Black Holes

A Numerical Method for Profiling Temporal,

Spatial, and Gravitational Distortions
by Gerald Reynolds

6-28-12

Abstract:
This paper presents a numeric method for determining the temporal, spatial, and
gravitational distortions experienced as one approaches the event horizon of a nonspinning black hole in a way not requiring a high level of mathematical understanding. A
computer program using this numeric method is presented that simulates these distortions
and is used to determine the location of the event horizon. Explanations of the simulation
results are given to help the reader visualize the curved space-time geometry in this
vicinity.

Introduction:
Black Holes have always been a subject of fascination to me. The concept of an event
horizon surrounding the black hole from within nothing can escape, not even light, has
been most mystifying. My search for explanations of the physics of the event horizon has
been long and difficult. Why light could not travel the 1mm from inside the event
horizon to the outside was a continuing mystery to me. The two most enjoyable books
Ive read on the subject were Black Holes and Time Warps by Kip Thorne and Relativity
Visualized by Lewis Epstein. The one missing concept, allowing me to reach a certain
level of understanding, came from Lewiss book for which I am greatly appreciative.
Both books are good reads for the science enthusiast.
This paper is intended for persons intrigued by the subject, with some understanding of
high school physics, geometry, trigonometry, and with the ability to work with
mathematical equations. An understanding of calculus and associated higher level
mathematics is not required. All equations used in the paper are derived. Short tutorials
on math concepts used are given in the Appendices. Most concepts are also visually
illustrated to augment the math. Hopefully, this paper will improve ones understanding
and give some insight to what happens in the vicinity of a black hole.

Overview:
The paper starts out with a quick review of Newtonian Mechanics and discusses the
conditions it is based upon. The concept of curved space is then introduced using
embedding diagrams; and the overlaying of a non-distorted coordinate system is
discussed to facilitate movement within the fabric of curved space. The paper goes on to
show what gravity does to light and its consequences on time. A graphical method is
introduced to translate space and time between distorted local and non-distorted reference
frames such as those experienced close to the black hole and what we experience being
sufficiently distant from its gravitational influence. This is used to show how distorted
time also distorts space and to compute the magnitude of the space distortion. A method
is then developed to calculate the distortion of gravity experienced locally. A graphical
concept is introduced to visualize the presence of an event horizon and describes why one
encounters the horizon before reaching the black hole. An algorithm is then presented to
1

calculate the temporal, spatial, and gravitational distortions as one journeys toward the
event horizon; and is used in conjunction with a computer program to simulate the
location of the event horizon. A table of data showing simulation results is given with
some comments as to what is happening. A conceptual method of making measurements,
both from a distance and locally, is discussed to measure the three distortions
independently. And lastly, some terminology is described along with some
characteristics associated with black holes. Hopefully this paper will be inspiring and
lead to further pursuits on the subject.

A Short Review of Newtonian Mechanics:

Newtonian physics is sufficient to describe the gravitational attraction between two
bodies where space-time distortions caused by gravity are insignificant. It is based on
Euclidean geometry where the fabric of space-time is flat and starts to break down as
space-time becomes curved.
The force between two gravitating bodies is given by Isaac Newtons empirically
determined relationship:
(1)
where: G is the gravitational constant
M1 is the mass of one body
M2 is the mass of the other body
R is the separation between the centers of mass of the two bodies
Remembering F = ma, the gravitational acceleration g at a point above a gravitating body
can also be considered a force per unit mass and using eq (1) can be expressed as:
(2)
where: G is the gravitational constant
M is the mass of the body
R is the distance from the center of mass of the body to the point
When, we observe a black hole (or its effect on an orbiting object), we measure the
orbital radius and time from our distant reference frame where distortions caused by the
black holes gravity are insignificant. However, a local observer measures something
quite different because of local distortions. The key to understanding black holes (in my
opinion) is to understand the distortions and why they occur.

Embedding Diagrams:
An embedding diagram is a tool invented by physicist to graphically illustrate the
curvature of space as described by Einsteins equations of General Relativity. To
describe the curvature of one-dimensional space, one needs two dimensions. For twodimensional space, one needs three dimensions. And likewise, one needs four
dimensions to describe the curvature of three-dimensional space. I, for one, cant
visualize a four-dimensional diagram and, like others, use a three-dimensional embedding
diagram to visualize the curvature of a two-dimensional slice of three-dimensional space.
The following is an example of an embedding diagram for a black hole:

Figure 1. Embedding Diagram for a Black Hole

The two-dimensional slice would be flat in the absence of gravity. However, the
presence of a gravitating body would be analogous to placing a heavy ball onto a
stretched sheet of cloth. The weight of the ball would cause a depression in the sheet and
result in its curvature. In the case of a black hole, the weight of the ball would be so
heavy that the sheet would rip as depicted above. This depression is often referred to as a
gravity well. Later, we will discuss why gravity bends space. For now, just be aware of
the visual benefits of an embedding diagram.

Schwarzschild Coordinates:
In the context of black holes where there is spherical symmetry, a non-distorted polar
coordinate system is overlaid on top of its embedding diagram to provide spatial
reference coordinates that is unaffected by the distortions caused by gravity. The position
of a point can then be represented in terms of this coordinate system referred to as
Schwarzschild coordinates. Later, we will make use of Schwarzschild coordinates to
facilitate our calculations for moving to the next point in our journey toward the event
horizon. From earth (neglecting distortions caused by earths gravity), we view the black
hole as measured in the Schwarzschild Coordinate system.
3

Before we can begin our journey toward the black hole we need to know how to compute
the distortions of time, space, and gravity.

Temporal Distortion:
The following concept is presented by Lewis Epstein in his book Relativity Visualized:
Albert Einstein showed that energy and mass have equivalence with his famous formula:
(3)
This being the case, light (a form of energy) must fall in a gravitational field just as
matter does:

Figure 2. Gravity Bends Light

In this example, a flash light is used to create a horizontal light beam with height h.
Because of gravitational influences, the light beam bends downward. If the upper arc of
the beam takes time t, it must travel a distance of ct (c being the speed of light). Since
the bottom arc takes a shorter inner track and the speed of light is a universal constant in
any reference frame, the time expended is smaller by t and the distance traveled is also
smaller by ct as noted by the small triangle to the left of the wave front. The triangle to
the right of the wave front shows the velocity vectors (see Appendix A on vectors).
Certainly the velocity vector normal to the wave front is c since the wave front is
traveling at the speed of light. Also in time t, the light beam has fallen due to gravity g
and the vertical velocity has reached gt. Since both triangles have the same angles, they
are similar and the ratio of the lengths of their sides is the same (see Appendix B on
similar triangles). Therefore, the following relationship exists:
or restated:

The fractional slowdown in time from the upper to the lower portion of the light beam
can be stated as:
(4)
where: h is sufficiently small so that g can be considered constant over the distance h.
In a sense, the lower arc inherits a fraction of the upper arcs time rate. One can now see
that one consequence of gravity is the distortion of time. As one descends closer to the
black hole, the time rate will continually slow down. The total slow down at some point
from the black hole would be the cumulative effect of the slowdown in each little
segment in height calculated using eq (4) from a sufficiently distant point to the local
point in question and would be represented by:

where: TL is the time rate at the local point

TS is the time rate in Schwarzschild coordinates

Translation of Coordinates:
We now know how to compute the distortion of time. To compute the distortion of
space, I made use of a graphical technique that Lewis Epstein introduced in his book
Relativity Visualized for translating space and time between two moving (nonaccelerating) reference frames. His technique makes use of space-time diagrams, one for
each reference frame. Each diagram displays time orthogonal to space (time on the yaxis and space on the x-axis). He then rotates one diagram and superimposes it onto the
other. In this way, one can project time and distance from one reference frame to the
other in order to translate between the two reference frames.
It is my belief that the same concept can be used for accelerating reference frames (one
cannot tell the difference between a stationary reference frame in a gravitational field and
one that is truly accelerating). The idea is: it makes no difference what your reference
frame is (whether stationary, moving, or accelerating), time will always be orthogonal to
space in your reference frame. This being the case, one needs to rotate one reference
frame with respect to the other in order to translate time and space between the two.
Since we have already calculated the distortion of time, we can rotate one reference
frame in order to project time in a manner that matches this distortion. Once done, the
distortion of space can then be determined.

This technique can also be used with three-dimensional space-time diagrams one axis
for time and two for space (for a black hole the space dimensions in the radial and
tangential directions) as shown:

Figure 3. 3D Space-time Translation

When one diagram is rotated in the radial direction, the radial dimension becomes
distorted with respect to the other diagram. The tangential axis remains parallel between
the two diagrams and this dimension remains undistorted. For our purpose, we will only
use the two-dimensional space-time diagram and only focus on radial distortions.

Spatial Distortion in the Radial Direction:

For a black hole, there are an infinite number of reference frames. There is a static local
reference frame for each radial point on the journey toward the black hole. In addition,
there is a reference frame for an object free falling toward the black hole. Only static
reference frames will be used in this paper. The local reference frame will be considered
local to the point of analysis in our journey. The question that needs answering is what
does local time distortion do to the radial distance from the black hole center as measured
locally? The following 2D space-time diagrams are used to answer this question:

Figure 4. 2D Space Time Translation

6

In this example, the Schwarzschild space-time axes are represented by rS and tS and the
local space-time axes are represented by rL and tL. The local space-time axes are also
rotated by angle . If, for example, we want to know how much the Schwarzschild clock
advances in one of the local seconds TL, we would project TL perpendicularly from the
local time axis onto the Schwarzschild time axis, as shown, to get TS. We could also
start with one second from the Schwarzschild time axis and project onto the local time
axis as long as the projection is perpendicular to the local time axis. The ratio TL/TS
represents the time distortion for the local reference frame.
For example: in 1 second of our time (Schwarzschild coordinates), the local clock would
advance by say 0.7 seconds. The slower the local clock runs, the more its space-time
axes would need to be rotated. If the local clock were to stop (what happens at the event
horizon), its space-time axes would need to be rotated 90 degrees. If one knows what the
time distortion is by calculation, one can rotate the local space-time axes to match this
distortion.
Once properly rotated, the radial distortion can be determined. Some arbitrary distance
RS (Schwarzschild coordinates) can be projected perpendicularly from the Schwarzschild
space axis onto the local space axis, as shown, to get RL. Note that this space projection
is perpendicular to the Schwarzschild axis whereas the time projection is perpendicular to
the local axis. This is because time slows down in the gravitational field whereas the
radial distance is stretched. The projection RL represents what would be measured in the
local reference frame corresponding to RS measured in the Schwarzschild reference
frame. The ratio RL/RS would then represent the distortion of the local radial distance.
Since the triangle represented by TS and TL have the same angles as the triangle
represented by RS and RL, they are similar triangles. Consequently, the following
relationship holds and represents the radial distortion:
(5)
If we were to measure 100 km of radial distance from the point represented by the local
reference frame to the center of the black hole, a local observer at that point would
measure say 140 km to the center. One can now see that the distortion of time also
results in the distortion of spatial distance in the radial direction. Radial distance locally
is stretched by the effects of slow time.

Distortion of Gravity:
In order to calculate the distortion of gravity, we need an equation for gravity that is
temporally consistent (parameters measured are in the same temporal reference frame)
and applicable for the local reference frame. We know that the acceleration a of an
object can be approximated by V/t (change in velocity per small change in time). If
one assumes a circular orbit of an object around a gravitating body (lets keep it simple),

then one can represent the velocity of the object at a moment in time using a vector V that
is always perpendicular to the radius R of the orbit:

Figure 5. Motions of a Circular Orbit

For a small change in time t, the object moves from point A to point B over a distance
represented by the arc AB, the orbital angle of the object changes by , the orbital
velocity changes directions and is represented by the vector V. Note: the velocity
vector V only changes direction by the angle and has no change in magnitude. The
difference between vectors V and V is the vector V and for small angles has a
magnitude of V (when the angle is expressed in radians see Appendix C on angles
and arcs). Likewise, the distance of the arc AB is R. Therefore, t is the distance of
the arc AB/velocity of the object in orbit, or R/V. The magnitude of the acceleration a
of the object caused by the gravitational pull is therefore:

or

For an object in a circular orbit with no drag and no thrust, the acceleration a of the
object is in balance with the gravitational acceleration g. Therefore:

(6)
We can calculate the expected gravity for some point close to the black hole using eq (2),
but for those unfortunate enough to be at that point, the distortions of time and radial
distances cause a higher gravitational experience. A local observer measures a smaller
orbital period because his clock runs slower. His measurement of the circumference is
the same as ours, but his calculation of the orbital velocity based on those measurements
will be higher. The local observer will also measure a greater orbital radius than what we
8

measure and that will help offset the increase experienced. However, V still goes up
faster than R and the local gravity experienced GL will be higher than the gravity GS
calculated in Schwarzschild coordinates. The gravitational distortion is represented by:

Distortion Factors:
One needs to use eq (4) repeatedly in conjunction with local radial distance and gravity to
inch worm their way down through many local points toward the black hole to determine
the profile of temporal, radial, and gravitational distortions. When applying eq (4), it is
important to use h and g based on the local reference frame.
To facilitate the journey, we need to calculate time, radius, and gravity distortion factors
for each point on the journey toward the black hole. If we define a distortion factor for
the point as df = TL/TS and distortion factors for time, radius, and gravity as:

it becomes clear that dft is the same as df. From eq (5), it is also clear that dfr is the
reciprocal of df. The gravitational distortion can be determined using eq (6). Since V
has units of meters per second and the circumferential distance is not distorted, the
distortion of time results in V distorted by 1/df. Since R is also distorted by 1/df, the
total distortion of gravity must be (1/df) / (1/df) or just 1/df. The distortion factors for
time, radius, and gravity can, therefore, be summarized as follows:
(7)
(8)

(9)

Anticipation of the Event Horizon:

If we use the flash light example that was used to develop eq (4), we can see that the
curvature has a center:

Figure 6. Center of Curvature

We can also imagine what happens if light were to emanate close to or at this center of
curvature. As we said before, the time rate for the rays traveling the inner arc must be
slowed for the speed of light to remain constant. Therefore, as the inner arc continues to
get closer to the center of curvature, time must continue to slow down. Eventually, we
would expect time to stop for light at the center of curvature. So, where is the center? In
the picture above, it appears to be at the point C. But this picture is only for one
reference frame the one containing the flashlight. The center of curvature is only
implied from the curvature experienced locally. The actual center of curvature is in
another reference frame and things get distorted if the observer tries to go from the
flashlight to the center as we will see next:

Figure 7. Center of Curvature Moves

10

In this example, the flashlight is moved from A to B to C where A, B, and C represent

three reference frames, each one closer to the black hole. One can see that when in
reference frame A, the center of curvature appears to be at A'. However, in reference
frame B where gravity is stronger, the center of curvature appears to be at B; and in
reference frame C, the center of curvature appears to be at C. As we move the reference
frame closer in, the center of curvature appears to move and becomes closer to the
reference frame. Notice that the apparent center of curvature in reference frame B is at
the black hole center. This is an interesting case where the orbital velocity is the speed of
light. In reference frame C, the center of curvature appears to be between the reference
frame and the black hole center. Eventually, we will reach a point where time stops and
this will occur before we reach the black hole center. This point is called the Event
Horizon. Not anything including light that is emitted at or inside the event horizon can
escape. It is as if space-time itself is being sucked into the black hole at the speed of
light. Outgoing light that is emitted at the event horizon will just hover there.

The Journey toward the Black Hole:

Certainly, the most accurate way to make this journey is to develop a differential
equation that takes into account all three distortions and then integrate down to the event
horizon to calculate the desired profiles. However, in the interest of simplicity, a
numerical integration approach is presented.
The first step is to subdivide the radial space between the chosen distant start point and
the black hole. There are a multitude of subdivision strategies. One approach is to use a
linear strategy where each segment between points is of constant length. This approach
is probably wasteful of computational resources since most of the action is near the black
hole and the behavior outside this proximity is mostly Newtonian. Another strategy is to
have a dynamic subdivision based on the current points local distance to the black hole
so the percentage increase in gravity at the next point is sufficiently small. This will help
maintain the main assumption used for eq (4) that gravity is reasonably constant within
the segment between two adjacent points. This latter approach is used.
The start point (representing a point where space-time distortions are negligible) and all
other points used for the journey will each have five parameters - a distortion factor df
and a set of parameters for both Schwarzschild and local coordinates:
df, (RS, GS), and (RL, GL)
where: df is the distortion factor for the point.
RS is the radius in Schwarzschild coordinates
GS is the gravity in Schwarzschild coordinates (Newtonian Gravity)
RL is the radius in local coordinates
GL is the gravity in local coordinates
11

For the start point, RS is set to the start radius (from the black hole). This radius and the
black hole mass are used with eq (2) to compute GS. (RL, GL) are set to (RS, GS) and
df is set to 1.
There is a concept of current point and next point. Current point data is used to
compute the distortion factor for the next point in the downward journey. The segment
height h (local distance to the next point) is calculated based on a very small fraction of
the current point RL. The next point df is computed based the current point df, the
height h, and the current point gravity GL, using eq (4):
dfnext = dfcur * (1 - GL*h / c)

(10)

The next point (RS, GS) and (RL, GL) are then calculated in the order shown:
RSnext = RScur h*dfcur
GSnext = G*M / RSnext2

(translates h to Schwarzschild coordinates)

(Newtonian gravity using eq (2))

(11)
(12)

RLnext = RSnext / dfnext

GLnext = GSnext / dfnext

(translates to the local coordinates)

(translates to the local coordinates)

(13)
(14)

Next in the journey is to move to the next point and make it the current point and repeat
the calculations described above.
One comment to make is: this is a numerical method and inherently has some error.
However, if the segment height is kept small, this error can be kept proportionally small.
Constants used in the following program are:
Gravitational constant G:
One Solar Mass (our Sun):
Earths surface gravity:
Speed of light c:

6.6726 * 10-11 meters/ (kilograms-sec)

1.9890 * 1030 kilograms
1g = 9.7536 meters/sec
299792458 meters/sec

12

Simulation:
A C-program was written to simulate the above methodology and is listed here:
/*************************************** black_hole.c *********************************
*
* This program computes the distortion factor, and radial distance and gravity in both
* Schwarzschild and local coordinates for each point as one makes a journey from a
* distant start point (where gravitational distortions are negligible) towards the
* black hole. One enters a start radius and the solar mass of the black hole. The
* program then computes the gravity at the start point, the location of the next point
* closer to the black hole, the distortion factor and Schwarzschild parameters for that
* point, and from these parameters, computes the local parameters:
*
*
df
distortion factor for the point.
*
*
(RS, GS)
radial distance to the black hole, and gravity in Schwarzschild
*
coordinates (Newtonian Laws of Gravity apply).
*
*
(RL, GL)
radial distance to the black hole, and gravity in local
*
coordinates.
*
*
RL = RS / df (RL and RS are in meters)
*
GL = GS / df (GL and GS are in meters/sec^2 internally for calculations)
*
* Input Units:
*
*
Mass is normalized to solar masses.
*
Distance is in meters.
*
* Output Units:
*
*
Gravity output is normalized to earth's 1g of gravity (9.7536m/sec^2)
*
Local time rate expressed as a fraction of our time rate.
*
* From the current point, the program determines the distance to the next point based
* on a fraction of the current point's local radial distance to the black hole and then
* computes the parameters for that point
*
* by Gerry Reynolds
*
* Revision 1.0
June 19, 2009
*
2.0
Aug
21, 2009 Changed program input to start radius and mass of
*
black hole.
*
3.0
Aug
27, 2009 Changed program to print results more often when close
*
to the event horizon.
*
4.0
April 29, 2012 Changed semantics to track those in the new document.
*
Changed the way Schwarzschild gravity is computed.
*
Changed the intervals between output of point data.
*
Add ability to print results for a specified radius.
*
**************************************************************************************/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(argc,argv)
int argc;
char *argv[];
{
int
p;
double
c,
G,
Msun,
Mblackhole,
RS_print,
Rfract,

/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*

Point Number, 1 is the start point

Speed of light (meters/sec)
Gravitational Constant (m^3/(kg-sec^2)
Mass of our Sun (kg)
Mass of the black hole (kg)
RS to be printed
Fraction of local radius to use for
distance to next point

13

*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/

h,

FILE

dfcur,
dfnext,

/*
/*
/*
/*

height (distance to next point in local

coordinates)
Distortion factor for current point
Distortion factor for next point

*/
*/
*/
*/

RScur,
RSnext,
RLcur,
RLnext,

/*
/*
/*
/*

Schwarzschild distance for current point

Schwarzschild distance for next point
Local distance for current point
Local distance for next point

*/
*/
*/
*/

GScur,
GSnext,
GLcur,
GLnext;

/*
/*
/*
/*

Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild
Local gravity
Local gravity

*/
*/
*/
*/

*f;

/* Pointer to output file

f = fopen("blkhole_out.txt","w");
c
G
Msun
RS_print
Rfract
printf
scanf
printf
scanf

=
=
=
=
=

*/

/* opens blkhole_out.txt for writing */

299792458.0;
6.6726e-11;
1.9890e30;
4430;
0.0000001;

/* Radius to be printed */

("\nRadius of Start point(meters)?\n");

("%lf", &RScur);
("\nMass of Black Hole (solar masses)?\n");
("%lf", &Mblackhole);

Mblackhole = Mblackhole * Msun;

GScur
= G*Mblackhole/(RScur*RScur);
dfcur
= 1.0;
RLcur
GLcur

gravity for current point

gravity for next point
for current point
for next point

= RScur;
= GScur;

/* Convert to kg) */
/* Compute gravity at start point */
/* Start point is Newtonian */

/* Set local parameters same as Schwarzschild parameters */

fprintf(f," Point Num # Radius(S)

Gravity(S) # Radius(L)
Time Rate\n");
fprintf(f,"
1 # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %8.7lf\n",
RScur,GScur/9.7536,RLcur,GLcur/9.7536,dfcur);
for (p=1; dfcur>0; p++)
{
h =
Rfract*RLcur;
dfnext = dfcur*(1-GLcur*h/(c*c));
RSnext
GSnext
RLnext
GLnext

=
=
=
=

Gravity(L) #

/* compute segment height */

/* compute distortion factor for next point*/

RScur-h*dfcur;
G*Mblackhole/(RSnext*RSnext);
RSnext/dfnext;
GSnext/dfnext;

/* Schwarzschild radial distance

/* Newtonian Laws of Gravity
/* Local radial distance
/* Local Gravity

*/
*/
*/
*/

if ((RScur>=RS_print) && (RSnext<RS_print))

/* Print for specified radius */
fprintf (f,"%10u # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %8.7lf\n",
p,RScur,GScur/9.7536,RLcur,GLcur/9.7536,dfcur);
if (dfcur > 0.6){
/* print every 1000000 points */
if (p%1000000==0)
fprintf (f,"%10u # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %8.7lf\n",
p,RScur,GScur/9.7536,RLcur,GLcur/9.7536,dfcur);
}
else if (dfcur > 0.01){
/* print every 10000 points */
if (p%10000==0)
fprintf (f,"%10u # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %8.7lf\n",
p,RScur,GScur/9.7536,RLcur,GLcur/9.7536,dfcur);
}
else
/* print every 100 points */
if (p%100==0)
fprintf (f,"%10u # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %12.0lf %16.0lf # %8.7lf\n",
p,RScur,GScur/9.7536,RLcur,GLcur/9.7536,dfcur);

14

dfcur
RScur
RLcur
GScur
GLcur

=
=
=
=
=

dfnext;
RSnext;
RLnext;
GSnext;
GLnext;

/* move to the next point */

}
fclose (f);
}

The following are the simulation results:

Point Num #
1 #

Radius(S)
50000000000

Gravity(S) #
0 #

Radius(L)
50000000000

Gravity(L) # Time Rate

0 # 1.0000000

8000000
9000000
10000000
11000000

#
#
#
#

22466449554
20328484105
18393972978
16643554934

0
0
0
0

#
#
#
#

22466450367
20328484981
18393973912
16643555919

0
0
0
0

#
#
#
#

1.0000000
1.0000000
0.9999999
0.9999999

162300000
162310000
162320000
162330000
162340000
162350000
162360000
162370000
162380000
162390000
162391332
162400000
162410000
162420000
162430000
162440000
162450000
162460000
162470000
162480000
162490000

#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

4471
4466
4462
4457
4453
4448
4444
4439
4435
4431
4430
4426
4422
4417
4413
4408
4404
4400
4395
4391
4387

680807646956
682170624841
683536331411
684904772127
686275952463
687649877904
689026553945
690405986095
691788179869
693173140797
693357826730
694560874419
695951386286
697344681960
698740767013
700139647031
701541327608
702945814352
704353112881
705763228823
707176167819

#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

7674
7674
7674
7674
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7673
7674
7674
7674
7674

1168632074580
1172113565334
1175608815692
1179117903587
1182640907575
1186177906844
1189728981221
1193294211177
1196873677833
1200467462972
1200947240201
1204075649039
1207698319155
1211335557120
1214987447420
1218654075238
1222335526459
1226031887678
1229743246206
1233469690084
1237211308083

#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

0.5825680
0.5820005
0.5814318
0.5808620
0.5802911
0.5797190
0.5791458
0.5785715
0.5779960
0.5774193
0.5773425
0.5768416
0.5762626
0.5756825
0.5751012
0.5745188
0.5739352
0.5733504
0.5727644
0.5721772
0.5715888

166444900
166445000
166445100
166445200
166445300
166445400
166445500
166445600
166445700
166445800

#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

2954
2954
2954
2954
2954
2954
2953
2953
2953
2953

1559717276730
1559748471389
1559779666672
1559810862579
1559842059110
1559873256265
1559904454043
1559935652446
1559966851473
1559998051123

#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

303185
320532
341244
366571
398528
440625
499680
591334
763626
1322649

160101160505642
169266442880101
180209268641565
193590082539234
210473287516624
232712824254234
263910193727867
312327419889390
403339810827230
698631351692184

#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

0.0097421
0.0092148
0.0086554
0.0080573
0.0074111
0.0067030
0.0059107
0.0049946
0.0038676
0.0022329

Several things to note: These are simulation results for a 1 solar mass black hole. The
gravity in the results is normalized to earths gravity and expressed in gs. While the
program computed over 166 million points, it only prints the results once every 1,000,000
points until closer to the event horizon, then every 10,000, and then every 100 points as
the arrival at the event horizon becomes imminent. I manually truncated most of the data
in the uninteresting regions, hence the gaps. The program also printed the results for
RS=4430 meters for use in example 2 below.
The following graph shows how local gravity compares to Schwarzschild gravity:

15

gravity (g)
1E+15

Local Gravity
Schwarzschild
Gravity

1E+14

1E+13
1/R^2
1E+12

1E+11

1E+10
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

RS (meters)

Figure 8. Local vs. Schwarzschild Gravity

One can see how the local gravity behaves as the event horizon is approached.
Also note: around 4430 meters, as the radius in Schwarzschild coordinates gets smaller,
the local radius starts getting larger. This reflects nearing the rupture of space-time
where time is stopped and the local radius becomes infinitely stretched. If one takes a
cross section of the embedding diagram in Figure 1, one can show how the local radius is
stretched as one approaches the event horizon (the curve represents the warpage of
space):

Figure 9. Radial Stretching Close to Event Horizon

16

From this diagram, it can be seen that at some point the local radius will start increasing
as the radius in Schwarzschild coordinates gets smaller.
The exact solution to Einsteins field equation for the Schwarzschild radius as stated in
the literature is:
(15)
where: G = 6.6726 * 10-11 meters3/ (kilograms-sec2)
M = 1.989 * 1030 kilograms (1 solar mass for our case)
c = 299792458 meters/sec
From this equation, one can see that the theoretical Schwarzschild radius is 2953 meters
per solar mass in perfect agreement with the simulation.

Measurement Methods and Examples:

Throughout this document, there is discussion about measuring time and distance from
the point of view of a distant point and locally. No discussion has been made on how
these measurements can be made. The following are my ideas on how this might be done
although some of the measurements are impractical but still useful for discussion. The
objective here is to measure the distortions independently from each other.
For this purpose, I will assume that our distant observation point is close enough to a
non-spinning black hole to observe the motions of an orbiting object in a circular orbit
yet sufficiently distance so any distortions in our reference frame are negligible. I will
also assume we are in the orbiting objects ecliptic plane, the black hole is one solar
mass, and there is a stationary object with a local observer at the same radius as the
orbiting object.

Measurement of Time Rates: Time measurements are probably the easiest to

measure if the stationary object has a beacon that broadcasts its time. We would receive
the beacons signal and be able to directly measure the local time rate. Likewise, we
would also broadcast our time so the local observer would be able to measure our time
rate. We would see their time runs slow and they would see our time runs fast.

Measurement of Distance: From our point of view, we would probably use

parallax to measure the distance to the orbiting object. Given the subtending angle the
orbit makes, one can calculate the orbital radius and circumference in Schwarzschild
coordinates. The local observer could calculate the orbital circumference by measuring
the amount of time light would take traveling through a guiding light pipe that
surrounded the black hole at the same radial distance as the orbiting object. Both we and
the local observer would calculate the same circumference (see Example 1). The local
observer would calculate the orbital radius in Schwarzschild coordinates from the
17

measured circumference. But, how does a local observer measure this radius in local
coordinates? One way might be to add a second light pipe surrounding the black hole,
but located say one meter closer, in local coordinates, to the black hole then the first pipe.
If space was flat, the circumference of the second light pipe would be 2 meters smaller
than the first pipe. The difference in the two circumferences will actually be smaller
since the radial separation in local coordinates is stretched as shown:

Figure 10. Measurement of Radial Distortion

From the difference in the two circumferences, one can determine the separation DS of
the two light pipes in Schwarzschild coordinates. The ratio of the separation in local
coordinates (1 meter) to the separation in Schwarzschild coordinates (DS) would be the
distortion factor for the radial direction. Knowing this distortion, the local observer
could then calculate the radius to the black hole center in local coordinates from the
radius in Schwarzschild coordinates. This procedure assumes the difference in the
distortion factors between the inner and outer light pipes is insignificant. The calculation
probably represents an average of the radial distortion factors associated with the two
light pipes.

Measurement of Gravity: When we measured the orbital radius we also measured

the orbital period (Schwarzschild coordinates). The two measurements allow us to
calculate the gravity for the orbit using eq (6). This in turn allows us to calculate the
mass of the black hole using eq (2). To facilitate a local measurement of gravity, we sent
a standard object with a one kilogram mass to the local observer. The observer would
then weigh the object to determine the local gravity.
All three local measurements (for time, radius, and gravity) should independently give
consistent distortion factors in agreement with eq (7), eq (8), and eq (9).

Example 1: As stated above, both the local and distant observer will calculate the
same circumference for the orbiting object. If the circumference is supposed to be seen
as the same in both reference frames and the speed of light is supposed to be a universal
constant, you might ask how the local observer gets the same circumference when their
clock runs slower. When we measure the speed of light in our reference frame, we
measure light that is local to our reference frame. Likewise, the local observer measures
light that is local to his reference frame. We both get the same speed of light
18

measurement. However, when we observe the speed of light traveling in their local
reference frame, we see their light moving slow just as slow as we see their time rate.

Example 2: This example explores the orbital characteristics at 1.5 * Schwarzschild

radius. Literature states that the orbital velocity at this radius R is the speed of light.
Lets see if this is true. For a one solar mass black hole (in keeping with our simulation)
and using eq (15), the Schwarzschild radius is 2953 meters. Therefore, R is 4430 meters.
Being in Schwarzschild coordinates where Newtonian laws of gravity apply; and using
this radius, one solar mass, and eq (2), one calculates the gravity g at this point is
6.763*1012 meters/sec2. From eq (6), one can see that the orbital velocity is:

Therefore, at 4430 meters, the orbital velocity is 1.731*108 meters/sec. This velocity is
in Schwarzschild coordinates. Using the simulation results, one can determine that the
local time rate at 4430 meters is 0.5773. Using this rate to convert the orbital velocity to
local coordinates; one can see that the local observer sees an orbital velocity of 2.998*108
meters/sec and this is the speed of light.

Some Common Black Hole Terminology:

Chandrasekhar Limit: a theoretical mass limit (1.4 solar masses) derived by the
Indian physicist, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. This limit was originally thought to be
the maximum mass of a dying star without collapsing into a black hole. When it was
proposed, neutron stars were not yet discovered. Today, this limit is recognized as the
maximum mass of a white dwarf, the cinders of a dying star, where electron degeneracy
supports its weight. When our sun dies, it will collapse into a white dwarf about the size
of earth. Stars that die shed a significant portion of their mass during their dying stages.
If what remains, is less than 1.4 solar masses, a white dwarf results. If the weight is
above this mass limit, the star cinder will collapse further into a neutron star where
neutron degeneracy supports its weight. Such a neutron star would be about 10 km in
diameter. The maximum mass of a neutron star is not as well understood but is thought
to be between 1.5 and 3.0 solar masses. Of the 100 or so known neutron stars, most have
a mass around 1.4 solar masses. When its maximum mass is exceeded, the neutron star
will collapse into a black hole.

Event Horizon: this is represented by an imaginary sphere around a non-spinning

black hole (or a bulging sphere around a spinning black hole) where time stops and the
local radial distance to the center is infinitely stretched. Its circumference is 18.554 km
per solar mass. At the horizon, it is not possible to resist the gravitational forces. Even
light cannot resist. Space-time itself is inflowing across the horizon at the speed of light.
Anything unfortunate enough to be caught by the grip of a black hole will cross the
horizon precisely at the speed of light. In order to hover at the horizon, a rocket capable
of infinite thrust would be required giving the sensation of infinite gravity. Objects in
19

free fall would not experience infinite gravity and would only feel the effects of tidal
forces that the radial dependencies of gravity create. Gravity pulls harder at your feet
when falling feet first than at your head thereby stretching you out. Your feet would
cross the event horizon at the speed of light but your head would not have reached this
speed yet. The magnitude of the tidal force at the horizon is inversely proportional to the
size of the black hole. Tidal forces at the horizon are much greater for stellar black holes
(those resulting from a stars death) than for galactic ones (at the center of most galaxies
and have millions to billions of solar masses). For spinning black holes, the sphere
representing the event horizon bulges out at its equator and the Schwarzschild radius at
its equator becomes larger.

Embedding Diagram: a three dimensional representation of a two dimensional slice

of three dimensional space. Such a diagram is useful to visualize the curvature of space
caused by a gravitating mass. Figure 1 shows an embedding diagram for a black hole.

Frame Dragging: This is a phenomenon associated with spinning black holes. Since
everything has to cross the event horizon at the speed of light, there is no headroom left
for any lateral motion relative to the black holes spin. Space-time, as well as any object,
being sucked into the hole will rotate with the black holes spin when crossing the
horizon.

Gravity Well: a depression in an embedding diagram. Extreme depressions resemble

a well, hence the name.

Hawkings Radiation: Steven Hawking first realized that black holes radiate with
mathematical properties similar to thermal radiation - the smaller the black hole, the
hotter the thermal equivalent. Even though nothing can escape the event horizon, virtual
particles (predicted by quantum mechanics and observed in the lab) that pop into
existence (always as matter-antimatter pairs) close to the event horizon can sometimes
have one particle fall through the horizon while the other particle escapes. Particles that
appear close to the horizon have negative potential energy that exceeds their mass energy.
In this case, the negative potential energy dominates and the particle falling in has the
effect of reducing the mass of the black hole. To an observer on the outside, the black
hole appears to be radiating mass and energy.

Schwarzschild Radius: is the distance from the center of the black hole to the event
horizon as measured in Schwarzschild coordinates. It is the circumference of the event
horizon (18.554 km per solar mass) divided by 2 (Euclidian geometry) or 2.953 km per
solar mass. If our earth could be compressed into a black hole, it would be the size of a
golf ball.

Singularity: All matter falling into a black hole will end up at the singularity. The
singularity has infinite mass density and infinite curvature. For a non-spinning black
hole, it is a single point located at the center. For a spinning black hole, the singularity
has a toroidal shape with finite major diameter and infinitely small minor diameter
20

spinning about the center. The toroid still has infinite mass density and infinite curvature,
and its spin preserves the angular momentum of in falling material.

Spaghettification: is what happens when an in falling object reaches the point where
the tidal forces get so great that an object gets pulled apart into a long spaghetti like string
of atoms and then even the atoms get pulled apart. Tidal forces at the event horizon for a
galactic size black hole are small and a person can fall through the horizon without even
knowing it. For a stellar size black hole, the tidal forces at the event horizon will be
strong enough to result in spaghettification.

Tidal Forces: This term has origins in explaining the forces that cause our tides on
earth. It is used in two contexts one is for a body that has an orbiting satellite and the
other is for a body without an orbiting satellite. In both contexts, the forces have root in
the radial dependency of the gravitational strength of the gravitating body.
For a body with a satellite, such as the earth and its moon, a common center of mass
exists between the body and its satellite. For example, the common center of mass for the
earth and moon is somewhere between the center of mass of the earth and the center of
mass of the moon. As a result, the earth orbits the common center of mass just as the
moon does. Orbital dynamics say: the further one is from the center of mass of a
gravitating body, the slower the required orbital velocity is to maintain orbit. For
example: for a satellite in low earth orbit, the orbital velocity needs to be ~17500 mph to
maintain the circular orbit. The moon, on the other hand, has an orbital velocity of ~2300
mph. If an object at a given radius from a gravitating body has insufficient orbital
velocity, the gravitational pull toward the body dominates. If this object has excessive
velocity, the centrifugal force away from the body dominates. Since earth is orbiting
about the common center of mass of the earth and moon, only the center of mass of the
earth is in orbital balance. Points on the earths surface facing the moon have insufficient
orbital velocity and are pulled toward the common center of mass. Points on earths
surface opposite of the moon have excessive orbital velocity and are pulled away from
the common center of mass. This results in the oceans being stretched on both sides of
earth and two high tides per day instead of one.
For a non-orbiting object above a gravitating body, gravity pulls harder on the side of the
object closest to the body than the side of the object furthest away. This results in the
object being stretched in the radial direction very much like the stretching that an orbiting
body experiences.

21

Some Black Hole Characteristics:

Only Measureable Properties of a Black Hole:
a) Mass
b) Charge
c) Spin

Interesting Parameters:
a) Event horizon circumference is 18.554 km per solar mass.
b) Schwarzschild radius is 2.953 km per solar mass
c) At 1.5 * Schwarzschild radius, the orbital velocity locally is the speed of light.
There are no stable orbits within this distance. To enter the realm between
this point and the event horizon requires thrust to prevent crossing the event
horizon.
d) Between 3.0 and 1.5 * Schwarzschild radius, in order to lower your orbit,
retro thrust needs to be followed by forward thrust to reestablish a stable orbit.

22

Appendix A - Vectors:
Most people are familiar with numbers that describe quantities. One can say I owe them
a thousand dollars. The number 1000 is a quantity that describes how much I owe them.
However, if one is on the interstate highway between Denver and Cheyenne and says
they are going 60 mph, although this is true, it says nothing about whether one is
traveling north or south. Adding direction to the speed is added information and is much
more useful. Vectors are a way that can be used to describe ones speed on the interstate
and direction of travel. There are many formats vectors can be represented in and I will
only use one in this description that is a graphical representation of an arrow. The
length of the arrow shows magnitude (speed in the interstate example) and the direction
of the arrow shows direction. Vectors can be added and subtracted from other vectors
just like numbers can from other numbers. The following shows this graphically:

Figure 11. Vector Addition and Subtraction

When two vectors are added, the tail of one vector is connected to the head of the other.
The resultant vector is shown above. When one vector is subtracted from another vector,
one flips the direction of the one vector and then adds it to the other vector. Again, the
resultant vector is shown above.

23

Appendix B Similar Triangles:

Two triangles are considered similar if they have the same angles. They are identical
except for size. When this is the case, the ratio of any two sides from one triangle is the
same as the ratio of the corresponding two sides from the other triangle. Two triangles,
one with sides A, B, C and angles a, b, c and the other with sides D, E, F and angles
d, e, f are shown:

Figure 12. Similar Triangles

Both triangles have the same angles: a=d, b=e, and c=f. Therefore one can say:

24

Appendix C Angles and Arcs:

You probably have used angles expressed in degrees. Your magnetic compass is labeled
in degrees. The NWSE cardinal points of the compass are: 0o or 360o used for north,
270o used for west, 180o used for south, and 90o used for east (360 degrees for the entire
compass circle). Many applications use 360 degrees in a circle. Ever wonder where 360
degrees came from? When this definition was adopted, it was thought that there were
360 days in a year and with this definition, the earth would advance 1o per day in its
orbital position around the sun. Unfortunately, later it was realized that there are 365
days in a year. However, this definition stuck and continues to be used today.
Other definitions for an angle exist. Civil engineers use angles expressed in grads where
there are 400 grads in a circle. This definition suits their specific needs.
Mathematicians and scientist often use angles expressed in radians where there are 2
radians in a circle. Why this definition? For one reason, it is convenient to calculate the
length of arcs. The arc length is simply the product of its angle (in radians) and its
radius R.

Arc length = R
For example, if the angle is a full circle (2 radians), the arc will span the entire
circumference of the circle and its length will be 2R the same as the formula for the
circumference of a circle: C = 2r. 360o is the same as 2 radians.
The arc length formula can also be used to approximate the length of the short side of an
isosceles triangle when a small angle is separating the two long sides. This is the case in
Figure 5 where we approximated V with V. As the angle gets smaller and smaller,
the length of the arc gets closer and closer to the actual length of the short side.

25