle
gestion technique centralise

appareils de mesurage (ex: BAREXPERT)
tlsurveillance
autre .........................................................................................................................
Quelle apprciation portez- vous sur le fonctionnement actuel de votre
matriel (rendement, fuites, pannes, ncessit de remplacement....) ?
Avez-vous observ ou observez-vous actuellement des pertes de productivit lies une qualit non optimale de lair comprim ? Si oui, prcisezen la cause ?
microchute de pression
humidit dans les circuits
huile dans les circuits
particules
et les consquences ?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

134

Q I-3 Vos exigences en matire d'air comprim / vos besoins

Vous utilisez de lair comprim
de faon rgulire tout au long de l'anne

- combien d'heures / jour ? ..........................................................................
- combien de jours / an ? .............................................................................
- combien de semaines / an ? .....................................................................
de faon saisonnire
Quattendez-vous de votre centrale dair comprim ?
Avez-vous des exigences particulires de qualit ? Si oui veuillez les prciser.
teneur en huile:
humidit:
point de rose:
particules:
niveau sonore:
autre(s):
Quel est pour vous le prix d'un incident interrompant la fourniture d'air
comprim ( exprimer en perte nette de production, perte ventuelle de
clientle, prix ventuel de rparation des dommages ...) ?
- une micro-coupure:
- une coupure d'une heure:
- une coupure d'une journe:
- une coupure de quelques jours:
Comment apprciez-vous le besoin en air comprim de votre entreprise
dans les annes venir ?
(cochez la case correspondante et prcisez ordre de grandeur)
augmentation ...................................................................................................
stagnation ........................................................................................................
diminution ........................................................................................................
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

135

Prcisez en quoi ces variations sont lies l'activit de votre entreprise.

Comment comptez-vous y faire face ?
Q I-4 Le cot de la production d'air comprim

Dans la production dair comprim, diriez-vous que le cot de lnergie
est un critre
majeur
moyen
mineur
pour quelles raisons ?
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................................
Plus prcisment, pouvez-vous donner un ordre de grandeur des cots de

production de lair comprim dans votre entreprise ?
cot en investissement matriel initial: ...........................................................

cot en F de l'lectricit air comprim: ...........................................................
part lectricit air comprim / lectricit totale: ..............................................
cot de maintenance et d'entretien: ...............................................................
cot moyen d'achat d'lectricit au kWh: .......................................................
cot global au m3 produit: ...............................................................................
consommation moyenne en kWh/m3: .............................................................
cot global / produit fini (exemple: XXX kWh/tonne de verre): .......................
aucune ide du cot
Avez vous une ide de lampleur des conomies possibles sur cette fonction ?
oui
non
Si oui, de quel ordre de grandeur ? .....................................................................

.............................................................................................................................
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE


136
Si oui, comment en avez-vous eu connaissance ?
diagnostic nergie ADEME / autre bureau d'tudes

le personnel de maintenance peut fournir une apprciation globale
la fonction air comprim est suivie prcisment par un systme de mesures
interne
autre (prcisez) ...............................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
LES CONDITIONS DE LA GESTION DE L'AIR COMPRIME DANS VOTRE

ENTREPRISE
Q I-4 Votre gestion de la fonction air comprim
Q 2-1 Qui gre la fonction air comprim dans votre entreprise ?
(Cochez les cases correspondantes et, au besoin, indiquez le nombre de personnes)
personnel interne
spcifiquement affect l'air compripolyvalent
m
personnel
externe
conduite
maintenance
dtection fuites /
pannes
rparation pannes
Autres (prcisez)
Qui exprime le besoin dacheter ou de modifier votre centrale de production dair comprim ? qui est impliqu dans lachat de nouveau matriel ?
le responsable financier
le responsable maintenance
le responsable production
Q 2-2 Avez-vous ralis un audit / diagnostic nergie de votre installation?
non
oui (si oui, rpondez Q. 2. 2)
Avez-vous connaissance dtudes particulires menes sur ce thme par votre
centre technique ? Si oui, veuillez en prciser les principales conclusions et rfrences ?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

137

Q 2-2-a Qui a ralis laudit de votre installation ?
BARRAULT
AMTECH
AIR LIQUIDE
RECHERCHE
AIR COMPRIME
SOTRATECH
EDF
ENERGIE
P. DUMOULIN
DALKIA
INDUSTELEC
GDF
TRACTEBEL
ELECTRABEL
SOCHAN
CARBOXYQUE
SFEE
Autre (prcisez) ...................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
Q 2-2-b Cot et financement
Cot de laudit en F ? ................................................................................
Financement ?
ADEME [
]%
VOUS [
]%
AUTRE [
]%
Q 2-2-c Quelles ont t les conclusions de laudit et des actions ontelles t ralises ?
ralis
non ralis
rnovation du matriel existant

installation dappareils de mesure
remplacement de compresseurs
abandon de lAC pour certaines fonctions
mise en place de VEV
modification de larchitecture du rseau
mise en place ou amlioration du systme de gestion centralise
mise en place dun systme de rcupration de
chaleur
ddoublement du rseau (basse pression / haute
pression)
optimisation du parc machines par modification
des squences de fonctionnement
amlioration du taux de fuite en rseau
ncessit d'externaliser
autre
Q 2-3 Quelle est votre position vis vis de l'externalisation de la fonction
Air Comprim ?
vous ne connaissez pas cette pratique

vous navez pas davis sur cette pratique
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

138

vous y rflchissez et:

vous avez des attentes particulires (passez Q 2-3-a)
vous avez des craintes particulires (passez Q 2-3-b)
vous avez dj externalis
suite une rflexion interne (passez Q 2-3-a)
suite une dcision de votre groupe (passez Q 2-3-b)
en parallle lexternalisation dune autre fonction
prcisez alors la date de lexternalisation: 199
vous avez voulu externaliser, mais aucun prestataire n'tait intress
(rpondez aux questions suivantes de Q 2-3)
Q 2-3-a Quelles sont vos attentes et / ou les avantages lis l'externalisation ?
recentrage sur votre mtier de base

capacit d'investissement prserve pour le process
transfert des risques financiers lis aux investissements matriels sur
le prestataire
matrise technique de la qualit
diminution des pertes de production lies la bonne qualit de lair
comprim
homognit de l'offre au niveau national pour vos diffrentes implantations
bnfice d'un service de Recherche & Dveloppement national / international
matrise des dpenses
rcupration de main d'uvre pour la production
occasion de ne pas renouveler un personnel de maintenance sur le
dpart (ex: retraite)
meilleure efficacit de la maintenance
meilleures performances du rseau de distribution
bnfice d'une offre globale (avec l'externalisation d'autres fonctions)
autre .....................................................................................................
Q 2-3-b Quelles sont les craintes quvoque chez vous l'ide d'externaliser?
cot lev de la prestation

perte de savoir-faire en interne
dlais d'intervention longs
perte de motivation de votre personnel de maintenance
conflits sociaux internes lis une ventuelle ncessit de licenciement, reclassement
manque de souplesse / adaptation difficile aux besoins de production
perte de contrle permanent
laisser-aller des performances sur le rseau de distribution
diminution de la maintenance prventive
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

139

espionnage industriel
autre ....................................................................................................
Q 2-3-c Quels ont t les principaux facteurs dclenchants de cette
dcision ?
audit-diagnostic
dysfonctionnements / pannes
de lourds investissements raliser
augmentation dactivit
exigences particulires de qualit dair
rduction des dpenses dexploitation
cots de maintenance
cots dlectricit
prise de connaissance d'offres commerciales intressantes
autre (prcisez) ...................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q 2-3-d L'externalisation, une dcision de votre groupe
Les autres filiales du groupe ont-elles galement externalis ? Si
oui, lesquelles et quand ?
Quelles taient les raisons de cette dcision ? (reportez-vous, par

exemple Q 2-3-a ?
Q 2-4 Prcisez le niveau d'externalisation
maintenance garantie totale sous-traite (norme NF x 60-010 niveau 5)

contrat dentretien et de maintenance (norme NF x 60-010 niveau 3 5)
achat dair comprim au m3 + prestations de conduite et maintenance
(norme NF x 60-010 niveau 1 5)
achat dair comprim au m3 au sein dune solution "globale" (fourniture de
vapeur ou de dazote par exemple)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

140

Q 2-5 Votre prestataire et vous

Q 2-5-a Lors de votre dcision d'externaliser, quelles socits de
prestataires connaissiez-vous ?
DALKIA
ELYO
SOCHAN
ELECTRABEL
AIR LIQUIDE
INDUSTELEC
CARBOXIQUE
autre
EDF
GDF
TRACTEBEL
Q 2-5-b Comment les avez-vous connues ?
elles ont ralis votre diagnostic nergie

elles vous ont t signales par le bureau d'tudes/l'expert qui a ralis votre diagnostic
elles vous ont t signales par la direction rgionale de l'ADEME
elles vous ont fait une offre spontane
elles produisent l'air comprim d'un industriel de votre connaissance
elles vous ont t signales par la direction de votre groupe
elles ont fait la publicit de leurs services dans une presse industrielle spcialise
autre (prcisez)
Q 2-5-c Pour le choix du prestataire, comment vous-tes vous mis /

avez-vous t mis en relation?
vous avez t dmarch

vous avez ralis une consultation restreinte au sein des prestataires
que vous connaissiez
vous avez fait un appel d'offre ouvert
autre .....................................................................................................
Q 2-5-d Dans le cas d'un appel d'offre, quelles sont les socits qui
ont rpondu
DALKIA
ELYO
SOCHAN
ELECTRABEL
AIR LIQUIDE
INDUSTELEC
CARBOXIQUE
autre
EDF
GDF
TRACTEBEL
Q 2-5-e Avec qui avez-vous finalement conclu votre contrat d'externalisation ?
DALKIA
ELYO
SOCHAN
ELECTRABEL
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
AIR LIQUIDE
INDUSTELEC
CARBOXIQUE
autre
SAVE
EDF
GDF
TRACTEBEL
DoE
ECE

141

Q 2-5-f Pour quelles raisons avez-vous choisi ce prestataire ?
son offre comptitive financirement

sa rputation
ses garanties
sur la fourniture
sur la maintenance
sur le dpannage
sur les conomies
son offre cl en main complte et adquate aux besoins
sa capacit dvolution
sa comprhension de vos besoins
sa culture industrielle
son implantation nationale
son offre de solution globale
sa rapidit dintervention
sa fiabilit
sa prise en charge de l'achat de nouveaux investissements
compresseurs
gnie civil
autre
sa transparence
La qualit des interlocuteurs de terrain et la confiancet qu'ils
inspirent
Q 2-6 Les clauses de votre contrat
date de signature ................................................................................................
dure....................................................................................................................
clauses de rengociation ..................................................................................
conditions de renouvellement ..........................................................................
Y a-t-il eu des besoins d'investissement (matriel ou gnie civil ) lors de
l'externalisation ? Si oui, leur prise en charge a-t-elle t totale de la part
du prestataire / partage ?
Quelles sont les charges d'exploitation (facture d'lectricit, maintenance,

) qui restent directement la charge de votre entreprise ?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

142

Comment rglez-vous votre prestataire ?
mensuellement
annuellement
autre (prcisez) ...............................................................................................
Cette rmunration est-elle ?
indpendante de votre consommation d'air comprim

attache au volume d'air consomm
Dans ce dernier cas, le tarif est-il ?
binme (partie fixe + prix au m3 consomm)
monme (prix au m3)
Le prix au m3 est-il ?
indpendant de la consommation
dgressif
progressif
Avez-vous ngoci ces conditions ? ................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
Sur quelles bases (garantie sur: fourniture, objectif de consommation fix
en kWh/m3, performance des matriels ) ? ...................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
Avez-vous impos des clauses de pnalit pour non garantie des rsultats ? ....................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
Avez-vous des impratifs particuliers (ex: objectif prcis d'efficacit nergtique la production en kWh/m3, objectifs prcis sur le nombre de m3,
sur le taux de fuite en rseau ?)
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

143

Quels sont les autres faits saillants du contrat ?
Q 2-7 A posteriori, quelle apprciation gnrale portez-vous sur cette

dcision ?
trs satisfait
satisfait
moyennement satisfait
du
Les garanties promises par votre prestataire ont-elles t respectes ?
Cette formule est-elle suffisamment souple ? (volution du matriel, de la

production )
Quels sont la nature (investissement, fonctionnement, maintenance ) et

l'ampleur des conomies ralises (kWh, kF, personnel ) ?
Evaluez-vous vos performances "air comprim" (conomique, nergtique) en continu avec votre prestataire ? Si oui, comment ?
Avez-vous rencontr des pannes depuis lexternalisation ? Si oui, quelles

en ont t les consquences ?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

144

Quelles ont t les consquences de l'externalisation sur le personnel de

maintenance (effectif, responsabilits, motivation, )
Cette pratique a-t-elle t l'occasion de vous interroger profondment sur

votre mtier, au-del mme d'une rflexion gnrale sur les pratiques
nergtiques ? Et d'y rpondre sereinement et efficacement ?
VOS SOUHAITS ET ATTENTES VIS A VIS DU FUTUR GUIDE ADEME

Trouvez-vous judicieux que l'ADEME ralise un guide spcifique sur de
conseils sur l'externalisation ?
non (justifiez) ..................................................................................................
oui (passez aux questions ci-dessous)
Si oui, qu'attendez-vous en particulier ?
des conseils techniques

aide au choix des matriels
aide au dimensionnement des rseaux
aide aux "bonnes techniques" de conduite et de maintenance
autre
des conseils financiers
relatifs aux diffrents modes d'emprunt et de crdit
relatifs aux avantages fiscaux
autre
des conseils stratgiques
sur la rflexion conduire lors d'une externalisation
sur la construction d'un contrat
sur la ngociation d'un contrat
sur les acteurs du march
autre
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

145
APPENDIX 4: Data Collection

Guide for Compressed Air Users
APPENDIX 4:
Data Collection Guide for Compressed Air Users
Guide for data collection for Users of Compressed Air Systems

Prepared by Edgar Blaustein, Energy 21
for
SAVE contract working group
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
ADEME
IDENTIFICATION OF CAS USER

ROLE OF COMPRESSED AIR
SYSTEM DESIGN, MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION
COMPRESSED AIR COSTS
ENERGY SAVINGS MEASURES
OUTSOURCING
INSTITUTIONAL ACTION
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

146

IDENTIFICATION OF CAS USER

Site visited
Name of enterprise
Installation visited
Address
Particular factory or department
Person contacted
Contact
Name
Function or post
Telephone
Fax
Email
Products
Production
Identification of principal product(s) or service(s)
produced
Approximate indication of quantity or volume produced
Clients
General description of market served
Certification
Is the enterprise or production site certified? ISO 9000,

ISO 14000, EMAS, national certification.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

147

ROLE OF COMPRESSED AIR

Site visited
Uses of compressed Check uses of compressed air:
Materials handling or transport
air
Pistons, presses, other mechanical movement
Blowing, cleaning
Drying
Hand tools
Process
Other ...
Rank in importance:
Compressed air
Compressed air
compared to other
Hydraulics
forms of energy
Mechanical systems
Electric systems
What other fluid networks do you have?
Fluids
Refrigeration
Steam
Heat
Other gases (nitrogen, oxygen, ...)
Vacuum
Other ...
Overall, is your company satisfied with the compressed
Satisfaction
air system? If not, what are the problems encountered?
Can you summarise your requirements for the comRequirements
pressed air system? Can you prioritise, cost, quality and
reliability?
Compressed air production
kWh
m3/hour
Compressor
Type
bar
Age
Control
manufacturer
Screw,
VSD, ...
piston, ...
Estimated total consumption, in Nm3/hour, cfm, or other
units. Volume for each pressure used.
Do you expect your needs for compressed air to grow or
shrink in the future? For what reasons?
Distribution network Estimated overall length,
Average diameter,
Topology,
Material,
Multiple circuits (pressure or air quality), zones
Type of control system, measuring equipment, telemeControl system
tering, ...
Hours per day or per year
Duty cycle
Volume of compressed air

Growth
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Drying and filtering

148
Air quality
Type of equipment used
Quality requirements
Requirements for:
Oil
Humidity, dew point
Particles
Other
Air quality standard
Do your requirements for air quality correspond to a standard for air quality?
Certification
If your enterprise is certified, did the certification process

identify problems with the compressed air system? What
actions were taken?
Noise
Is noise level a consideration for you?
Quality and reliability problems
Have you experienced problems with your system

(breakdown, pressure variation, air quality, ...)?
Future needs
Do you expect your compressed air needs to change in

the coming years (quantity, quality, ...)?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

149

SYSTEM DESIGN, MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION

Design responsibility
System design
Who was responsible for system design?
Design criteria
Was an outside consultant or engineering firm employed for any phase of the design process?
What were the design criteria applied?
Was specific or overall energy consumption a design
criteria?
Were life cycle costs, or overall operating costs among
the design criteria?
Were specific energy savings measures (advanced
control systems, leak detection, multi-stage compressor, multiple pressures, ...) considered?
How were system requirements (quantity, quality, ...)
determined?
Purchase decisions
Who was responsible for purchase decisions? What

was the decision process?
Competitive bidding
Was a competitive bidding process used?

Were operating or energy costs among the choice
criteria?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Responsibility

150
System operation and management

Who is responsible assigned for the following functions:
operation
routine and preventive maintenance
leak detection and repair
breakdown
major overhaul
Are outside contractors involved in any of these functions?
System replacement
Reporting circuit
If in the future, major components of the system must

be replaced, who will be responsible for deciding on
the replacement? What will be the respective roles of
the Operations, Maintenance, Purchasing and Finance
departments?
What would the decision process be?
Reporting and accounting
Is anyone responsible for reporting on the compressed
air system?
If so, to whom does this person report?
Nature of Reporting
What is the nature of reporting?

What information is reported?
What is the frequency of reporting?
Profit centers
Does your company use profit center accounting

methods?
If so, how are energy costs assigned to profit centers?
Compressed air costs
Do compressed air costs, or energy for compressed

air, constitute a specific item in cost accounting?
Are they broken down by department or profit center?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

151

COMPRESSED AIR COSTS

Note: some of the following cost items may be considered to be confidential.
Make certain that the contact person is comfortable in divulging information. We
do not need precise accounting information, only general cost parameters.
Operating and investment costs
Original investment
cost
Overall compressed air Total system operating costs, perhaps broken down by
major categories (maintenance, ...). (Might be exoperating costs
pressed as Euros/year, as Euros/m3 , as percentage of
production costs or as Euros/unit of production of company's product, ...).
Energy costs
What are your compressed air energy costs.(Might be

expressed as Euros/year, as Euros/m3 or as percentage of operating costs.)
Perception of costs
Does management consider compressed air costs, or

compressed air energy costs to be high, medium or
low?
Are these cost items considered to be a problem?
If so, who is considered to be responsible for solving
the problem?
Breakdowns
Quality
Operations problems
Have CAS breakdowns stopped production? Do you
have any figures for the cost of lost production? Expressed as cost/per hour of breakdown, ...
Have compressed air quality problems caused production problems? Quality of product, reject rate, customer
dissatisfaction?
Has the cost of these problems been evaluated?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

152


Audits
Energy or compressed Has your company done an energy or compressed air
system audit recently?
air audits
If so, who carried out the audit? What was its cost? Did
your company receive any governmental subsidies for
the audit?
To whom was the audit addressed? (Production,
Maintenance, Accounting, ...)
Recommendations
What were the recommendations of the audit?
Results
If audit recommendations were carried out, have you

evaluated the impact (in terms of cost, quality or reliability)?
Leak
Leaks
Do you have an idea of the percentage of air leaks?
Leak detection procedures
Are there any leak detection procedures? (Type, frequency, who carries them out).
Leak correction measures
Are there any regular leak correction measures?

(Regular replacement of flexible hoses, etc.)
Possible savings
Cost reduction
Do you have an estimation of possible savings in the
compressed air function? If so, on what is this estimation based?
Cost reduction measures
Are you considering any measures to reduce the cost

of the compressed air function in your company? If so,
what measures?
Decision process
What would be the decision process for deciding

measures for cost reduction in compressed air? Who is
involved?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

153

Specific measures
What compressed air related energy savings measures has your company considered?
Check if any of the following specific measures have been considered.
Overhaul existing equipment
Replace part of the existing installation
Install additional measuring equipment
Replace compressed air by some other energy source
Install improved control system (perhaps including VSD)
Modify distribution network architecture
Replace piping
Leak detection
Use waste heat
Outsourcing
Other
Specify or comment
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

154

OUTSOURCING
Perception of outsourcing
Has your company considered outsourcing the entire
Outsourcing considcompressed air function? If so, when, and with what
ered?
conclusion.
If you have considered outsourcing, rate the following
Criteria in evaluating
criteria as positive, negative or indifferent in you
outsourcing
evaluation of outsourcing ("+ / / blank")
Concentrate on core activities
Free investment capacity for other activities
Quality of compressed air
Reliability of the compressed air system
Reduced cost of compressed air
Improved cost control
Availability of a single source for several plants
R&D capacity of service providers
Concentrate skilled personnel on other activities
Reduce personnel
Availability of an overall solution, including several gases
Cost of outsourcing
Loss of in house competence
Delay in case of breakdown
Problems with company maintenance personnel
Preventive maintenance
Leak control
Industrial espionage
Experience with outsourcing
(Only applicable if outsourcing is used in the company)
Are you satisfied with outsourcing of the compressed
Satisfaction
air function? Specify.
Payment
Is billing dependant on the quantity of compressed air

used? If so, how is consumption measured (hours of
operation, or actual measurement of m3)
Energy costs
Who pays for energy costs? (Specify for motors and for
auxiliary functions such as air drying, compressor
house heating-lighting-ventilation)
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

155

INSTITUTIONAL ACTION
Taxation
Are you aware of the fiscal measures in your country to
Knowledge of fiscal
support for energy effi- encourage energy efficiency measures?
ciency
Do you believe these fiscal measures are effective?
Evaluation of fiscal
Has your company taken their impact into account in
measures
decisions on compressed air related decisions?
European or national support measures
Directorate General XVII (Energy) of the European Union is considering various
measures to encourage energy savings in Compressed Air Systems. Could you
indicate what types of institutional action you believe might be useful?
Usefulness of possible Could you give your opinion of the usefulness of the
following measures under consideration.. Rate the folmeasures
lowing measures as useful, useless or indifferent ("+ /
/ blank")
Labelling. Some kind of product labelling for compressors and air
handling relative to their specific energy consumption.
If you believe that labelling might be useful, what kind of product information would you like to see?
Voluntary agreements by equipment manufacturers to improve the
energy efficiency of compressed air equipment.
Procurement. Organisation of a buyers consortium in your industry,
which would initiate a bidding process for the supply of energy efficient compresses air equipment.
If you believe that a procurement program might be useful, what kind of
specifications would you like to see included in the bidding program?
Dissemination of information, training and education focused on
improving compressed air system energy consumption
Demonstration and pilot actions to identify and demonstrate energy
efficient design, equipment and practices for compressed air systems.
Development of accounting and measurement tools. The SAVE
program has supported research on introducing analytical accounting
methods for electricity use. Do you see similar tools for compressed
air as being potentially useful?
Creation of a standard contractual framework for outsourcing of
the compressed air function, to aid companies in including effective
control of energy costs in outsourcing contracts.
Contests and awards to identify the best performing machine corresponding to a given set of specifications.
Comment
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

157
APPENDIX 5: Qualitative Data Collection

Guide for Equipment Manufacturers
APPENDIX 5:
Qualitative Data Collection Guide for Equipment
Manufacturers
Guide for data collection for Manufacturers

of Compressed Air Systems
Draft, v1
Prepared by Edgar Blaustein, Energy 21
for
SAVE contract working group
1.
2.
3.
4.
ADEME
IDENTIFICATION OF MANUFACTURER OR DISTRIBUTOR

PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED OR SOLD
SYSTEM DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

158

IDENTIFICATION OF MANUFACTURER OR DISTRIBUTOR

Site visited
Name of enterprise
Name of parent company
Address
Contact
Person contacted
Name
Function or post
Telephone
Fax
Email
PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED OR SOLD

Production
Check products lines offered
Drive systems and components
Compressors, compressor packages
Filtering equipment and components
Drying equipment and components
Piping, tubing, etc.
Measuring and leak detection equipment
Control systems and components.
Other ________________________________
Products
Clients
General description of market served, including geographic regions, industrial sectors or other end users,
type of client (captive distribution network, independent
distributors, final users, ...).
Suppliers (for distributors)
Who, in general, are your suppliers? Types of companies (component manufacturers, assemblers, ...). Import or European production.
Certification
Is the enterprise or production site certified? ISO 9000,

ISO 14000, EMAS, national certification.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

Energy efficiency as a
sales argument
159

Sales strategies
Does your product advertising mention the energy efficiency or specific energy consumption of your products?
How are energy consumption criteria integrated into
your sales activities?
Energy savings
products
Does your company manufacturer products which you

believe are more energy efficient than the average
product sold on the market? If so, which products?
Do these products benefit from particular type of sales
efforts (special brochures, advertising programmes,
...)?
Training
Does your company provide any specific training programmes or materials focused on energy consumption? If so, is this material aimed at the sales force? Is
it available to end users?
Audits
As part of your sales efforts, does your company carry

out audits of user needs, which include aspects of an
energy audit?
If so, how is this done? Can you comment on the results and findings?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

160

SYSTEM DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE

Design responsibility
Energy efficiency related design options
End user system design

In your view, who is generally responsible for designing
the CAS into which your products are integrated? Does
your firm counsel system designers? Are you in direct
or indirect contact with system designers? If so, in what
manner?
To the best of your knowledge, what proportion of CAS
designs took into account the following options (estimate as quartiles, that is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 fourths):
Reduced system pressure
Multiple system pressures
Adequate distribution network design
Optimal control of multi compressor systems
Waste heat recovery
Design criteria
In your view, what are the principal design criteria applied by system designers?
Is specific or overall energy consumption a design criteria?
Are life cycle costs, or overall operating costs among
the design criteria?
How were system requirements (quantity, quality, ...)
determined?
Purchase decisions
In your view, how do your clients make purchase decisions? What is the decision process, and who are the
main actors?
Competitive bidding
Does your firm often respond to competitive bidding

tenders?
If so, are operating or energy costs among the choice
criteria?
After sales service
Maintenance
Does your firm provide after sales service?
If so, to whom (distributor or final user). What is the
function of the people who contact your firm for service
(distributors after sales service technician, final user
production or maintenance department, specialised
maintenance firms, ...)?
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE

161

Quality of maintenance In your view, are your products generally well maintained in the field? If not, what are the major shortcomings of maintenance?
In general, does the equipment you sell benefit from
regularly scheduled preventive maintenance programmes?
Energy efficiency related maintenance

practices
To the best of your knowledge, what proportion of users provide for the following types of maintenance to
their CAS (estimate as quartiles, that is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4
fourths):
Control of leaks
Control of filter pressure drop
Proper operation of condensate traps
Tracking of system performance
Periodic review of system requirements

We would appreciate your evaluation of the technical and economic potential of
various energy savings measures presented in the following table. The table is
divided into two sections.
The first contains measures applicable at the time of system design, or replacement of major components. These options should be considered in
comparison with the design of average quality existing installations.
The second section contains measures having to do with system operation
and maintenance. The enumerated measures should be considered in the
light of existing practices in average quality systems.
For both tables, we would like your opinion on:
the applicability of the measure, measured as the percentage of systems for

which the measure would provide cost effective improvement of the energy
efficiency of the system;
the percentage gains in energy efficiency which could be expected (in those
systems where the measure is applicable);
payback time for the measure, in months. Payback time is to be calculated
for the additional cost of the measure, as compared with a standard system.
ADEME
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
ECE
ADEME
Upgrading of compressor (for example, to 2 stage

compressor)
Fraunhofer ISI
SAVE
DoE
Other _______
%
gains (2)
payback
time (3)
applications (4)
162
Measuring and tracking system performance
Reducing air leaks
Other _______
Optimizing certain end use devices
Reducing frictional pressure losses (for example by

choosing larger pipe diameter)
Overall system design, including multi-pressure systems
Recuperating waste heat for use in other functions
Use of sophisticated control systems
%
applicability (1)
Improvement of drives: use of high efficiency motors;

integration of VSDs into compressors
Energy savings measure

ECE

Web Version PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Web Version PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Peter Radgen

Compressed Air Systems

Compressed Air Systems in the European Union

Study team participants

Compressed Air Systems

Executive Summary ......................................................................................... 1

1. Characterisation of Compressed Air Systems in the EU..................... 27

Data Collection Methods ........................................................... 27

Numeric Data ............................................................................ 28

Qualitative Data on CAS Decision Processes ........................... 31

2. Model Energy Consumption and Growth............................................... 37

Aim of Model Development ....................................................... 37

Description of the Model............................................................ 37

3. Technical and Economic Energy Savings Potential ............................. 43

Improvement of Drives .............................................................. 44

Optimal Choice of the Type of Compressor .............................. 45

Improvement of Compressor Technology ................................. 46

Use of Sophisticated Control Systems ...................................... 46

Recuperating Waste Heat ......................................................... 46

Improved Air Treatment ............................................................ 47

Overall System Design.............................................................. 47

Optimising End Use Devices..................................................... 48

Compressed Air Systems

Reducing Frictional Pressure Losses in Networks..................... 48

Reducing Air Leaks ................................................................... 49

Measuring and Tracking System Performance.......................... 49

Synthesis of Technical Measures .............................................. 50

4. Organisational Aspects of Energy Savings ........................................... 55

Organisational Barriers to Improving CAS Energy

Outsourcing of the Compressed Air Function ............................ 56

Analytical Accounting Methods.................................................. 57

CAS Final Users ........................................................................ 63

Manufacturers of Compressors and CAS Equipment ................ 71

Electric Utilities .......................................................................... 73

Engineering Consultants and Compressed Air Suppliers .......... 76

Environmental Impact ................................................................ 77

6. Actions to Promote Energy Efficient Compressed Air Systems .......... 81

Classification of Actions and Development of a

Proposition to the Commission on How to Act......................... 108

Compressed Air Systems

7. Evaluation of the Impact of Measures.................................................. 113

The Energy Scenarios............................................................. 113

Future Energy Consumption of CAS ....................................... 114

Bibliography ................................................................................................. 119

APPENDIX 1: Market Characterisation: Qualitative Data .......................... 121

Compressed Air Systems

CAS electricity consumption .......................................................... 29

Number of air compressors by power range .................................. 30

Number of new and upgraded CAS until 2015............................... 41

Process chain for CAS................................................................... 43

Major families of compressors ....................................................... 45

An example of a CA network ......................................................... 49

Major energy savings measures .................................................... 53

Industry Electricity Factor for EU countries, US and Japan

Electricity Consumption for EU countries in 1996 .......................... 66

Compressed Air Systems

Electricity consumption in compressed air systems ...................... 29

Number of air compressors installed ............................................. 30

Number of air compressors installed in 1999 ................................ 39

Electricity consumption for CAS in 1999........................................ 39

Growth rates for CAS in the EU..................................................... 40

Compressed air system life cycle .................................................. 51

Energy savings measures ............................................................. 52